QUANTITIES, UNITS, AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

Most engineering problems are solved using mathematical approaches. Mathematics is, in fact, one of the primary disciplines necessary to becoming an engineer. One of the first and most important aspects of understanding engineering problems and models is thus to understand the nature of different mathematical quantities. In general, mathematical quantities can be grouped into three main categories: Variables quantities that vary within a given problem. Parameters quantities which are fixed for a given physical system, but which may change from problem to problem. Constants quantities that do not vary from problem to problem. Variables are often further categorized as independent or dependent. Independent variables are those that can be arbitrarily designated within a problem. The most common independent variables are time or spatial location. Other common independent variables might be pressure, temperature, etc. Dependent variables are usually dependent upon at least one independent variable. Independent variables may take on any value spanning the problem of interest. Generally, although not always, it is dependent variables that are solved for when searching for a problem solution. Parameters can either be single-valued or multi-valued, however, they should be known, or at least have known relationships with other quantities. For example, if a given system can be treated as isothermal, temperature would be a parameter fixed in a given problem, but variable from problem-to-problem. Also, if a known fluid is specified for a given problem its viscosity would be a parameter, even if allowed to vary with pressure and temperature. The parameter in this case would be the functional relationship of viscosity as a function of pressure and temperature. Sometimes parameters are solved for in a problem. Parameters are sometimes subdivided as to: a) design parameters (those that may be fixed or altered by the designer), and b) descriptive parameters (those that describe a given system, but are out of the control of the designer).
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Both variables and parameters may be stochastic, that is, they could have a probabilistic representation. Some parameters that remain the same from system to system are treated as constants. For example, the acceleration due to gravity is essentially the same over the surface of the earth and for most problems may be treated as a constant. However, should the problem move to the moon, gravitational acceleration would have to be treated as a parameter. Other constants, such as pi and the speed of light, are true constants that never vary. Any given quantity can be a variable, parameter, or constant depending on the particular problem. Specification of an engineering quantity typically includes: a) definition, b) symbol, c) value(s), and d) units.

Symbols
In general, all symbols used in equations, figures, and tables should be defined upon their first use in any written document. If it is necessary to use the same symbol with two different meanings, both must be defined. Greek letters are often used for certain quantities. A list of Greek letters is given in Table 1.

Table 1:

Alphabetic list of Greek symbols. Last column is the English typing key. a b g d e z h q iota kappa lambda mu nu xi omicron pi i k l m n x o p rho sigma tau upsilon phi chi psi omega r s t u f c y w

alpha beta gamma delta epsilon zeta eta theta

Standard symbols used in petroleum engineering can be found in the SPE Letter and Computer Symbols Standard (1993).
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Dimensions and Units

In engineering, the value of a quantity is not completely specified without units. In petroleum engineering, two different unit systems are used: a) what is sometimes referred to as oilfield (or English) units, and b) SI units. SI (which stands for Le System International dUnits or The International System of Units) is a standardized metric system that has been adopted by the Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) and other engineering societies. The SI system of units and its relationship with oilfield units is discussed in detail in two articles from the Journal of Petroleum Technology (Campbell and Campbell, 1985). A partial list of units conversions is also included in this document. The complete units standard is available in the Petroleum Engineering Handbook (1987) or can be obtained from the SPE for a nominal charge. Dimensions define the fundamental units from which others are built. The ones of most importance in petroleum engineering are summarized in Table 2. Table 2: Dimensions and units generally used in petroleum engineering. Dimension Symbol L m t T n q Oilfield Unit ft lbm s R lbmol C SI Unit m kg s K kmol C

Dimension Length Mass Time Temperature Amount of substance (moles) Electrical charge

The following sections discuss the units of specific types of quantities commonly encountered in petroleum engineering applications. Mass [m] and Force [mL/t2] The relationship between mass and force units is one that is sometimes difficult to resolve. However, there are some very simple things to remember that can prevent difficulties. Units of force are derived from the basic units of mass, length, and time through Newton's Second Law of Motion:
F = ma
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where, m a F = = = mass [m] acceleration [L/t2] force [mL/t2]

