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Lecture: Homeostasis I. A. 1. 2. Organization of Life Structure:Function and Function:Structure Anatomy - study of the structure of cells, tissues, organs, organisms Physiology - study of how cells, tissues, organs, organisms function

3. Darwin - Origin of the Species (1858) a. Structure and Function are intimately linked b. Structure dictates the Function 1. Finch beaks and food on the Galapagos c. Evolution "selects" most favorable Functions 1. kidneys/skin of various organisms a. kangaroo rat desert b. human land c. sea bass - salty ocean water d. Environment and competition "naturally" select genes that give rise to Structures that have favorable Functions to improve the viability of each species B. Organization of Living Things 1. principles of matter/energy 2. atoms -> molecules 3. complex organic molecules 4. organelles -> cells 5. tissues 6. organs 7. organ/body systems 8. organism ***

(Physics) (Chemistry) (Biochemistry) (Cellular Biology) (Histology) (Physiology/Anatomy) (Physiology/Anatomy) (Physiology/Anatomy)

all fields overlap and contribute to each other

See Figure 1 Return II. Basic Functions of Organisms A. Maintenance of Boundaries - separation of organism from outside world a. virus - protein coat around DNA/RNA interior b. cell - cell membrane (semipermeable - selective) c. organism - skin B. Movement - ability to move self and materials a. cells - cilia and flagella (sperm) b. humans - muscle cells (contractility) & bone

C.

Responsiveness (Irritability) - respond to both Internal and External changes a. nervous system - quick response to change b. endocrine system - medium/longer changes Digestion - breaking down foodstuffs to useable/absorbable form a. digestive system - breakdown/absorb essential materials

D.

E. Metabolism - all chemical reactions that occur in cells & body a. anabolism - synthesizing larger molecules b. catabolism - breaking down larger molecules c. regulated primarily by endocrine hormones cellular respiration - breaking bonds of larger molecules for useable energy currency (ATP) a. digestive system - mainly carbohydrate & fats b. respiratory system - oxygen and carbon dioxide c. cardiovascular system - distribution of nutrients and gases glucose + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water + ENERGY (stored in ATP) F. Excretion - removing all types of waste from the body a. digestive system - unused foodstuffs b. urinary system - nitrogenous wastes (urea) and electrolyte (salt) balance c. respiratory system - carbon dioxide G. Reproduction - creating more organisms of the same species a. virus - depends on cells for their machinery b. cells - the process of division (mitosis) c. human - sexual (sperm and egg) i. regulated by hormones (especially female)

H. Growth - increase in size of cell, organ, or organism a. number of cells can increase (mitosis) b. size of cells can increase (fat cells) III. A. Basic Biological Needs of Humans Nutrients - molecules for structure and energy 1. carbohydrates - primary energy source & structural a. glycogen, sugars (glucose)

2. proteins - primarily structural & for signaling (hormones and receptors) a.20 amino acids are basic building blocks b.actin and myosin microfilaments of muscle c. receptors for hormones/neurotransmitters d.neuropeptides (enkephalins of nervous system) 3. fats (lipids) - insulation, energy, structure a. major component of membranes (phospholipids) b. highest energy content by weight (calories) 4. vitamins - act as cofactors for enzyme functioning 5. minerals - essential for signaling and structure a. nerve signals - Na+, K+, Ca++, Clb. carry oxygen - Fe+ + in hemoglobin c. bone - Ca++, Phosphates B. Oxygen - essential for maximum energy gain from food 1. cellular respiration depends on oxygen 2. nervous system alone uses 25% of all oxygen in humans C. Water - essential for cellular reactions and transport

D. Body Temperature - essential for cellular reactions 1. most human enzymes work best at 37C (98 F) E. Atmospheric Pressure - for proper absorption of oxygen Physiology is the study of how organisms separate self and non-self; move; respond to internal and external changes; digest, metabolize, and excrete materials; reproduce; and grow. This is achieved by maintaining a proper BALANCE both internally and with the outside world. IV. Homeostasis A. Homeostasis - maintaining relative constancy in response to internal and external changes - dynamic process; changing but relatively constant within limits - concerns all factors relating to well being of organism (see above) - regards maintaining internal environment of body due to internal and external changes 1. Homeostasis refers especially to maintenance of proper conditions for:

a.oxygen (02) and carbon dioxide (CO2) levels b.levels of nutrients in blood (e.g. glucose) c. electrolyte /salt balance and osmotic pressure (fluid levels) d.acid-base balance (pH) e. temperature f. pressure of body cavities (especially lungs) Examples of homeostatic mechanisms: 1. proper nutrient levels in the blood a.insulin/glucagon - blood glucose levels

