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Balkanski Ratovi
Balkanski Ratovi
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that differ in mass. They have the same number of protons and electrons but have a different mass which is due to the number of neutrons. 1. All radio isotopes have a particular kind of radiation emission 2. Energy and mass are equivalent (Einstein) higher mass, higher energy 3. All radio nuclides have a characteristic energy of radiation 4. All radio nuclides possess a characteristic rate of decay 1 mole of X has 6.025 x 1023 atoms one gram of 14N has (14 g/mole) 6.025 x 1023 atoms/mole * 1 mole/14g = 4.3 x 1022 atoms/g Avogadros # = # of molecules in one gram molecular weight of any substance. Dealing with reactions in the outer ring that compromise and produce chemical reactions. __________________________________________ atomic mass units charge (amu) __________________________________________ proton 1.007594 + electron 0.000549 neutron 1.008986 none __________________________________________
14C
6 8
6 Protons- Atomic Number (determines what the element is) 8 Neutrons 14 P+N = Atomic Mass
Isotope (of a given element) same atomic number, different atomic masses (different # of neutrons)
14
6C
12
6C
235
92U
238
92U
Stable Isotope Non-Radioactive Isotope (not decomposing) Radioisotope or Radionuclide unstable isotope that spontaneously decays emitting radiation Radioactive decay: not affected by temperature or environmental conditions
222 Rn 86
Radionuclides which emit alpha are changed into another nuclide with a mass of 4 units less and 2 fewer protons Three sheets of paper are sufficient to stop alpha radiation. When an alpha particle loses energy it attracts electrons and becomes a neutral helium atom. Not used in plant biology and soil studies. 2. Beta "negatron" (high neutron:proton ratio, originates from the nucleus like alpha) neutron in the nucleus changes to a proton, increasing the atomic # by one.
32 P 15
--->
32 S+ 16
B- + e- + v(+1.71 Mev)
3. Beta "positron" (low neutron:proton ratio, comes from the nucleus which has too many protons) proton in the nucleus changes to a neutron, decreasing the atomic number by one.
30 P 15
--->
30 Si 14
+ B+ + e+ + v(+3.3 Mev)
Definitions
Exposure R (roentgen): Amount of charge produced per unit mass of air from x-rays and gamma rays. Absorbed Dose rad: Amount of Energy deposited per unit mass of material. 1Gy = 100 rad. Dose Equivalent rem: Risk adjusted absorbed dose. The absorbed dose is weighted by the radiation type and tissue susceptibility to biological damage. 1 Sv = 100 rem.
Radiation weighting factors: alpha(20), beta(1), n(10). Tissue weighting factors: lung(0.12), thyroid(0.03), and gonads(0.25).
500 mrem per year (10%) 500 mrem per 9 months 100 mrem per year
Half-Life
1.00
Half-life is the amount of time needed for the activity to reach one half of the original amount.
t T1/2
0.80
lt
ln ( 2 ) T1/2
0.60
One half-life
0.40
Two half-lives
0.20
1 2
0.007
0.00
20
40
60
80
100
Days
Chemical vs Nuclear
Six Differences between nuclear reactions and chemical reactions. Nuclear Reactions Chemical Reactions 1. Protons and neutrons react inside nucleus. 2. Elements transmute into other elements. 1. Electrons react outside nucleus. 2. The same number of each kind of atom appear in the reactants and products.
5. Energy changes equal 10^8 kJ. 5. Energy changes equal 10 - 10^3 kJ/mol.
Link:
In a nuclear reaction, we have to balance both mass and proton number. Transmutation: changing one element into another
35 17Cl 16S
32
Chemical reactions involve changes in the outer electronic structure of the atom whereas nuclear reactions involve changes in the nucleus
B. Photons (a quantum of radiant energy) 1. Gamma, does not have a mass (electromagnetic radiation with the speed of light) is not a mode of radioisotope decay but rather associated with particulate emission. can penetrate inches of lead
60 Co 27
---> 6028Ni
+ B-
Radio isotope decay schemes result in transmutation of elements that leave the nucleus in a suspended state of animation. Stability is reached by emitting one or more gamma photons.
2. X-ray emitting by electron capture (too many protons and not enough neutrons) emitted when cathode rays of high velocity fall directly on a metallic target (anticathode) in a vacuum tube. highly penetrating electromagnetic radiation (photons) with a short wavelength. identical to gamma rays if their energies are equal electron from K ring is pulled into the nucleus chain reaction of K ring pulling electron into K from L and so on. emission as an x-ray is external to the nucleus (come from the outer shell of the atom) 3. Cosmic radiation (radiation from outer space) mixture of particulate radiation (neutrons) and electromagnetic radiation.
A. All nuclei > 84 protons are unstable (the nucleus gets too big, too many protons)
B. Very Stable: Atomic Number 2, 8, 20, 50, 82 or 126 C. Isotopes with Proton=Neutrons are more stable 80 unstable
Belt of stability
# of neutrons
unstable # of protons
Fission: Splitting the Nucleus to Release Energy and Sub Atomic Particles
U, Th, Pa, U, Th, Ra, Rn, Po, Pb, Bi, Po, Pb, Bi, Po, Pb
+ 10n 146C + 11H (14C being produced all the time in the upper atmosphere)
14 7N
14
6C
Living Tissue
Dead Tissue
14C/12C<
14C/12C
tissue
atmosphere
Fusion: Making hydrogen atoms combine resulting in released energy -no remnant radioactivity -no atmospheric contamination 2 H + 3 H ---> 42He + 10n 1 1 deuterium tritium (alpha) 2 gallons of tritium would provide the U.S. with energy for 1 year if fusion were feasible. Sustained fusion requires 40,00,000K Our Sun: = 73%H, 26%He Fission: "Splitting atoms -results in the production of radioactive materials 235 U + 1 n ---> 97 Kr + 13856Ba +10n + energy 92 0 36
235 U 92
+ 10n --->
90 Sr 38
138 Ba 56
is a fission fragment
Strictly chance of actually knowing what we will have as products from the bombardment of 23592U with neutrons.