Although different people look on the force units conversion problem differently, it is perhaps easiest and simplest to consider that we should always write Newtons Second Law should be written as F= ma gc (2)

where g c is a units conversion factor to convert units of mL/t2 to the desired force unit. (i.e., g c it effectively has units of mL/t2F, even though force is not a fundamental unit.) In English units, there are two units of mass: the slug and the pound-mass (lbm). There are also two units of force: the pound-force (lbf) and the poundal (pdl). If one pound-mass is accelerated in a standard gravity (a=g=32.1740 ft/s2), the resulting force is one pound-force (lbf). This, in fact, is the definition of the pound-mass. Therefore, for this case, gc=32.1740 lbmft/s2lbf. If mass is in slugs, then gc=1 slugft/s2lbf. If force is in poundals, gc=1 lbmft/s2pdl or 0.0310810 slugft/s2pdl (0.0310810=1/32.1740). Pounds-mass and poundals are sometimes referred to as a fundamental set of units since gc has a numerical value of one. Slugs and pounds-force are also a fundamental set of units. Thus, applying Eq. 2 to one pound mass: (1 lbm)(32.1740 ft s 2 ) F= = 1 lbf (32.1740 lbm ft s 2 lbf ) or F= (1 lbm)(32.1740 ft s 2 ) = 32.1740 pdl (1 lbm ft s 2 pdl) (4) (3)

A pound-mass thus weighs 1 lbf or 32.1740 pdl. The conversion factor between pounds-force and poundals is then 32.1740 pdl/lbf. A poundal is a very small force. Picture in your mind picking up something that weighs a poundal (about half an ounce).
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Applying Newtons Second Law to one slug: F= or (1 slug)(32.1740 ft s 2 ) F= = 1035 pdl (0.031081 slug ft s 2 pdl) (6) (1 slug)(32.1740 ft s 2 ) = 32.1740 lbf (1 slug ft s 2 lbf ) (5)

A slug therefore weighs just over 32 lbf and over 1000 pdl. Try to picture in your mind picking up a slug. The conversion factor between slugs and lbm is 32.1740 lbm/slug. In the SI system of units a Newton (N) is the force required to accelerate one kilogram at one m/s2. Therefore, g c =1 kg m/s 2 N . Note that g=9.80665 m/s 2 (32.1740 ft/s2 0.3048 m/ft) . Another unit of force often used by international engineers is the kilogram-force (kgf). With this force unit, gc=9.80665 kgm/s2kgf. Applying Newtons Second Law to a kilogram: F= or F= (1 kg)(9.80665 m s 2 ) = 1 kgf (9.80665 kg m s2 kgf ) (8) (1 kg)(9.80665 m s 2 ) = 9.80665 N (1 kg m s2 N) (7)

Therefore a kilogram weighs slightly less than 10 N and exactly 1 kgf. The conversion factor between newtons and kilograms-force is then 9.80665 N/kgf. The conversion between kilograms and pounds-mass is 2.204662 lbm/kg. Likewise, one kilogram-force is equal to 2.204662 lbf. The conversion from lbf to Newtons is thus 4.448222 N/lbf. A Newton is equivalent to just under 1/4 of a pound or about 3-1/2 oz. A metric ton (sometimes written as tonne) is equal to 1000 kg or 2204.662 lbm. A good rule-of-thumb is that a metric ton is approximately 10% larger than a U.S. (short) ton. The U.K. (long) ton is just slightly larger than a metric ton.

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In CGS units, the unit of mass is the gram (g), while the unit of force is the dyne. Likewise, g=980.665 cm/s2 and g c =1 g cm/s 2 dyne or 980.665 gcm/sec2/gmf. A dyne is 10-5 N, a very small force. Density [m/L3] The gram unit was originally defined based on the density of water at a standard temperature and pressure. The standard of mass today, however, is the mass of a standard international prototype of the kilogram. A common way of expressing densities is with what is called specific gravity, defined to be the density of a substance divided by the density of water at some standard temperature and pressure. Specific gravity is roughly, but not exactly, equal to density in g/cm3. Oilfield densities are usually measured (or at least adjusted to) one standard atmosphere pressure and 60F, and referenced to water at one atmosphere and 60F. The notation 60/60F specifies a density measured at 60F and referenced to water at 60F. The density of water at one atmosphere and 60F is 62.368 lbm/ft3 or 999.04 kg/m3. A density of 1000 kg/m3 is equivalent to 62.428 lbm/ft3 or approximately 350 lbm/bbl or 8.35 lbm/gal. In oilfield applications liquid (especially oil) densities are usually reported in API, defined by the American Petroleum Institute as ( is specific gravity 60/60F): API = or 141.5 131.5 (9)

