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N
n
k n n
b a
N
k R
1
1
) (
(Eq. 3-2)
where a
n
and b
n
are the elements of the two sequences with code period N, and k is the
time lag between the signals.
In the following, the use of DS-CDMA will be illustrated by examples using the simplest
form of spreading modulation, that is, BPSK. In BPSK modulation, the phase of the
carrier is shifted 180 degrees in accordance with the transmitted digital bit stream. In the
examples, a single bit transition, from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1, causes a phase shift whereas
two successive bits with equal values do not result in a phase shift. Let x(t) be the data
stream that is to be modulated by a carrier having power P and radian frequency
0
.
Then, the modulated stream, s
d
(t), can be defined as:
) sin( ) ( 2 ) (
0
t t x P t s
d
(Eq. 3-3)
where x(t) =t 1.
As an example, let the data stream being modulated to be (1 0) as in Figure 3-3a. The
BPSK modulated data signal, s
d
(t), is shown in Figure 3-3d. The wideband BPSK
spreading is accomplished by multiplying s
d
(t) by a function c(t) that takes on values t1.
The transmitted wideband signal, s
t
(t), can thus be represented by:
) sin( ) ( ) ( 2 ) (
0
t t x t c P t s
t
(Eq. 3-4)
Let the chip code sequence c(t) to be (1 0 1 0), with processing gain four, as shown in
Figure 3-3b. When modulo-2 addition is used, the spread data will be as shown in Figure
3-3c. The resulting transmission wave is depicted in Figure 3-3e. As previously noted, the
signal will be despread at the receiving end using the same code as in transmission. After
demodulation and despreading, the original data will be recovered.
16
The received signal has a propagation delay T
d
that is determined by the path length. The
signal, s
t
'(t), coming out of the receivers correlator is:
[ ] ) ( sin ) ( 2
0
' '
d d d d t
T t T t )x T )c(t T c(t P (t) s
(Eq. 3-5)
where T'
d
is the receivers best estimate of the transmission delay. It can be seen that if
the chip code c(t) at the receiver is correctly synchronized with the chip code at the
transmitter (i.e., T'
d
=T
d
), the original data is recovered after despreading and
demodulation.
0
0.5
1
0
0.5
1
0
0.5
1
-1
0
1
-1
0
1
1
0
1 0
1
0 1 0 1
0
1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Figure 3-3 (a) User data (b) Spreading sequence (c) Spread data
(d) Modulated data signal (e) Transmitted signal.
As a second example, the spreading and despreading is illustrated with three users. Let
the data and the chip sequence of user 1, which are shown in Figure 3-4a, be the same as
those used in Figure 3-3a and Figure 3-3b. Let the data of user 2 be (1 0) and the
spreading code (1 0 0 1). They are shown in Figure 3-4c. In addition, let the data stream
of user 3 to be (0 0) and the spreading code (1 1 0 0), as shown in Figure 3-4e. The
selected processing gain is again 4. Figure 3-4b, Figure 3-4d and Figure 3-4f illustrate the
17
spread signals of users 1, 2 and 3, respectively. The resulting composite signal of all the
users is given by Figure 3-4g. Figure 3-4h shows the effect of the despreading operation
when the despreading is applied to user 1. The decoded chips are integrated to give the
decoded data. The retrieved signal is the original one, since the multiplication of the
composite signal by the user 1 chip code cancels the interfering codes from others users.
This is because the cross-correlation, R(k) (Eq. 3-2), between the chip codes is zero, as
the codes were selected orthogonal in the example.
0
0.5
1
0
0.5
1
0
0.5
1
0
0.5
1
0
0.5
1
0
0.5
1
-1.5
0
1.5
3
-2
0
2
solid line is data
decoded chip
dashed line is chip code
transmitted code
user 2
user 3
composite code user 1 chip code
(h)
decoded data
(b)
(g)
(f)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(a)
user 1
Figure 3-4 (a) User 1 data and the spreading sequence (b) Encoded user 1 data
(c) User 2 data and the spreading sequence (d) Encoded user 2 data
(e) User 3 data and the spreading sequence (f) Encoded user 3 data
(g) Composite data and spreading sequence for user 1
(h) Decoded chip and data for user 1.
It should be noted that orthogonal codes are completely orthogonal only for zero delay.
For other delays, orthogonal codes have poor cross-correlation properties. Thus, they are
suitable only if all the users of the same channel are synchronized in time to the accuracy
of a small fraction of one chip. This is why PN (pseudo noise) codes are necessary in the
18
reverse link. WCDMA uses Gold-sequences, which is a class of PN-code, for cell and
user separation both in the downlink and in the uplink, and orthogonal codes for channel
separation[21]. The performance and interference resistance properties of Gold and other
scrambling codes are evaluated in [22]. The choice of the spreading code is very
important, as it is the basic building block of any CDMA system. Many families of
spreading codes, with satisfactory auto- and cross-correlation properties, exist[18], [19],
[23].
In the actual systems, the processing gain is usually much larger than four, the value that
was used in the previous examples. A large processing gain is, of course, highly
beneficial in suppressing interference. For instance, the chip rate of WCDMA is 3.84
Mcps, which allows large spreading.
19
4 Radio Resource Management
Radio resource management (RRM) is a set of algorithms that control the usage of
WCDMA radio resources. It is located in user equipment, base station and radio network
controller inside UTRAN. In the second-generation networks, RRM is based on hard
limits, which means that a fixed number of channels are allocated to the users. Soft
capacity and flexible services make the RRM of the third generation systems more
complex than it is in the second-generation systems. The RRM infrastructure presented in
this chapter is based on [24].
RRM functionality is aimed to guarantee quality of service, to offer high capacity and to
maintain the planned coverage area. Thus, RRM optimization and autotuning are an
important part of WCDMA systems when trying to achieve efficient performance of the
radio access network. The basic RRM can be classified into the following modules:
power control (PC), handover control (HC), admission control (AC), packet scheduling
(PS) and load control (LC). The interference-based admission control, which is the focus
of this thesis, is studied in chapter 5. In this chapter, a short overview of the other RRM
functionalities is given to illustrate the relation of admission control to other RRM
algorithms.
4.1 Power Control
Power control (PC) provides protection against shadowing, fast-fading and near-far
problem (described in chapter 5.1 and 3.2), all of which cause variation in the received
signal strength. The protection is given by controlling the power of the users to be the
minimum required to maintain a given signal-to-noise ratio (SIR) for the required level of
performance. In this way, each user contributes to the interference to the least extent
possible. Power control is employed on a connection basis. Typically, a slow outer-loop
power control and a fast closed-loop power control are used[25]. Without an accurate
power control, WCDMA systems cannot operate.
