Football

Hooliganism in Croatia To What Extent Are the Underlying Causes of Football Hooliganism in Croatia Solvable?

Chris Tait IB Candidate Number: 000768-033 May 2011 Peace and Conflict Flaim Word Count: 3987

Abstract The problem of football hooliganism in Croatia is the perfect case study to apply aggression and frustration theories. Football hooliganism in the context of this essay is considered to be any disruptive behaviour before, during, and after football games, in and around the stadium. In Peace and Conflict Studies, David Barash and Charles Weber cite a number of social scientists such as Konrad Lorenz, Sigmund Freud, and John Dollard, who provide many theories on individual and group frustration and aggression that provide some insight as to why hooligans do what they do. The conflict between Croatia and Serbia is also looked at as a possible cause. At the present day, Croatia is not making direct steps to solve the problem with violence continuing and efforts to stop it seemingly minimal. This paper inquires to what extent the underlying causes of football hooliganism in Croatia are solvable. The scope of this investigation will include case studies from Croatia, as well as provide a historical background to the problem of football hooliganism in Croatia. The case studies are from within the last ten years, and the historical background is drawn from the early 1990s. The layers of governance of football in Croatia are examined, from individual clubs to the Union of European Football Associations to the Croatian Government. The essay identifies many possible underlying causes based on the historical context and various theories dealing with aggression, frustration, and group behaviour. While Croatias attachment to the past and historical conflicts will likely only be alleviated with time, the essay does suggest that the problem will diminish in the coming years as the Croatian justice system is getting modified with a large grant and EU admission is slowly becoming a reality, making cooperation of hooliganism prevention with other countries easier and more effective. Wd Ct: 299

Table of Contents Introduction Present Case Studies Croatia Learning From England Background on Croatian Hooliganism Peace and Conflict Theories Conclusion Works Cited Works Consulted 1

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Introduction With the rise of football clubs in the past century, the world has also seen the rise of hooliganistic football firms. It became a large problem in England in the late nineteenth century and spread to other areas such as South America and the rest of Europe (Foer). More recently, in the past decade, hooliganism has diminished in England. In many places, however, hooliganism is still a major problem. Croatia is one such country, with each year bringing new incidences. In the past five years more than 6429 Croatian hooligans have been arrested (Brits Teach Croatian). Attempts to stop such incidences occur regularly but usually only during the actual incident. There has not been a successful solution to preventing hooliganism, or eradicating the underlying causes. This report examines the historical background of conflict, especially in relation to the Yugoslav Wars. Possible causes of hooliganism are examined in relation to the micro and macro theories. The process used to subdue hooliganism in other countries is examined as a basis for possible solutions to the problem in Croatia. By growing up in England I became immersed in the football culture at a young age. I developed a love for playing and an interest in watching. The few games that I attended for the most part were orderly but there was still much verbal abuse taking place, originating from the stands and directed at officials, players, or rival supporters. This seemed quite normal to me until I learned a bit more about Englands dangerous past in the stands, notably the Heysel Stadium disaster in 1985 in Brussels, which was in part due to Liverpool supporters; and the Hillsborough disaster in 1989 in Sheffield (How the Hillsborough). I was taken aback at such a past, but was glad there had been improvements. It seems that terrible events in English football history were a leading factor in the improvement of safety and fan control during matches. Also, these events were made much worse by the fact that the stadiums involved were in terrible, decrepit condition. In Croatia, however, the fans take pride in the violence and do not view clashes in the stands as disasters. Facilities are modern and violence continues. Recently my awareness of hooliganism has been broadened after hearing an account from a friend who went to a Croatia and watched a football match (see figure 1). He said the atmosphere was hectic in and around the stadium, with verbal and physical abuse. My curiosity and fascination was reignited and I did a simple search of Croatian football hooliganism and was astonished at the number of articles that appeared: many violent, many present, and many calling for solutions to the problem.