235 U "controlled 92 238U accounts for
reaction that is a chain reaction" using uranium rods 99.3 percent of the uranium found on earth 235 U is used for fission, because it splits easier. 92 neutrons emitted in fission can produce a chain reaction Nuclear fission taps about 1/1000 of the total possible energy of the atom
Preferential accumulation of Fe earth , older stars Consider Star: H He Li Fe (most stable, stops)
http://ie.lbl.gov/education/isotopes.htm http://user88.lbl.gov/NSD_docs/abc/home.html
ZE
1 H 1
4 He 2
E- element m mass z - atomic number (# of protons in the nucleus) All hydrogen atoms have one proton __________________________________________ 1 H 2 H 3 H 1 1 1 __________________________________________
stable
stable radioactive deuterium tritium mass = 1 mass=2 mass=3 no neutron 1 neutron 2 neutrons 1 proton 1 proton 1 proton 1 electron 1 electron 1 electron __________________________________________ 12 C 13 C 14 C 6 6 6 __________________________________________ stable stable radioactive mass=12 mass=13 mass=14 6 neutrons 7 neutrons 8 neutrons 6 protons 6 protons 6 protons 6 electrons 6 electrons 6 electrons __________________________________________
Radiation Units/Definitions: _____________________________________________________ erg: work done by a force of one dyne acting through a distance of 1 cm. = 1.0 dyne/cm of 1.0 g - cm2/sec2 dyne: force that would give a free mass of one gram, an acceleration of one centimeter per second per second Curie: amount of any radioactive material in which 3.7 x 1010 atoms disintegrate (decay or loss of radioactivity) per second. 1 Bq (becquerel) 1 dps 1 uC = 3.7 x 104 dps 1 mC = 3.7 x 107 dps = 2.22 x 109 dpm 1 C = 3.7 x 1010 dps = 2.22 x 1012 dpm Rad = 100 ergs/g absorbing material (quantity of radiation equivalent to 100 ergs/g of exposed tissue).
(30 year half life) and 9038Sr (28 year half life) were the major radioactive isotopes of concern in that accident
55Cs
Curie: measure of total radiation emitted Rad: measure of the amount of energy absorbed
Production Methods: 1. Particle accelerators 2. Nuclear reactors 3. Atomic explosions Mass Energy Equivalents:
E = MC2 1 amu = 1.66 x 10-24 g = reciprocal of Avogadro's #
E = energy (ergs) M = mass (grams) C = velocity of light (cm/sec) = 186000 miles/sec = 3 x 1010 cm/sec
E = (1.66 x 10-24 g) (3 x 1010 cm/sec)2 =1.49 x 10-3 ergs = (1.49 x 10-3 ergs)/(1.6 x 10-6 erg/Mev) = 931 MeV
Calculate the amount of energy in 1 gram of 235U? 1g/235g/mole x 6.025 x 1023 atoms/mole x 0.215amu/atom x 931MeV/amu
= 5.12 x 1023 MeV = 2.3 x 1014 kilowatt hours (12 years of electricity for 1 household) 1 kilowatt hour = 2.226 x 109 MeV only 1/5 or 0.215 of 235U is converted to energy (split)
_________________________________________________________________ * - naturally occurring @ - characteristic of the majority of radioisotopes used in biological tracer work
Measurement: Ionization takes place in an enclosed sensitive medium between two oppositely charged electrodes (ionization chambers, Geiger-Muller) Systems that do not depend on ion collection but make use of the property that gammaray photons (also alpha and beta) have for exciting fluorescence in certain substances (scintillation) Ionizing radiations affect the silver halide in photographic emulsions which show a blackening of the areas exposed to radiation (autoradiography)
Geiger-Muller Counters
Under the influence of an applied field, some of the electrons move towards the anode and some of the positive ions towards the cathode.
Charges collect on the electrodes and initiate pulses; a continuous stream of these pulses constitute a weak electric current. Charge Separation: Ar0 Ar+ + ePut cathode and anode into the gas (+ heads to anode and the heads to the cathode) creates a current
When certain materials (zinc sulfide) are exposed to gamma photons or particulate radiation they emit scintillation's or flashes of light.
The scintillation's are produced by a complex process involving the production of an excited (higher energy) state of the atoms of the material. When the orbital electrons of these atoms become de-excited, the excess energy is then given off in an infinitely small time as a flash of light (scintillation). Autoradiography: Becquerel (1895) found that uranium ore fogged photographic plates Ionizing radiation induces a latent image in photographic emulsion which on development is revealed through developed silver halide grains Radiation Levels: Limits: 1/10 Rad/week X-ray (dentist) 1-5 rads 0-25 rads no injury 25-50 rads possible blood change, shortened life span 50-100 rads blood changes 100-200 definite injury (possibly disabled) 200-400 definite disability, possible death 400-600 50% chance of dying >600 assured fatal