Fast power control compensates for the rapid signal fluctuation at the receiver. The
receiver estimates the received SIR, and sends a power control command (TPC) to the
20
other end to either increase or decrease its transmission power. The frequency of fast
power control in WCDMA is 1.5 kHz in both uplink and downlink.
Because the same SIRs correspond to different frame error rates (FERs) in different radio
environments and conditions, outer-loop power control is needed to map the desired FER
into the required SIR target. The SIR-target is independently adjusted for each connection
based on the FER measurements during the connection. The frequency of the outer loop
power control is typically 10100 Hz.
4.2 Handover Control
Handover (handoff) means the action of switching a call in progress between radio
channels in the same cell or switching a call from one cell to another without interruption
of the call. It is essential to guarantee the mobility of a subscriber. Handover in WCDMA
is described in [26]. In WCDMA, handovers can generally be divided into soft handovers
and hard handovers.
Soft handover (SHO) is a necessary element of CDMA systems to avoid excessive
interference from the neighboring cells, as described in chapter 3.2. In soft handover, a
mobile station is simultaneously connected to more than one base station. SHO increases
the performance by diversity, but at cost of a greater number of connections. When the
signal strength of a base station pilot exceeds the add threshold, the mobile station enters
the soft handover state. When the signal strength drops below drop threshold, the base
station is removed from the set of cells that form a soft handover.
Hard handovers in WCDMA refer, for instance, to inter-frequency and inter-system
handovers. Inter-frequency handovers are used to balance the load between the carriers if
a base station uses several of them. Inter-system handovers can be made for quality or
coverage reasons, for instance, between WCDMA and GSM.
4.3 Packet Scheduler
The task of packet scheduler (PS) is to support packet switched mode at the radio
interface. Its function is to divide the available air interface capacity between the packet
21
data users, decide the transport channel for each user's packet data transmission, and to
monitor the packet allocation and the system load[24].
The capacity division means the way the packet scheduler allocates bit rates for bearers
and how it modifies them during the connections. Packet scheduler can select different
transport channels for different type of packet data. Common channels are used for small
packet transmissions, dedicated channels for high bit rate sessions and shared channels
for low bit rate sessions.
4.4 Load Control
The task of load control (LC) is to ensure that the system remains stable and does not
become overloaded. Thus, the basic purpose of load control is the same as that of
admission control. The main conceptual difference is that load control is a continuous
process, whereas admission control is carried out as a single event.
Load control performs its task by measuring the amount of uplink interference and the
total downlink transmission power. If an overload situation is encountered, load control
returns the system quickly and controllably back to the normal state (load). The load
control performs both preventive actions, for instance, reduction of Eb/N0 targets, and, in
rare cases, overload control actions such as dropping of connections.
22
5 Uplink Admission Control and Quality of Service
5.1 Uplink capacity and coverage
Capacity and coverage are the most important aspects in network planning. The coverage
of a base station sector for a given service is the geographical area where a mobile unit is
able to communicate with the base station with the required signal level. The capacity of
the cell is defined by the number of connections that can simultaneously exist with an
acceptable level of mutual interference.
WCDMA's uplink soft capacity is limited by the amount of interference, caused by
mobile units, that can be tolerated in a given cell to overcome path loss, shadowing and
fast-fading. Path loss is the distance attenuation of signal strength between the receiver
and transmitter antennas. Shadowing refers to slow variations in propagation due to
changes in large-scale terrain characteristics caused, for instance, by trees and foliage.
Fast-fading means the fluctuation of the received signal envelope over short distance and
time as a result of multi path reflections of the transmitted signal from local objects such
as buildings.
Interference on the reverse links consists of the superposition of the signals from mobile
units at the base station receiver. The interference curve, as a function of the number of
connections, is likely to exhibit a steepening form, because more load requires more
power from the all existing connections, which adds more load. To reduce interference,
power control attempts to minimize all users' received signal powers at the base station,
while maintaining satisfactory link performance. Soft handover guarantees that the user is
connected at all times to the best base station, that is, the one with the least attenuation
due to propagation losses.
Interference originates mainly from the same cell users, but much interference arrives at
the given base station also from the users controlled by the base stations of other cells. In
addition, there is always system noise, for instance, the environmental (thermal) and
manmade background noise. As already indicated, the other cell interference is also
received at the given base station with the lowest possible power levels, since soft
23
handover guarantees that the user is connected at all times through the best base station.
Other cell interference decreases rapidly as the mobile unit moves away from the
boundary of cells because path loss increases exponentially. Path loss is generally
modeled to have the functional form x
-
,
where x is the distance and is path loss
exponent, which is reported to have values ranging from 3.0 to 5.0 depending on the
environment[17]. Other cell interference has been estimated from 33 % to 42 % of the
total power received from mobiles in the same cell, and consequently CDMA capacity
under a multicell environment equaling to 70 to 75 % of the capacity under a single cell
environment[18]. The effect of other cell interference to the capacity can be seen in the
simplified formula for the reverse link capacity (Eq. 5-2), which is to be derived next.
In the following theoretical calculation of uplink capacity, identical users and perfect
power control are assumed. Suppose that the demodulator for each user can operate
against Gaussian noise at a bit-energy-to-noise-density level of E
b
/I
0
.
1
The received
energy per bit is the ratio between the received signal power, P
s
, to the data rate, which is
the entire spread-spectrum bandwidth rate per processing gain (Eq. 5-1a). The noise
density, I
0
, is given in (Eq. 5-1b) where I
own
' denotes own-cell interference, I
other
other-cell
interference and N
0
background noise. The fraction of intra-cell interference of the total
interference, F, is given by (Eq. 5-1c). The expressions for the own-cell interferences are
obtained by (Eq. 5-1d) and (Eq. 5-1e), where N is the number of users. It should be noted
that expression (Eq. 5-1e) includes the observed user's reception power, whereas (Eq. 5-
1d) does not.
1
A common convention is to use notation E
b
/N
0
to represent bit-energy-to-noise-density, but here,
in this context, the symbol I
0
is employed to denote the whole noise density, and N
0
includes only
the thermal background noise.