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Fig. 1. Croatian Football Hooliganism; Photo by Nrhi, Harri; June 2008; JPEG file. As hooliganism was dying down in England it was escalating in Croatia. Government leaders claimed zero tolerance but violence continued. In a recent press release, Prime Minister Jadranka Kosor expressed an end to the tolerance of hooliganism and warned that if present the game could be stopped. Kosor said, "It seems to me that, until games are stopped, hooligans will not understand what we are telling them" (Kosor Wants to Crack). It's doubtful whether cancelling games is a good option as it seems unfair to the opposition as well as the teams players, coaches, and staff. The next incident of noteworthy hooliganism that occurred was not met by match cancellation from Kosor but an intervention from the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA), which prevented the teams fans from entering the stadium. This shows that the Croatian government is not prepared to bring down an iron fist and hooligans will thus view their actions without immediate consequence. The UEFA ban lasted two games, and would only be reinstated if violence occurred against teams from other countries. Croatia versus Croatia games are likely considered fair game for hooligans, as they are the responsibility of the Croatian government or the Croatian Football Federation to monitor. Hooligans will assume no harsh consequences and act

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accordingly. Another example of the UEFA taking action where Kosor did not was when the association fined Hajduk Split 40,000 Euros because of violence and pyrotechnics at a match between the Croatians and Slovak Nilina in August 2009 (UEFA Fines Hajduk). In Croatia attempts have been made to eliminate this problem, but they arent really getting anywhere. Its at this point that this inquiry asks the following: To what extent are the underlying causes of football hooliganism in Croatia solvable? Present Case Studies There are many recent cases of Croatian football hooliganism that have been met with consequences. At the end of October 2009 UEFA met and agreed that three points would be deducted from Dinamo Zagreb's Europea League total score because of fan hooliganism. Because of this they had to play the next two games without any support in the stands. The UEFA had been warning Dinamo Zagreb about its fans' misconduct for a while and the final straw appeared to be an incident in Timisoara at the beginning of October when over 140 Dinamo fans were arrested by Romanian authorities over the course of the match day. Dinamo players are upset because it is a big disadvantage to play without support, and they feel as though they are taking the fall for their fans' behaviour (UEFA Punishes Dinamo). In the first leg when Dinamo played FC Timisoara they beat them three to zero, but when they played them again two months later they lost two to one, possibly as a result of non-existent support (Dinamo Says Goodbye). The same thing occurred when Dinamo Zagreb lost two to zero against Ajax while playing without any fans in the stadium (Ajax Defeats Dinamo). This would frustrate the players greatly, as well as the fans watching helplessly from televisions outside the stadiums. Whether the banning would subdue hooliganism or whether it would make hooligans return all the more aggressive is uncertain. In a more recent game on May 1st, 2010, violence occurred in the match that pitted Dinamo Zagreb against Hajduk Split. A policeman was left without an eye when a Dinamo hooligan threw a firecracker under his visor. Once again, it is not clear whether immediate action will take place, as Prime Minister Jadranka Kosor simply announced today [May 3rd] that she wanted harsher punishments for people who engaged in disturbances at sporting events (Prime Minister Wants Harsher Punishments).

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Croatia Learning From England To formulate solutions to the underlying causes of football hooliganism in Croatia, it may be useful to examine methods in other countries, namely England. An example of what England is doing to prevent hooliganism is their banning of 3,200 known British hooligans from travelling to the 2010 World Cup in South Africa. It is mandatory for those recognized to turn in their passports to local authorities before the world cup starts (Wilson). One of the primary methods that English policing forces use is the use of plain- clothes officers to gain access inside hooligan gang offices and inner circles. There is also the spotter system, where there is an officer associated with each club. The officers communicate and notify each other when hooligans are travelling to away games. Since the 1980s CCTV has become widely used, with larger stadiums even sporting control rooms where hooligan activity is carefully monitored, both inside and outside the stadium. If a situation is detected, then the cameras can record the activity to use for prosecution. There is also a hoolivan that acts as a mobile control room of sorts with a range of cameras and communication equipment that seamlessly interacts with other systems (Rolands). The rise of technology of law enforcement seems to match the rise of technology that hooligans use. Hooligans consistently use the internet and mobile phones to communicate with each other, which may lead to very organized crime. In October of 2008 Deputy Prime Minister of Croatia Djurdja Adlesic went to London and met with British Home Office and UK football police unit officials to discuss how to deal with hooligans after a recent conflict between Dinamo Zagreb and Sparta Prague, which resulted in 300 Croatians being arrested (Brits Teach Croatian). A step such as this is a positive one. Its not only important to learn from countries where hooliganism is being kept under control, but its also important to develop good collaboration with other countries. This is because football is an international game with teams travelling to play games. Wherever the teams go, fans, and ultimately hooligans, will follow. If the hosting city or country is made aware by the travelling country or city of potential hooligans then problematic incidences can be avoided. Also, if travelling police forces are following the same guidelines as the police forces in the host country then hooliganism containment would be more efficient. In a brief look at some other countries methods, Germany, Netherlands, and Belgium are more proactive