141.5 131.5 + API

(10)

A specific gravity of one (water) corresponds to 10API. An oil with a gravity of 30API has a specific gravity of 0.876, slightly lighter than water. Oil densities measured at temperatures other than 60F are generally adjusted to 60F using thermal expansion coefficients recommended by the API given in Table 3 using the following formula:

(60) = (T ) exp [ (T 60) ]

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where (60) is the specific gravity at 60F, (T) is the measured specific gravity at temperature T in F, and is the isobaric thermal expansion coefficient in F-1. Table 3: Recommended thermal expansion coefficients to correct API gravities to 60F (Petroleum Production Handbook, 1962). Isobaric API Gravity Thermal Expansion Range at 60F Coefficient (10-4F-1) 0 14.9 3.5 15.0 34.9 4.0 35.0 50.9 5.0 51.0 63.9 6.0 64.0 78.9 7.0 79.0 88.9 8.0 89.0 93.9 8.5 94.0 100.0 9.0

Gas gravities are similar to specific gravities except that they are divided by the density of air at standard conditions. Since most gases behave nearly like ideal gases at standard temperature and pressure, gas gravity is usually calculated by dividing the apparent (molar-weighted average) gas molecular weight by the apparent molecular weight of air, 28.9625 (Engineering Data Book, 1987). Pressure [m/Lt2] Somewhat related to force units are pressure units, which are force/area or m/Lt2. In English units, the standard unit of pressure is lbf/in2 sometimes written as psi. One standard atmosphere (atm) is 14.69595 psi. The SI unit of pressure is the Pascal (Pa) which is a N/m2 or kg/msec2. There are 6894.757 Pa/psi, making the Pascal a very small unit of pressure. More commonly used is the kiloPascal (kPa) or megaPascal (MPa). There are 101.325 kPa in a standard atmosphere. A megaPascal (MPa) is approximately 145 psi. A bar is exactly 100 kPa. One atmosphere is thus 1.01325 bar. Another commonly-used unit of pressure is the dyne/cm2, which is equal to 0.1 Pa (a very small pressure).

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It is often important to distinguish between what are termed gauge and absolute pressures. Absolute pressures are measured on the basis of zero pressure being a perfect vacuum. Absolute pressures are almost always required for calculation purposes, e.g., in gas law calculations. However, pressures are typically measured as gauge pressures (gauge pressures are cheaper and easier to measure), where zero is equal to the ambient atmospheric pressure. In other words, pabsolute = pgauge + patmospheric . Thus, in absolute terms, zero gauge pressure changes as the barometric pressure ( patmospheric ) changes. For engineering calculations an approximate atmospheric pressure of 14.7 psia is often used. In English or oilfield units, gauge and absolute pressures are distinguished as psig and psia, respectively. However, in SI it is not appropriate to append a g or a to the end of the unit, so gauge or absolute pressure must be clearly stated. For pressure differences, it does not matter whether gauge or absolute pressures are used, so long as they are consistent. In oilfield or English units, pressure differences are usually written as simply psi. Atmospheric pressure should never be confused with standard pressure, although the two are often nearly the same numerical value. Remember that atmospheric pressure changes with time and location as the barometric pressure changes. Mother nature sets the value of atmospheric pressure. This is usually called the barometric pressure. Barometric pressure is often report in in. of mercury. The density of mercury at 20C is 13,546.2 kg/m3, which results in a conversion factor of around 0.489 psi/in.Hg. However, standard pressure is a regulated pressure, set as a standard by some regulating organization or by mutual agreement. In the US, absolute pressure varies from state-to-state (set by state legislatures) and is sometimes defined in contractual agreements. Table 4 lists some standard pressures in the U.S.