24
( )
( )
'
+ +
s own
s own
other own
own
other
own
p s b
P N I
P N I
I I
I
F
W N I I I
W G P E
(e)
) 1 ( (d)
(c)
/ (b)
/ (a)
'
0 0
'
(Eq. 5-1)
If the background noise N
0
is neglected, the above set of equations yield the capacity
expression:
,
_
+ 1
0
I
E
G
F N
b
p
(Eq. 5-2)
Similar capacity calculations can be found in [27] and [28]. The E
b
/I
0
requirement of a
user depends on the bit rate, bearer service, multipath profile, mobile speed, receiver
algorithms and base station antenna structure.
The interference-based uplink capacity and coverage is determined by the base station
receiver sensitivity and the amount of power transmitted by the mobile unit. The power
outage occurs when the mobile maximum power is not enough to meet the required
signal-to-interference level due to large path loss and shadowing. In general, the power
outage probability increases near the edge of the cell. Moreover, the outage probability
and capacity of CDMA has been found to be very sensitive to the imperfections of the
power control[29-30]. The WCDMA reduces the impact of imperfect power control
through better diversity.
The coverage and capacity are inter-related through interference. As the number of users
in a cell grows, the interference levels at the base station receiver increase, as well. This
means that far-away users cannot maintain the link quality to that base station, and they
will be served by adjacent cells. Hence, the increased load actually causes the cell to
shrink. Conversely, the smaller the interference, and thus the capacity, the greater the
coverage. The feature that traffic intensity affects the cell size is known as cell breathing.
Accordingly, there will always be an inherent trade-off between coverage and capacity in
25
CDMA. In exactly the same way, there will also be a trade-off between capacity and
quality of service.
Uplink and downlink are not operated in an identical condition, and their performance
characteristics are vastly different. Both directions are ultimately limited by interference,
but there are large dissimilarities, since the forward link access is of one-to-many type
and the reverse link is of many-to-one type. It is apparent that the forward link is limited
by the total base station transmission power and the power limit per radio link, while the
reverse link is limited by individual mobile transmission powers. In this thesis, the uplink
direction is examined. It is not studied closely which link limits the system capacity and
coverage in a particular WCDMA system, but some general attention needs to be paid to
the unbalance of UL and DL, though.
Either of the two links, UL or DL, can determine the whole system capacity. It is
generally difficult to draw a firm conclusion, which of the links limits the system capacity
and coverage, and what are the limiting factors[31]. The limiting link is determined, for
instance, by other-cell interference, multipath fading, effectiveness of power control,
spatial distribution of users, and generation, synchronization, modulation and coding of
the spread-spectrum signal. The overall capacity of narrowband CDMA systems, where
the main service has traditionally been the voice communications, is often argued to be
uplink limited in the literature[30-32]. WCDMA and 3G mobile communications with
multimedia services may well change that stance.
An uplink limited system capacity in WCDMA is more likely to occur in a rural
environment, where far-away mobile units cannot transmit with the required power.
Dense urban areas are more likely to have the downlink limited capacity, since the base
station could run out of transmit power before the terminals, because the total BS power
is shared between all the users[24], [33]. Uplink and downlink capacity relationship has
been concluded to be highly dependent on the network configuration such as base station
locations[34]. The coverage of WCDMA is assumed uplink limited in high load case
[24], [33].
It is important to remember that in third generation cellular systems the traffic and load
can be asymmetric between uplink and downlink. Some applications such as www-
browsing or electronic newspaper download cause the capacity utilization to be strongly
26
biased toward downlink. It was concluded in [34], that a small amount of www-browsing
traffic turned the downlink direction as the capacity limiting factor of the WCDMA
network. In addition, [31] suggests that WCDMA capacity is generally downlink limited.
There will also exist link-balanced multimedia applications (e.g., video telephony) that
require a similar bandwidth for both links. If the balanced services, such as voice and
video telephony, dominate the total traffic load, the cell capacity is more likely to be
determined by the reverse link.
5.2 Call Admission Strategies
As described in chapter 5.1, the cell coverage and the quality of ongoing connections will
decline below the planned level, if cell interference is allowed to increase excessively.
For this reason, certain radio resource management algorithms are needed to limit the
amount of interference in the system. Call admission control (CAC or shortly AC)
regulates the establishment and modification of radio access bearers to prevent the system
from becoming overloaded. AC is used to achieve high traffic capacity and to maintain
the stability of radio access network. Here, AC is examined from the uplink point of
view. Uplink and downlink can be decoupled, since admission control decision in radio
resource management is made practically independently in uplink and downlink.
Moreover, as already pointed out, uplink and downlink are run on different basis, as the
access in the former type of link is of many-to-one instead of one-to-many in the latter
type of link.
Admission control in WCDMA is inherently different from the systems whose resources
are finite and specified. The number of channels per sector is fixed, for instance, in
frequency division and time division multiple access systems such as GSM. Thus, the
capacity limit in those systems is a hard limit, and the AC only has to take care of the
allocation of available channels, for instance, time slots for the users. CDMA has no hard
limit on the maximum capacity, which makes admission control a complex soft capacity
management problem.
The impact of admission control algorithm is significant for the performance of WCDMA
system, as the AC affects capacity, coverage and quality of service. Several admission
control strategies have been proposed in the literature[35-39]. One design choice is to
restrict the admission by fixing the amount of resources, for instance, the maximum
27
number of connections[36] or the maximum total bit rate of the cell. A SIR based policy
is introduced in [39]. There, the admission decision is made on individual basis
comparing mobile user's SIR value to the base station receiver's SIR-threshold value.
The total interference based strategy was first proposed in [35]. There, the AC blocks
calls at a base station, when the measured total power at that base station exceeds the
predetermined threshold. The total interference limiting admission controls essentially
retains the soft-capacity feature of WCDMA. In some contexts, this type of admission
control is said to convert soft capacity to semi-hard capacity[40].
It has been concluded that AC algorithms that are based on the total received power
perform best [37]. The interference-based AC supports much more users than a non-
interference AC approach because of the soft capacity utilization[36]. This is anticipated
considering the inherent interference limitation of CDMA. The advantage of the total
interference-based AC approach is intuitively the fact that all interference is treated equal
without any explicit assumptions concerning the strength of the interference source. The
total wideband interference is measured, and the admission control algorithm estimates
the load increase that the establishment of a new bearer would cause. If the new resulting
total interference would be unacceptably high, according to a predefined threshold value,
the radio access bearer request is rejected.