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in solving football hooliganism. They utilize what are called fan coaching schemes, which involve social workers being deployed with groups of fans (Fox). Its clear that Croatia has a wealth of experience from other countries to draw upon. There are many different possible programs to implement in order to reduce hooliganism. Nationwide CCTV is costly and is not specifically tailored to hooliganism, but if camera systems were installed in and around stadiums situations could be recorded for evidence purposes, and known hooligans could be recognised and stopped from entering the grounds. Fan coaching schemes would likely have a positive effect too, as changing a fans attitude towards hooliganism, i.e. whether its good or bad, would be an important first step in preventing it. Hooliganism on the front lines between Croatia and Serbia One of the underlying causes of football hooliganism in Croatia is its continual conflict with its neighbour, Serbia. The two countries were once part of Yugoslavia, but in the early 1990s they fought a civil war and the two nations, along with others, became recognised as independent nations (Sowards). While real violence started in 1991, tensions were very high in 1990. On May 13, 1990, when Former Yugoslavia was on the brink of civil war, a football match between Dinamo Zagreb, with their Bad Blue Boys; and Red Star Belgrade, with their Delijes; was held in Zagreb. About 3000 Red Star Belgrade supporters made their way to Zagreb. They were led by eljko Ranatovi, also known as Arkan. Arkan is the same man who was wanted by the International War Crimes Tribunal in The Hague for atrocities allegedly committed during the war in Bosnia-Herzegovnia, until he was gunned down in the lobby of a Belgrade hotel in 2000. After this match, he would later recruit many hooligans into the Serbian Volunteer Guard the Tigers to fight in the Yugoslav War (Dyer). Jonathan Wilson, an eastern European football expert, put the game in political terms: the Serbian nationalists, Red Star Belgrade, versus the hardcore of the Croatian Nationalists, Dinamo Zagreb (Dyer). Red Star fans went in the stadium with acid to burn down security fences. Both sides stockpiled rocks before the match. Everyone knew violence would erupt, and fighting started instantly. According to Toma Mihajlovic, a football photographer, "The atmosphere was like we know that something is not good, but nobody was surprised because we were expecting something to blow up" (Dyer).

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Its complete neglect by the footballing associations and the Croatian government not to act before this event, especially since everyone knew about it. During the game Red Star fans began to tear up the seats. Bad Blue Boys tried to tear down the fences to get to Red Star supporters. Police, mostly Serbs, came to beat the Bad Blue Boys. When police beat down a Dinamo fan, the captain Zvonimir Boban did a kung fu kick to attack the police officer. "Boban's kick was a symbolic moment. It was the beginning of the end for Yugoslavia" (Dyer). Around a year later the hooligans left the stadium and went to war with guns and grenades. The war went for more than four years, and more than 15,000 people were killed. At the end, Croatia and Serbia emerged as two different countries. There are in fact memorials in Zagreb and Belgrades football stadiums dedicated to the fans who went to fight in the war and who died (Dyer). This shows just how the Croatia-Serbia conflict played an integral part in the problem of football hooliganism in the two countries. Because of hooliganisms connection to the Yugoslav war, in the years following the war there was and still is much hatred still evident between Croats and Serbs in the stadiums. While normal soldiers returned to their homes after the war, hooligans returned to a different kind of fight in the stands. This evidence clearly shows that one of the underlying causes of football hooliganism in Croatia is the different cultural identities between the clubs and countries and their attachment to the past. Theories behind the aggression and violence of Croatian Hooliganism: There are many theories behind aggression that apply to the football hooliganism in Croatia. They can be looked at on the individual level or the group level, although some of the theories bridge the gap between the two. The Croatian football fan lifestyle can be connected to the socialisation to aggressiveness theory. In Croatia most of the football fans are younger than twenty-five (Bjelajak), so it is correct to say that most of them are at an age where they can be readily influenced by their surroundings. The socialisation to aggressiveness theory states that people fight and hate others because they are taught to by their society (Barash 109). In Croatia, or in any footballing country, when fans join a club they learn of rivalries and learn to oppose the other clubs, even if the rivalry preceded their own existence. In Croatia, however, the extent to which that hatred exists is much more, as it also crosses into the political spectrum.