2. proper heart rate and blood pressure a. adrenaline - response to stimuli 3. removing wastes from the blood a. kidneys - nitrogenous wastes (urea) b. respiratory - carbon dioxide 4. maintaining proper oxygen levels in blood a. brain and respiratory - adjust breathing rate 5. body posture and simple muscular reflexes a. nervous system and muscular system B. General Characteristics of Homeostatic Control Mechanisms

1. Nervous & Endocrine Systems are general controls 2. Basic Organization of Control Mechanisms a. receptor - monitors internal/external stimuli sends info to control center via afferent path b. control center - analyzes info as it compares to a "set point" for that particular variable 1. variables may include: glucose level, heart rate, blood pressure, urea concentration, oxygen level, tension on a muscle. c. effector - physiological mechanism acting from the control center via efferent path

C.

Negative Feedback Mechanisms

1. control mechanism DECREASES intensity of condition to bring back to "set point"

example: regulation of glucose levels in blood person eats a candy bar with lots of sugar glucose levels in the blood rise rapidly receptors sense increase in blood sugar control center calls for reduced blood sugar insulin is secreted into the blood stream e. insulin causes effector cells (liver & muscle) to absorb glucose and store it as glycogen g. glucose levels return to normal (0.9 mg/ml blood) See Figure 2 Return D. Positive Feedback Mechanisms (cascade - like a snowball effect) 1. control mechanism INCREASES intensity of condition - causing a "domino" effect a. b. c. d.

example: labor contractions during birth a. baby rotates into cervix causing pressure b. receptors sense increased muscle tension c. control center calls for release of oxytocin, causing muscles (effectors) to contract more d. increased muscle tension causes receptors to continue the message to the control center e. more oxytocin is released f. loop continues until baby is delivered and the stimulus is no longer present See Figure 3 Return In Physiology, we study how each of the organ systems work to provide survival needs of organism and maintain homeostasis of each of the essential variables

Lecture: I. Matter and Energy A. Matter - fundamental building blocks of nature 1.elements - basic units of matter

Basic Chemistry

B. Energy - capacity to do work (put matter into motion) 1. potential energy - energy stored in a structure a. water stored in a lake uphill b. chemical bonds of glucose molecule 2. kinetic energy - energy in an object in motion a. water in a stream - allows mill to grind corn b. broken glucose bonds -> ATP -> muscles work 3.Forms of Energy a. chemical energy - energy in chemical bonds i. ATP (adenosine triphosphate) - stores energy b. electrical energy - energy of separated charges i. battery - + pole and - pole separate charge ii. nervous impulse run just like a battery c. mechanical energy - energy of matter in motion i. bowling ball transfers energy to move pins ii. muscle motion - ATP -> contraction of muscle d. electromagnetic energy - energy traveling in waves (light, X-rays, UV rays) i. electromagnetic spectrum - visible light, UV light, radio waves, X-rays C. First Law of Thermodynamics 1.Energy can change from one form to another, but it can never be created or destroyed" (Total Energy In = Total Energy Out) examples: Car Engine vs. Human Body a. Car Engine - gasoline used to run motor to move car Chemical Energy (gas) ---> motion (20%) + heat (79%) + sound (1%) b. Human Body - food used to move body, digest, think, etc. Chemical Energy (food/glucose) --> physiology (80%) + heat (20%) II. Organization of Matter (Atoms - Elements) A. Atomic Particles

Mass proton neutron defines isotopes electron See Figure 4 Return

Charge 1 +1 1 neutral 0 -l

Characteristics defines element determines element bonding properties

B. Organization of Periodic Table

1. # protons = atomic number (unique for each element) 2. 3. # protons + # neutrons = atomic mass isotope - same element; different # neutrons # protons + Carbon-12 (99%) Carbon-13 (0.9%) Carbon-14 (0.1%) See Figure 5 Return 4. H H+ H6 6 6 # neutrons = atomic mass 6 7 8 12 13 14

# electrons - dictates the NET CHARGE of an atom # electrons 1 0 2 NET CHARGE 0 +1 -1

# protons 1 1 1

ion any atom with a positive or negative charge anion an ion with a NEGATIVE charge cation an ion with a POSITIVE charge III.Electron Shells, the Periodic Table, and Chemical Bonds A. Electron Shells - electrons occupy "shells" as they orbit around the nucleus (2, 8, 8,..)