The approach described above directly utilizes the soft capacity feature. The less
interference that there is coming from the neighboring cells, the more capacity there is
available in the middle cell (Figure 5-1). This can be seen directly from the reuse
efficiency factor, F, in (Eq. 5-2). Some AC methods such as the throughput-based
algorithm does not implicitly take into account the interference from the adjacent cells,
but the other-cell interference is included as an estimated parameter[24]. If the
interference from other sources than the own cell is proportionally higher than assumed in
a throughput-based or a fixed-number-of-connections method, the coverage and quality
offered would be worse than estimated. In the opposite case, the system capacity becomes
under utilized. Given the complex interaction of various home-cell and other-cell noise
characteristics, the ratio of the home-cell noise to the total user noise has been argued a
very difficult parameter to estimate[41]. Interference-based admission control treats
different types of services in a uniform manner, and it is adaptive to load changes
between the cells. However, on the minus side, it may be difficult to judge precisely what
28
values should the threshold parameters, such as the maximum allowed total received
power, have. This issue will be investigated in chapters 5.47 using quality of service
monitoring approach.
(a) (b)
Figure 5-1 (a) Soft capacity of the middle cell when cells are equally loaded
(b) Soft capacity of the middle cell when there is less interference in the
neighboring cells.
To allow vendor and operator specific solutions and to promote the development of
efficient algorithms, the admission control details of UMTS are not specified[26]. An
example of an interference based admission control is presented detailed in the next
chapter.
5.3 Interference based admission control strategy
This chapters interference-based uplink admission control strategies were introduced in
[36]. The presented strategies are generic enough to illustrate the common principle of the
total interference-based methods. A method similar to the ones presented in this chapter
will be used in the simulations of chapter 6. The overall idea of the total interference-
based uplink admission control algorithm is the following: A new user will not be
admitted into the system if the estimated resulting total interference power level is higher
than the pre-specified threshold value. This is shown by (Eq. 5-3). Details, such as the
method for estimating the interference increase due to a new radio access bearer and
interference measuring methods, are different between different algorithms. The total
received power threshold, P
rx_target
, can be temporarily exceeded due to changes in
interference and propagation while mobile stations are moving in the network.
29
As described, a new radio access bearer is not admitted if:
et t rx rx total rx
P P P
arg _ _
> + (Eq. 5-3)
in which P
rx_total
is the total uplink interference power present in the cell, P
rx
is the
estimated increase in the interference power caused by a new user and P
rx_target
is the
threshold for the maximum received total interference power. P
rx_total
is measured from
the system, but due to short-term interference fluctuation, averaged values are actually
used in admission control.
Load factor, , is a common measure of network congestion, and it is used in admission
control and network dimensioning. Uplink load factor is defined as follows[25]:
total rx
P
n
P
n
P
S
total rx
P
S
empty
SIR
loaded
SIR
_
_
1
(Eq. 5-4)
total rx
n
P
P
_
1
(Eq. 5-5)
where SIR is the signal-to-interference ratio, S is the received power at the base station of
a user and P
n
denotes the system noise.
The received wideband interference, P
rx_total
, consists of the powers from inter-cell users,
intra-cell users and system noise:
n oth rx own rx total rx
P P P P + +
_ _ _
(Eq. 5-6)
Using (Eq. 5-5), the above expression can be transformed into form:
1
_
n
total rx
P
P
(Eq. 5-7)
30
This expression (Eq. 5-7) is used to derive two alternative ways to calculate the total
uplink interference power increase due to a new user. First, the equations (Eq. 5-8) and
(Eq. 5-9) show a method for estimating the interference power increase using the
assumption that the power increase is the derivative of the old uplink interference power
with respect to the uplink load factor. Then, the equations (Eq. 5-10) and (Eq. 5-11) show
the integral method, in which the derivative of the total interference with respect to the
load factor is integrated from the old value.
( )
,
_
1
1
1
2
_
total n n
total rx
P P P
d
d
d
dP
(Eq. 5-8)
1
_
total
total rx
P
P
(Eq. 5-9)
+
1
1
1 1 1 ) 1 (
2
_
n n n n
total rx
P P P
d
P
P
(Eq. 5-10)
1
_
_
total rx
total rx
P
P
(Eq. 5-11)
In equations (Eq. 5-9) (Eq. 5-11) is the estimated change in load factor due to a new
user. The expression for load factor of one user, L
j
, has been derived in [24] and it is
obtained as:
j
j
b
p
j
N
E
G
L
,
_
0
1
1
(Eq. 5-12)
31
where G
p
is the processing gain,
j
is the channel activity factor of the user (i.e., fraction
of time during which the user's signal is present) and E
b
/N
0
is energy per bit to noise
power density ratio.
L
j
can be estimated, since the processing gain of a user is known, channel activity factor
can be assumed and E
b
/N
0
is determined by the QoS requirements. L
j
gives directly the
change in the total load, i.e., , which in turn gives P
rx_total
.
5.4 Quality of Service in Interference-based Admission
Control
It is already clear from chapter 5.2 that admission control is necessary to protect ongoing
calls by rejecting the access of new users, if the predicted system load would exceed the
maximum allowable value. Chapter 5.3 presented detailed example strategies to execute
an admission control algorithm in the interference-limited WCDMA. It was concluded in
chapter 5.2 that the total received interference-power based strategy is advantageous.
Nevertheless, irrespective of the admission control strategy the maximum thresholds need
to be set by some means. For instance, in the algorithm of chapter 5.3, the parameter
value P
rx_target
is determined by radio network planning. Selecting the best operating value
for the target is not straightforward for the following reasons: Service patterns,
quantitative and spatial user distributions may be different from cell to cell and cells
themselves exhibit a great deal of variation in the propagation due to different system
noise, shadowing and fast-fading characteristics. That is why the propagation losses
should be confirmed by field measurements. In fact, it is generally difficult to know how
real networks will respond to different thresholds at this relatively early stage of UMTS
deployment. This means that thresholds are likely to have conservative values. Therefore,
it is suggested here that the maximum allowed load of cell should not necessarily be fixed
by network planning but a dynamic method could be used instead.
The basic criterion for setting P
rx_target
is to define the maximum interference level that
can be tolerated by reverse link budgets to permit the network to function correctly. To
prevent the harmful effects of inappropriate thresholds, an approach to adjust the P
rx_target
according to the quality of service is studied here. Quality of service based approach
considers implicitly the loading of all the cells, propagation conditions and mobile user
32
patterns, while using real-time quality monitoring as a tool to determine an effective
threshold value dynamically.