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Croatian fans are also subject to what is called imitative learning which asserts that people fall prone to doing something when they see others doing it (Barash 109). A prime example of this is in "The Balkans" episode of the documentary programme The Real Football Factories International, where an outbreak of violence occurred during a match. It started with shouting and then a few fans were seen tearing up seats and launching them like frisbees or using them as melee weapons. When people saw this happening, more and more immediately did the same (Dyer). Another theory that applies to this scenario and to Croatian football hooliganism in general is militant enthusiasm, which is talked about by ethologist Konrad Lorenz in his book On Aggression. Lorenz affirms that there is a tendency of people to lose their normal inhibitions against violence when united with others similarly motivated (Barash 99). This theory demonstrates that the best way to stop hooliganism is to prevent it from starting. Its easy for violence to escalate out of control, so great effort must be made to eliminate hooliganism before it enters the stadium. A defining characteristic of hooliganism in Croatia is that its organised, with a defined group structure. Once individuals have become associated and attached to a group, they see any attack or front on the larger group as an attack on themselves. Sigmund Freud called this narcissistic injury (Barash 103) and believed attacks on a larger scale would result in violence on a smaller scale. This is very applicable to hooliganism because if another football team firm were to make another look bad, by beating them in a game or by having the upper hand in a clash in the stadium, then the fans of the losing team would likely perceive that an attack has been brought down on not only the team or the firm, but on all of them individually. This leads to frustration, which builds up until the next clash at a match, where it may be released in highly aggressive actions. Frustration is also contagious, and in football frustration easily travels from the pitch into the stands. Psychiatrist John Dollard proposed a frustration-aggression hypothesis that believes when individuals have sight of a goal but cannot achieve it, they become frustrated and thus become aggressive. In football, players quite literally see the goal but are often not able to reach it and score. Fans watching may become frustrated by a lack of goals and are likely to become aggressive. Another goal for fans is mocking and maybe even hurting the oppositions fans. Since fans are seated on different sides of the stadium, they will see their goal but will not be able to reach it,

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except for when stadium fencing or walls are torn down. With even just these two sources of frustration hooligans become very prone to outbursts of seemingly uncontrollable violence (Barash 107). Such violence may lead to social learning. Psychologist John Paul Scott said "individuals are particularly likely to fight if they have fought successfully in the past and that aggression often results from a breakdown in social structures" (Barash 108). This social learning evidently exists in the Croatian hooliganism scene. In The Real Football Factories International the host Danny Dyer interviews several members of different hooligan firms. Many of them boast about successful fights and demonstrations of strength, and also show him pictures, or rather framed displays, of the might of the firms. Because these hooligans focus on their victories so much, they are surely likely to fight again in the future in hopes of achieving similar results to add to the firms reputations (Dyer). Such firms view violence as a demonstration of superiority, instead of as something that would rather be avoided. In order for hooliganism to be reduced, it needs to be redefined in Croatia as very disrupting for society and completely unlawful. As previously stated the football firms are very organised, with a defined structure and hierarchy. It is worth noting that the most aggressive societies, such as Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy were also highly structured. Another factor leading to aggression is the conditioning theory, which states that parties are likely to continue aggressive behaviour if such behaviour does not have negative effects. These two points show that because of the firms organisation and lack of consequences, their members are predisposed to aggressive behaviour. To hooligans, getting in trouble with the law is venial if it is a result of a successful demonstration. This is especially true if the consequences the law imposes upon them are not very severe. Such lack of consequences has already been illustrated by the relative inaction of the Croatian government. The conditioning theory remains true for the inverse, which means that if aggressive behaviour has negative effects then hooligans will be less likely to continue it (Barash 108). This produces a strong argument to impose harsher consequences on hooliganism so hooligans will be less inclined to be aggressive and cause problems. Another solution is suggested by Lorenz, who says that by channelling the negative energy into other activities, like athletics, research, and other socially useful