B. The Periodic Table of Elements is organized by electron shells

H1 Li3 Be4 B5 C6 N7 08 F9 Na11 Mg12 Al13 Si14 P15 See Figure 6 Return C.

He2 Ne S16 Cl17 Ar18

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SHELL l SHELL28 eSHELL3

2 e8 e-

Chemical Bonds are formed so that each atom can have the outermost electron shell filled 1. Ionic Bond - one atom donates electron(s) to another a. Example: Sodium Chloride (table salt) Na+Cl2. Covalent Bond - two atoms share one/more electrons a. Example: Methane (CH4), Carbon Dioxide (C02), and Ammonia (NH3) b. Polar Molecule - electron sharing is unequal in the bonds Example: Water (H2O) c. Non-polar Molecule - electron sharing is almost equal Example: Methane (CH4)

IV.

Elements other than C, H, O, N in Humans

Primary Elements (3% of all body weight) Calcium Ca Bones, teeth, muscle and nerve action, blood clotting Phosphorus P Bones and Teeth, DNA, RNA, ATP. Important in energy transfer Trace Elements (Less than 1 % of body weight altogether) Potassium K Osmotic balance; cell voltage, muscle and nerve action Sulfur S Component of proteins (cysteine) and other organic molecules Sodium Na Osmotic balance; cell voltage, muscle and nerve action Chlorine Cl Osmotic balance; cell voltage, muscle and nerve action Magnesium Mg Co-factor for many enzymes Iron Fe Hemoglobin and many enzymes Copper Cu Co-factor of many enzymes Zinc Zn Co-factor of many enzymes Manganese Mn Co-factor of many enzymes Cobalt Co Co-factor of many enzymes and vitamin B12 Chromium Cr Co-factor of many enzymes and potentiates Insulin

Selenium Molybdenum Flourine Tin Silicon Vanadium V. A. 1.

Se Mo F Sn Si V

Required for normal liver function Co-factor of many enzymes Teeth and bones Promotes growth (unknown mechanism) Growth, bone mineralization, connective tissue synthesis Promotes growth and reproduction

Chemical Reactions Patterns of Chemical Reactions Chemical Equation - # of atoms of each element same for reactants and products C6H1206 + 602 6H20 + 6C02 Synthesis - smaller molecules form larger molecule

2.

A + B AB (anabolic process) amino acid 1 + amino acid 2 + .......... peptide (protein) sugar 1 + sugar 2 + sugar 3 + ............ polysaccharide (glycogen) 3. Decomposition - larger molecule broken down into smaller molecules AB A + B (catabolic process) glycogen ---> glucose + glucose + glucose +...........

4. Displacement - one part is exchanged

AB + C A + BC glucose + adenosine-P- P-P (ATP) glucose-P + adenosine-P-P (ADP)

B.

Exergonic vs. Endergonic Reactions 1. Exergonic - energy is released during the reaction

A + B C + D + ENERGY

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glucose + oxygen ----> water + carbon dioxide +ENERGY (trapped by ATP) 2. Endergonic - energy required for reaction to proceed A + B + ENERGY C amino acid 1 + amino acid 2 + ... + ENERGY peptide (protein) C. Chemical Equilibrium 1. Reversible Reactions A + B AB and AB A + B

2. Chemical Equilibrium A + B AB D. Rates of Chemical Reactions 1. size of reactants species (smaller means faster) 2. temperature (speeds up the particles) 3. concentration (more likely to come together) 4. catalysts (enzymes) - make reacting more convenient VI. Acid- Base Chemistry and the pH Scale A. Water normally exists in an equilibrium reaction with some dissociation H2O H+ + OHin a beaker of pure water, the ratio of H+ to H20 is about 1/10,000,000

pH = -log10 [H+] = -log10 [10-7] = -(-7) = 7 pH = relative concentration of H+ in a solution of water B. C. Acids - compounds which increase the concentration of H+ (pH = 1 to 6) Bases - compounds which decrease the concentration of H+ (pH = 8 to 14)

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D.

Buffer - compound that prevents large changes in pH of a solution (pH "shock absorber")

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Figure 1 Return

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Figure 4

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Figure 5

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Figure 6

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