The basic idea of the proposed adaptive algorithm is to constrain the maximum total
interference at the base stations to conform to the propagation conditions and traffic of
cells. If the propagation losses and user power outage probability are smaller than
estimated, the P
rx_target
has been set too low. This is because mobile terminals can
compensate for the propagation loss better than anticipated under high interference. In
this case, the capacity of the system is underestimated and unnecessary blocking occurs
during heavy load situations. On the other hand, if the P
rx_target
has been set too high, the
mobile terminals cannot mitigate propagation channel impairments under high load.
Granting access to new connections can only make the link quality worse for the existing
calls when the system is under congestion. This increases outage probability and leads to
dropping of calls, which degrades the system performance. In this case, quality of service
should be improved and cell coverage should be increased by restricting interference
using a lower P
rx_target
value.
Essentially, the proposed algorithm tries to improve the system performance by
maximizing the capacity, while providing for call quality. This means that the criteria for
evaluating the system performance must be chosen. The performance factors may include
bit error rates (BER), frame error rates (FER), transmission delays, blocking probability,
dropping probability, mean bitrate, total bitrate, average queuing time etc. In this thesis,
three critical QoS metrics are considered as the main quality criteria. These are call
dropping probability, bad call probability and call blocking probability. The call dropping
probability, P
drop
, is the probability that a call that has been admitted will be terminated
prematurely before the call completion. The bad call probability, P
bad
, denotes the
proportion of calls whose frame error rate exceeds the acceptable level for the service.
The probability that a new call is not admitted into the system, P
block
, is called the
blocking probability.
One approach in adjusting P
rx_target
is to try to maximize the capacity, while providing
acceptable QoS to the pre-specified proportion of calls. In this approach, P
rx_target
is
increased if the measured call dropping and bad call probability statistics are lower than
required, and it is decreased if the same statistics are greater than accepted. Clearly,
P
rx_target
should be raised only if good QoS has been observed under heavily loaded
33
conditions. In this thesis, the call dropping and bad call quality are taken into account
along with call blocking by defining the system performance, GoS (Grade of Service), as:
block bad drop
P P P GoS + + 2 10 (Eq. 5-13)
Call dropping has a coefficient of 10, since it is considered much more annoying than a
call blocking. The bad call probability is selected a coefficient of 2. A similar cost
function, but without the bad call term, has been used in [35], [38] and [42]. The cost
function will be minimized on cell basis in the simulations. Thus, the P
rx_target
of cell is
increased if:
> <
et t rx ave rx
et t rx
P P
dP
GoS d
arg _ _
arg _
, 0
) (
(Eq. 5-14)
where the constraint (P
rx_ave
>P
rx_target
) guarantees that the cell is heavily loaded. The
P
rx_target
is decreased if:
> >
et t rx ave rx
et t rx
P P
dP
GoS d
arg _ _
arg _
, 0
) (
(Eq. 5-15)
In the simulations, the derivative of grade of service with respect to P
rx_target
is
approximated by difference quotient. If the derivative cannot be calculated, as is the case
in the beginning of algorithm or when there has not been high load for some time, the
direction of P
rx_target
movement is defined to be determined by the dominating term of
GoS function. That is, when the observed blocking rate is larger than dropping and bad
call rates, the P
rx_target
is raised. On the contrary, if the dropping and bad call terms
dominate in GoS, fewer calls will be accepted by lowering P
rx_target
.
The motivation for the selected optimization method and the expected behaviors of call
dropping, bad call and call blocking probabilities as a function of interference are
illustrated in Figure 5-2. It is assumed in the figure that the offered load is almost
constant and great enough to cause so much interference that it is bounded by P
rx_target
.
When the interference is great, bad call and call dropping probabilities will increase
significantly, and if the interference is forced to be low by small P
rx_target
, the number of
blocked calls will be excessively high. The trade-off between blocking and dropping has
34
been reported in [40] and [43]. Since the GoS function is assumed convex, the P
rx_target
autotuning algorithm should ensure the global minimization of GoS function. In addition,
the algorithm is likely to drive the cell better balanced between blocking and call quality.
The system performance gains with P
rx_target
adaptation feature are evaluated by radio
network simulations in chapter 6.
interference
GoS=10P
drop
+2P
bad
+P
block
P
bad
P
drop
P
block
Figure 5-2 GoS, P
drop,,
P
bad
and P
block
as a function of interference.
It is relevant to note that the P
rx_target
algorithm that is investigated more closely in chapter
6 is performed on cell-basis. This means one potential drawback, since interference
changes of one cell affect also the amount of interference experienced in the neighboring
cells. On the other hand, the bad effects on the other cells should remain restricted
because each cell is optimized independently. Moreover, for additional safety, the
margins within which P
rx_target
is allowed to move can be defined. A restricted interval
guarantees both minimum capacity and coverage. Nonetheless, cell breathing due to
other-cell interference presents a similar problem also in the fixed-interference-threshold
based strategy. The capacity and coverage of cell is always affected by neighboring cells.
A centralized scenario that takes into account other-to-own cell interference effect has
been proposed in the literature[44]. There, a fixed interference-threshold based strategy is
employed, and a user is not admitted in the cell, if it is predicted that acceptance will
increase the interference of adjacent cells above their defined thresholds. This condition is
35
undoubtedly too strict, as it blocks all the calls in the middle cell, if the interference in
any of the neighbors of the middle cell is over the threshold.
Another remark concerns wideband interference power measurements that are used as
input by admission control and P
rx_target
autotuning algorithm. Great care needs to be
exercised, when using observed interference values, since interference exhibits large
random short term variation caused by changing radio propagation conditions, mobile
distribution variation and system implementation details such as power control etc.[45],
[46]. The interference measurement itself is not ideal either. Thus, an appropriate filtering
method and period need to be selected for the measurements to average out the random
effects. For instance, exponential averaging can be used:
1 0 ) 1 (
~
) 1 ( ) ( ) (
~
+ i P i P i P
rx rx rx
(Eq. 5-16)
where P
~
rx
is the smoothed interference value, P
rx
is the latest measurement and is the
forgetting factor.
36
6 Simulations
6.1 Simulation Setup
The goal of the simulations is to study the impact of the suggested P
rx_target
autotuning
algorithm on the system performance and quality of service. The simulations are
conducted by a detailed dynamic system simulator. It includes traffic, mobility and
propagation models that are adopted from [47], and it implements radio resource
management functionality and algorithms described in chapter 4.
Two different scenarios are examined. In the first scenario, pure circuit-switched voice
service is simulated. The purpose of this scenario is to verify the applicability of the
algorithmic procedure. The second scenario considers mixed traffic consisting of high
priority real-time circuit-switched voice traffic and best-effort interactive packet traffic.