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things, aggressive behaviour can be reduced. He is pessimistic about this thought, however: "An unprejudiced observer from another planet, looking down on man as he is today, in his hand the atom bomb, the product of his intelligence, in his heart the aggressive drive inherited from his anthropoid ancestors, which this same intelligence cannot control, would not prophesy long life for the species (Barash 100). Lorenz would probably be even more pessimistic about the solutions application to football hooliganism, because these hooligans are some of the primary supporters for football, the worlds most popular sport. Without them teams would not get nearly as much support, especially in Croatia, and this socially useful activity would not be able to continue on the same level as it does today. If hooligans were banned from the stadium they would probably use their energy for violence in other public places, which would have disastrous results. Underlying causes of football hooliganism can be attributed to the theories of conflict, so it would make sense to have the underlying solutions to peace to be based on the theories of peace. Many peace theories deal with border control, military organisation, and international agreement. The unique nature of football hooliganism from the peace and conflict perspective is that it is a problem on the local level, the national level, and the international level. As a result there are not one or even a few solutions that would cover everything. There are many separate bodies that work to eliminate hooliganism, such as the UEFA, Fdration Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), The Croatian Football Federation (which is a member of both FIFA and UEFA), the Croatian government, the European Union, and other European countries governments. The European Union may be involved for two reasons: either because Croatian teams travel to Eurozone countries and cause trouble, or because Croatia may become part of the European Union as early as 2012 (Croatia Prepares for EU). It is likely that Croatias admittance into the European Union would have very positive effects for the problem of football hooliganism in Croatia. The EU is taking an active role in combating the problem. The Council of Europe drafted the European Convention on Spectator Violence and Misbehaviour at Sports Events and in Particular

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Football Matches which is intended to ensure safety at sporting events by promoting the cooperation between football organisations and authorities (Preventing Football Hooliganism). Such cooperation between different bodies is exactly what Croatia needs, as techniques from other countries can then be readily adopted. The EU also has many legislations, main proposals, and Community acts, as well as some programmes financed by the European Commission (EU Promoting Violence Prevention). There would also be a free flow of information and prevention methods between European countries, and before away games countries would get adequate notice of possible conflict and hooligans. A possible shortcoming is that hooligans currently banned from entering a neighbouring EU country will find it easier to cross borders once Croatia becomes a member state. Recently, to aid in its EU ascension, Croatias justice system received a twenty-six million Euro boost from the World Bank (Souza). Because of this boost and because Croatias government and justice system is relatively new and still very much in a stage of development, it is difficult to assess how exactly football hooliganism prevention fits into the government. It is unclear which section of the Croatian legal system, if there is one at all, is responsible for tackling the problem of Croatian football hooliganism (Kuecking). As of now it seems that the government only pays hooliganism serious attention if there are attempted murders or excessive violence, in which case they are not tried for hooliganism but for a higher crime. The simple continual rioting and aggressive behaviour has not appeared to have been considerably tackled yet. It is only tackled if the situation becomes another countrys problem, as with away games. If there are two Croatian teams playing each other, it seems the rules are all but thrown out the window. Prime Minister Jadranka Kosor telling her country that they need to impose harsher punishments for misconduct is unlikely to have a substantial effect. Conclusion It is likely that, by itself, Croatia does not have a chance to solve the problem of football hooliganism. The government does not seem to be taking the threat that hooliganism poses to society seriously. Perhaps because causes such as Croatias attachment to the past and the hooligans participation in the Yugoslav Wars are so fresh and embedded in society as a whole, they believe these problems are best solved with time. Croatia can easily turn to other countries for help it need not try and craft

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solutions and experiment with them. Other countries could even help directly, for example, by sending fan coaches to Croatia to coach them away from hooliganism. Security cameras could be installed in stadiums to identify hooligans and record violence for use as evidence. I also think its crucial that Croatia and their football federation begin working more closely with the EU and UEFA and FIFA to start improving the hooliganism problem. If Croatia adopts prevention policies and imposes guidelines similar to those of other countries soon, when Croatia is admitted into the EU it can hit the ground running.

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Fox, K., and P. Marsh. Football Hooliganism. Football Violence and Hooliganism in Europe. Social Issues Research Centre, 1996. Web. 2 June 2010. <http://www.sirc.org/ publik/football_violence.html>. How the Hillsborough Disaster Happened. BBC News. N.p., 14 Apr. 2009. Web. 3 Mar. 2010. <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7992845.stm>. Kosor Wants to Crack Down on Football Hooligans. Croatian Times. AN News and Pictures, 15 Oct. 2009. Web. 5 Mar. 2010. <http://croatiantimes.com/news/ General_News/2009-10-15/6581/ Kosor_wants_to_crack_down_on_football_hooligans>. Kuecking, Dunja, Milivoje ugi?, and Marija Glibota. The Croatian Legal System and Legal Research. Globalex. Hauser Global Law School Program at NYU School of Law, Oct. 2009. Web. 9 May 2010. <http://www.nyulawglobal.org/globalex/ Croatia1.htm>. Nrhi, Harri. Croatia Football. June 2008. JPEG file. Prime Minister Wants Harsher Punishments For Rowdy Fans. Croatian Times. AN News and Pictures, 3 May 2010. Web. 3 May 2010. <http://www.croatiantimes.com/news/Sports/2010-05-03/10726/ Prime_minister_wants_harsher_punishments_for_rowdy_fans>. Rowlands, James. Policing Hooliganism Introduction. Policing European Football Hooliganism. University of Exeter, 2001. Web. 7 Mar. 2010. <http://people.exeter.ac.uk/watupman/undergrad/rowlands/ policingintroduction.htm>. Soccer Match Riot Called Worst in History of Yugoslav Sports. The Orlando Sentinel 14 May 1990: A7. Print.