Here, the scalability of the autotuning feature for a more complex scheme is investigated.
The proportion of packet users of all the users is 80% in the second set of simulations.
The used traffic pattern of a packet user is typical, for instance, for www-browsing. This
will be described below in detail. Speech bit rate is 8 kbps and packet bit rates are 8, 12,
64, 144 and 512 kpbs.
Real time voice user arrivals are generated according to a Poisson random process with
independent mean call lengths of 120 seconds and with mean activity period of 3
seconds. For packet users, the session arrival is also modeled as a Poisson process. A
packet call consists of a burst of packets with each having short service duration. The
parameters that characterize packet service are: the number of packet calls in a session,
document reading time, the number of packets in a packet burst, interarrival time between
packets within a packet burst and packet size. The packet calls are also referred to as
documents. All of these parameters except packet size are modeled as geometrically
distributed random variables. The model for packet data session has been described in
[17] and [47], and is illustrated graphically in Figure 6-1.
37
the number of packet bursts per session
the interarrival time between
packets within a packet burst
the number of packets
in a packet burst
the interarrival time between
packet bursts
the size of a packet
Figure 6-1 Packet service model.
The packet size is modeled after a modified Pareto probability distribution function:
'
<
+
m x
m x k
x
k
x f
n
,
,
) (
1
(Eq. 6-1)
where m is the maximum allowed packet size, and parameters and k are set to
appropriate values depending on the type of packet traffic. The is the probability that x
m, and it can be calculated straightforward from normal Pareto distribution function
without cutoff, f
x
(x), as follows:
1 , ) ( >
,
_
m
x
m
k
dx x f
(Eq. 6-2)
The average, that is, expected packet size is then calculated as:
,
_
1
) (
m
k
m k
dx x f x
x
(Eq. 6-3)
The values of the used packet parameters are given in Table 6-1.
38
Table 6-1 Packet traffic parameter values.
Mean number of packet calls per session 5
Mean reading time between packet calls in seconds 5
Mean number of datagrams within a packet call 75
Mean interarrival time between datagrams in
seconds
0.0100
k of Pareto distribution 81.5
of Pareto distribution 1.1
Maximum allowed packet size in bytes 66666
Mean packet size in bytes 480
The used propagation model is a subset of a Helsinki scenario with imported propagation
data used for a planning tool. The plan consists of 7 sites and total of 17 cells. The user
arrivals are distributed uniformly over the simulation area and the users move along the
streets.
The simulations are run in a heavy load condition in order to study the quality of service
sensitivity of cells to different P
rx_target
levels. The generated load needs to be high enough
to keep the interference at maximum level, that is, near or above P
rx_target
. This is because
the system performance is sensitive for the admission control thresholds only when
interference is great. Total of 2800 mobile stations are generated for the first scenario and
3000 users for the second scenario, which means that at least some cells should be
congested. The scenario is planned so that the load will not be distributed equally
between the cells.
There are various alternatives for the admission control to operate in the mixed service
case. One way to exploit the difference between the real-time conversational service and
interactive packet service is to prioritize the real-time traffic using resource reservation
policy. In the resource reservation policy, part of the system resources is shared, meaning
that either of the two types of services may use them if they are free. Nonetheless, the
39
conversational service has priority over the interactive service, so that in the case of
contention, resources are assigned to real-time radio access bearers up to a specified
threshold. However, part of the capacity is strictly reserved to the interactive service only
to always provide some quality also for non-real time packet traffic. Resource reservation
policy is described in [48].
Another common scheduling strategy is pre-emption scheme, which is also the admission
control policy selected for the simulations. In the pre-emption scheme conversational
sessions are admitted unless all resources are already used by other conversational
bearers. Interactive sessions get resources only if there is some capacity left over from the
conversational or other circuit-switched sessions. This type of scheduling has been
described in [24] and [48]. The pre-emption policy is depicted in Figure 6-2.
P
rx_target
P
rx_target
P
rx_target
(a) (b)
free resources
packet RABs
CS RABs
Figure 6-2 (a) Pre-emption scheme with low load. Resources are allocated to
CS and packet traffic. (b) Pre-emption scheme with high load. CS traffic has
priority over packet traffic. Note that interference may temporarily exceed the
P
rx_target
.
The core of the autotuning algorithm was described in chapter 5.4. In the simulations,
load limits are adjusted according to the measured quality of service after each simulation
round. The P
rx_target
is initially set 3dB above noise level. It is a conservative value that
40
can been used in a macro environment At each iteration, the number of initiated calls, as
well as the number of dropped, bad and blocked calls are collected on cell basis. The
value of P
rx_target
in a cell is gradually reduced if the load is high and the cost caused by
bad quality and dropping can be decreased more than the cost caused by blocking is
increased. On the other hand, if the load is high and blocking rate cost change dominates
the weighted bad quality and dropping rate cost change, the P
rx_target
will be raised. The
step size for movements of P
rx_targt
is 0.5dB during the first iterations and 0.25dB in the
later phase if the grade of service begins to stabilize.
In the simulations, a connection is considered dropped if consecutive frame errors will
last more than 5 seconds. Moreover, a bad speech call is defined to have mean frame
error rate of more than 2%. Interactive packet calls are not very sensitive to frame errors
and bad packet calls are ignored in the results. Here, for simplicity, a dropped connection
is considered as belonging to all the base stations with which it has soft handover at the
end of call. This is not necessarily a proper assumption in real network, where only the
prevailing cell, that is, the cell with the strongest link should be considered. Of course,
this would require a more complex and heavier implementation of radio network statistics
collection. Moreover, to avoid bias in bad call measurements caused by soft handover, the
statistics should be collected periodically.
The most important simulation parameters can be found in table format in Appendix B.
Many of those parameters are not separately mentioned here but they will all have effect
on the collected quality of service values. Twelve simulations will be conducted for both
scenarios. Each simulation run lasts for 15 minutes simulated time.
6.2 Results
6.2.1 Scenario 1: Speech
Here, the simulation results are given for the first scenario. In Figure 6-3 and Figure 6-4,
the system performance in terms of grade of service, proportion of blocked calls and
weighted bad quality are depicted versus simulation round. Figure 6-3 shows the results
for the overall system and Figure 6-4 for the individual cells.