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Souza, Katerina. Croatias Justice System Receives a 26 Million EUR Boost from World Bank. Balkans.com Business News. NGBTeam Belgrade, 7 Apr. 2010. Web. 5 May 2010. <http://www.balkans.com/open-news.php?uniquenumber=53473>. Sowards, Steven W. Lecture 25: The Yugoslav Civil War. Twenty-Five Lectures on Modern Balkan History. Michigan State University, 11 June 2009. Web. 12 Mar. 2010. <http://staff.lib.msu.edu/sowards/balkan/lect25.htm>. UEFA Fines Hajduk for Fan Hooliganism. Croatian Times. AN News and Media, 2 Oct. 2009. Web. 5 Mar. 2010. <http://croatiantimes.com/news/Sports/2009-10-02/ 6339/UEFA_fines_Hajduk_for_fan_hooliganism_>. UEFA Punishes Dinamo Because of Fan Hooliganism. Croatian Times. AN News and Pictures, 30 Oct. 2009. Web. 5 Mar. 2010. <http://croatiantimes.com/news/ Sports/2009-10-30/6898/ UEFA_punishes_Dinamo_because_of_fan_hooliganism>. Wilson, Graeme. World Cup Ban on 3200 Brit Yobs. The Sun 26 Jan. 2010: n. pag. Web. 6 Mar. 2010. <http://www.thesun.co.uk/sol/homepage/news/2824563/Over- 3000-British-hooligans-banned-from-World-Cup-in-South-Africa.html>. Wood, Paul. Gangsters Life of Serb Warlord. BBC News. N.p., 15 Jan. 2000. Web. 2 June 2010. <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/605266.stm>.

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Works Consulted Barlovac, Bojana. Serbian Hooligan Gets 10-Year Sentence. Balkan Insight. Balkan Investigative Reporting Network, 29 Apr. 2010. Web. 5 May 2010. <http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/main/news/27738/>. Brimson, Dougie. The Guardian: Football: Debate: Is Hooliganism Inevitable at this World Cup?: Yes. The Guardian 31 May 2006: n. pag. Print. Croatian, Austrian Interior Chiefs Discuss Checking Hooliganism at EURO 2008. HINA News Agency 27 Mar. 2008: n. pag. Print. Croatian Fans Fight Anti-hooligan Law. Agence France-Presse 26 Jan. 2009: n. pag. Print. Culf, Andrew. The Guardian: Croatia Clamps Down on Racist Fans Before England Match. The Guardian 9 Oct. 2006: n. pag. Print. Football, Blood and War. The Observer. The Guardian, 18 Jan. 2004. Web. 3 Mar. 2010. <http://observer.guardian.co.uk/osm/story/ 0,,1123137,00.html#article_continue>. Graham, Bob. Eastern Nazis Target Black England Stars. The Sunday Times 22 Jan. 2006: n. pag. Print. McAllion, Kevin. Fans Cro Overboard. Sunday Mail 18 Oct. 2009: n. pag. Print. Preventing Football Hooliganism. Football Education Network. N.p., 2003. Web. 2 June 2010. <http://www.footballnetwork.org/dev/communityfootball/ violence_reduce_violence.asp>S Slovak Police Clash with Croat Football Fans Ahead of UEFA Qualifier. CTK News Agency 30 July 2009: n. pag. Print.

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26 Swiss Hooligans Sentenced for Shame of Basel. Expatica. Expatica Communications BV, 7 Nov. 2008. Web. 5 May 2010. <http://www.expatica.com/ch/news/swiss-news/26-Swiss-hooligans- sentenced-for-_Shame-of-Basel_-_47195.html>.

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