41
The first observation is that the cells are capable of serving more calls with satisfactorily
quality of service when running the P
rx_target
autotuning algorithm. The defined grade of
service improved significantly and the proportion of blocked calls almost halved after 11
rounds of simulations. The second observation is that the overall system performance is
improved only moderately during the last iterations, and that there remains some quality
and capacity problems at the end of simulations. The main reason for this is the fact that
two cells, 8 and 13, are very heavily loaded. This means that these cells have necessarily
a large number of bad and blocked calls when the load is that high. There does not exist
any single value for P
rx_target
that will perfectly solve quality and capacity problems in
these cells. The considerable quality problems of cells 8 and 13 have much influence on
the overall system performance. However, other cells perform well at the end of
simulations and even the performance of cell 13 is constantly improving. Thus, the
algorithm has not converged after 11 simulations.
One reason that will probably make the final fine tuning difficult is due to the
simplification made when counting bad and dropped calls as explained in chapter 6.1.
That is, the link strength is not properly accounted for when associating bad and dropped
calls with the cells. In any case, it can be seen that the system and the individual cells
behave in a more fair and efficient manner when it comes to quality of service. The
blocking rate has decreased extensively in many of the cells and bad quality has not
increased drastically in any of the cells.
42
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
simulation no
[
%
]
GoS
blocked
10*Pdrop+2*Pbad
Figure 6-3 Grade of Service, proportion of blocked calls and weighted
proportion of bad quality and dropped calls versus simulation round for the
overall system in scenario 1.
0 5 10
0
10
20
0 5 10
0
2
4
0 5 10
0
2
4
0 5 10
0
10
20
0 5 10
0
2
4
0 5 10
0
2
4
0 5 10
0
10
20
0 5 10
0
20
40
60
80
0 5 10
0
10
20
0 5 10
0
2
4
0 5 10
0
2
4
0 5 10
0
10
20
0 5 10
0
20
40
60
80
0 5 10
0
2
4
0 5 10
0
10
20
0 5 10
0
10
20
simulation no
[
%
]
GoS
blocked
10*Pdrop+2*Pbad
cells 116
Figure 6-4 Grade of Service, proportion of blocked calls and weighted
proportion of bad quality and dropped calls versus simulation round for the
individual cells 1-16 in scenario 1.
43
The comparison of P
rx_target
values between the first iteration round and after the last
iteration round is shown in Figure 6-5. The cell loading factor, , which a convenient way
to refer to the utilized capacity, is given in Figure 6-6. The results show that the utilized
capacity has increased significantly in most of the cells and has not diminished in any of
the cells. The maximum interference target has increased in all of the cells.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
cell no
P
r
x
t
a
r
g
e
t
[
d
B
]
in first simulation
after last simulation
Figure 6-5 P
rx_target
movements during the iterations in simulation scenario 1.
44
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
cell no
l
o
a
d
f
a
c
t
o
r
iteration 11
iteration 5
iteration 0
Figure 6-6 Cell loading factor iteration0, iteration6 and iteration11 for
simulation scenario 1.
The mobile transmit power distributions are shown in Figure 6-7. It can be concluded that
the power distribution curve has moved to the right, but that there is no drastic increase in
average transmit powers. Finally, it is examined, with the help of Figure 6-8, where the
quality failures have occurred in the first simulation (picture above) and in the last
simulation (picture below). It can be seen that blocked calls have almost totally vanished
from large areas. The locations where bad and dropped calls are concentrated remain
roughly the same after adjusting P
rx_target
.
45
40 30 20 10 0 10 20
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
0.035
0.04
MS uplink transmission power [dBm]
f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
iteration 11
iteration 5
iteration0
Figure 6-7 Mobile station power distribution for iteration0, iteration6 and
iteration11 in scenario1.
160
140
120
100
80
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
0
500
1000
1500
2000
xcoordinate [m]
y
c
o
o
r
d
i
n
a
t
e
[
m
]
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8 9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
blocked call
bad or dropped call
base station sector
160
140
120
100
80
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
0
500
1000
1500
2000
xcoordinate [m]
y
c
o
o
r
d
i
n
a
t
e
[
m
]
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8 9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
blocked call
bad or dropped call
base station sector
path loss [dB]
path loss [dB]
Figure 6-8 Propagation conditions, base station sectors, bad, dropped and
blocked calls for simulation number 0 (picture above) and simulation
number 11 (picture below) in scenario 1.
46
Generally, the results of the first simulation scenario indicate that the system performance
can be optimized and managed by the dynamic adjustment of P
rx_target
. Moreover, it can
be seen that a better behavior in one cell does not occur at the expense of the adjacent
cells' performance.
6.2.2 Scenario 2: Mixed Case
In the second scenario, a mix of circuit-switched speech and interactive packet traffic was
simulated. Figure 6-9 shows the overall system performance as a function of simulation
round. The performance of the individual cells is illustrated by Figure 6-10. Figure 6-11
shows P
rx_target
changes and Figure 6-12 cell loading factor movements. It can be seen that
the results are similar to the first simulation scenario. The autotuning has improved the
system and cell performance to some degree. The blocking has decreased greatly and the
weighted bad quality (10P
drop
+2P
bad
) has increased only slightly. Consequently, the
defined grade of service is also better after running the autotuning algorithm. The
simulations of scenario 2 support the conclusion that the P
rx_target
autotuning method is
general enough to be applicable and beneficial in various scenarios.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
simulation no
[
%
]
GoS
blocked
10*Pdrop+2*Pbad
Figure 6-9 Grade of Service, proportion of blocked calls and weighted
proportion of bad quality and dropped circuit-switched calls versus
simulation round for the overall system in scenario 2.
47
0 5 10
0
10
20
30
0 5 10
0
2
4
0 5 10
0
2
4
0 5 10
0
10
20
30
0 5 10
0
2
4
0 5 10
0
2
4
0 5 10
0
10
20
30
0 5 10
0
50
100
0 5 10
0
10
20
30
0 5 10
0
2
4
0 5 10
0
2
4
0 5 10
0
10
20
30
0 5 10
0
50
100
0 5 10
0
2
4
0 5 10
0
10
20
30
0 5 10
0
10
20
30
simulation no
[
%
]
GoS
blocked
10*Pdrop+2*Pbad
cells 116
Figure 6-10 Grade of Service, proportion of blocked calls and weighted
proportion of bad quality and dropped circuit-switched calls versus
simulation round for the individual cells 1-16 for scenario 2.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
cell no
P
r
x
t
a
r
g
e
t
[
d
B
]
in first simulation
after last simulation
Figure 6-11 P
rx_target
movements during the iterations in simulation scenario 2.
48
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
cell no
l
o
a
d
f
a
c
t
o
r
iteration 11
iteration 5
iteration 0
Figure 6-12 Cell loading factor iteration0, iteration6 and iteration11 for
simulation scenario 2.
49
7 Conclusions
It was shown in this thesis that by autotuning the maximum received uplink power
threshold the system performance can be improved and managed by network monitoring
and appropriate quality of service statistics. Thus, the autotuning can be useful for the
operators that want to make the optimum use of the scarce resource of spectrum.
Nevertheless, it is difficult to draw a firm conclusion, based on the simulation trials
conducted here, how well the algorithm would behave in real network. In real network,
there exists a greater variety in traffic load, mobile speeds and traffic classes and more
measurement error than in the conducted simulations. Probably, a more advanced
algorithm is needed to account for load variations, soft handover, fast-moving mobiles,
various traffic types and different QoS requirements. However, to be practical the
algorithm should have low complexity of implementation and low volume of control
signaling. If the autotuning is to be employed, great care needs to be exercised to avoid
opening up coverage holes between cells that may arise when the thresholds are moved.
It is also difficult to make a general estimation of how much can be obtained with the
quality of service based threshold autotuning, as the gain depends entirely on the network
characteristics. If network planning and dimensioning can be made accurately, the
maximum interference threshold can be set with confidence. Consequently, in that case,
there is no demand for autotuning. However, the traffic characteristics and radio
environment of real network can be different from those expected. Moreover, in the
beginning phase of the third generation WCDMA networks, the threshold values are
based on small scale simulations and engineering judgment. This could mean that the
thresholds do not have optimal values initially, which gives needs for autotuning. It
should also be remembered that the uplink performance optimization is critical only when
uplink is the limiting link of the network.
Applications emerging from Internet are increasingly capable of defining the required
QoS level. The current trend in UMTS development is toward an all-IP UMTS, which
means that all the circuit-switched transport technologies will eventually be replaced by
packet-switched transport technologies [49]. This development together with the demand
50
for good capacity utilization set a requirement to implement means to monitor and control
the quality of air interface traffic.
Mobile Internet and wide variety of services in the third generation WCDMA mobile
systems make the network resource management very challenging. Because a specific
maximum interference autotuning algorithm depends on the exact details and the desired
behavior of the system, only the core of the algorithm is stated in this thesis. However,
the general concept of the autotuning algorithm is supposed to remain and apply in
different scenarios: The maximum interference threshold can be raised to increase
capacity if the required QoS can be guaranteed, and the maximum interference threshold
can be decreased if QoS and coverage need to be improved at the expense of some
capacity reduction. Further research is obviously required to develop an optimal
algorithm for a specific network.
51
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Appendices:
A. Abbreviations
3G Third generation
3GPP 3
rd
generation partnership project
AC Admission control
BPSK Binary phase shift keying
BS Base station
BTS Base transceiver station
CAC Call admission control
CDMA Code division multiple access
CN Core network
CS Circuit switched
DL Downlink
DS-CDMA Direct sequence CDMA
DS-SS Direct sequence SS
DTX Discontinuous transmission
ETSI European telecommunications standards institute
FDD Frequency division duplex
FDMA Frequency division multiple access
FH-SS Frequency hopping spread spectrum
GGSN Gateway GPRS support node
GMSC Gateway MSC
GPRS General packet radio system
GSM Global system for mobile communications
HC Handover control
HCS Hierarchical cell structure
57
HLR Home location register
HO Handover
IEEE Institute of electrical and electronic engineers
IMT-2000 International mobile telephony 2000
IT Information technology
ITU International telecommunications union
IP Internet protocol
LAN Local area network
LC Load control
ME Mobile equipment
MS Mobile station
MSC Mobile services switching center
MSK Minimum phase shift keying
MUD Multiuser detection
Node B UMTS Base station
PC Power control
PDF Probability distribution function
PLMN Public land mobile network
PN Pseudo noise
PS Packet schduler, Packet switched
PSK Phase shift keying
QoS Quality of service
QPSK Quadrature phase shift keying
RAN Radio access network
RAB Radio access bearer
RNC Radio network controller
RNS Radio network sub system
RRM Radio resource management
RTT Radio transmission technology
58
SDU Service data unit
SIM Subscriber identity module
SIR Signal to interference ratio
SGSN Serving GPRS support node
SHO Soft handover
SMS Short message service
SS Spread spectrum
TDD Time division duplex
TDMA Time division multiple access
TPC Transmitter power command
TS Technical specification
UE User equipment
UL Uplink
UMTS Universal mobile telecommunication system
USIM UMTS Subscriber identity module
UTRAN UMTS Terrestrial radio access network
VcoIP Video conferencing over IP
VLR Visitor location register
VoIP Voice over IP
WCDMA Wideband code division multiple access
WWW World wide web
59
B. Simulation Parameters
Parameter Name Value
Carrier frequency [GHz] 2.0
Bandwidth [MHz] 5.0
Chip rate [kbps] 3840
Propagation Model Subset of a Helsinki Scenario, imported
propagation data
Number of cells 17
Number of operators 1
Number of radio network controllers 1
Terminal speed [km/h] 3
Uplink system noise [dBm] -102.9 (constant)
Maximal MS output power [mW] 125
MS dynamic range [dB] 65
Speech user bit rate [kbps] 8
Packet user bit rates [kbps] 8, 12, 64, 144, 512
Maximum number of terminals in the area (scenario 1: 2800, scenario 2: 3000)
User proportions (scenario 1: 1.0, scenario 2: 0.8 / 0.2)
Call arrival rate [calls/user/hour] 0.004167
Averaging window for Prx [slots] 32 (memoryless filter with forget factor
0.1)
Average speech call length [s] 120
Minimum speech call length [s] 7
Average DTX speech burst period [s] 3
Average packet call length [s] 40
Mean number of packet calls in session 5
Mean thinking time in call [s] 5
60
Mean number of packets in call 75
Average packet interarrival time in call [s] 0.0100
Maximum packet size [bytes] 66666
Average packet size [bytes] 480
Maximum active set size in SHO 3
Addition window in SHO [dB] 1
Drop window in SHO [dB] 3
Outer loop power control step size [dB] 0.3
Dropped call criteria Consecutive erroneous frames over 5
sec
Bad call criteria FER-rate over 2 % over the whole call
Outerloop PC FER threshold for speech [%] 1
Initial SIR threshold at base station [dB] 6.5
Mobile station power control step [dB] 1