Table 4: Standard pressures in the U.S. (McCain, 1990: accuracy not guaranteed). Standard Pressure (psia) 14.65 14.73 14.85 15.025

State AK, AZ, AR, FL, IL, IN, KS, KY, NY, OH, OK, PA, TX CA, MI, ND, SD, U.S. Federal WVa AL, CO, LA, MS, MT, NE, NM, UT, WY
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In most international operations, standard pressure is one standard atmosphere or 101.325 kPa (14.696 psia). Sometimes 1 bar or 100 kPa (14.504 psia) is also used. Temperature [T] Temperature scales are of two types, relative and absolute. The English relative scale is F, while the SI relative scale is C. The centigrade scale was originally based on 0C being the freezing point of water at one atmosphere pressure and 100C being the boiling point of water at one atmosphere pressure. The Fahrenheit scale is based on 32F being the freezing point of water and 212F being the boiling point of water. Since the difference between the two standard values is 180F and 100C, respectively, a change of 1C is equivalent to a change of 1.8F. However, since these are relative scales, there is also a scale shift of 32F. Therefore in terms of temperature readings:
F = 1.8 C + 32

(12)

For use in most engineering calculations, an absolute temperature scale is usually required. The gas law, for example, requires temperature in absolute units, where zero absolute temperature corresponds to thermodynamic zero. In English units, the absolute temperature scale is Rankine (R). In SI units, the absolute temperature scale is Kelvin (K). The official definition is that 1 K is 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water. A temperature change of 1 R is exactly the same as a temperature change of 1F. Likewise, a temperature change of 1 K is exactly the same as a temperature change of 1C. Therefore 1 K is equivalent to 1.8 R. Absolute zero is 273.15C or 459.67F. These values are added to the respective relative scales to get an absolute temperature. In all of the U.S., standard temperature is 60F (519.67 R). In SI units, 15C (59F or 288.15 K) is usually used for standard temperature, although 20C (68F or 293.15 K) is also sometimes used. Energy [mL2/t2] and Power [mL2/t3]

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Units of energy are force times length. English units of energy are the ftlbf (foot pound) or the btu (British Thermal Unit). A btu is roughly equal to the energy required to raise one lbm of water 1F. There are 778.16 ftlbf/btu. The SI unit of energy is the joule (J) equal to 1 Nm. In CGS units, energy is given in ergs which equal a dynecm. An erg is 10-7 J. There are 1055 J/btu (a good ruleof-thumb is 1000). Power is the rate of application of energy, having units of energy per time. In English units, the common power unit is horsepower (hp). There are 33,000 ftlbf/minhp. The standard SI unit of energy is the watt (W) equal to one J/s. Think about a 100 W light bulb. There are 2.928 10-4 kWhr/btu. There are 745.7 W/hp. Electrical Properties The SPE uses the charge unit as the fundamental electrical unit. The coulomb (C) is the basic charge unit, with the following common quantities developed from the coulomb: Electric current (ampere) Voltage (volt) Electric resistance (ohm) Electric capacitance (farad) Electric inductance (henry) Moles [n] A mole of a substance is defined to be an amount of the substance having a mass numerically equal to one molecular weight. Because of this definition, equal numbers of moles of all substances have equal numbers of molecules (this is known as Avogadros number). Carbon-12 is defined to have a molecular weight exactly equal to 12. [In tables of molecular weights, carbon is listed as having a molecular weight of approximately 12.01. This is because naturally occurring carbon is approximately 99% of the isotope carbon-12 and 1% carbon-13.] The conversion between the mass of a substance and the number of moles is then its molecular weight. Thus, carbon-12 has a molecular weight of A = C/s [q/t] V = W/A [mL2/qt2] = V/A [mL2/qt2] F = As/V = C/V [q2t2/mL2] H = Vs/A [mL2/q2]

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12 g/gmol, 12 kg/kmol, 12 lbm/lbmol, etc. Conversions between different mole units is exactly the same as the corresponding mass unit conversion. Avogadro's number is equal to 6.0231023 molecules/gmol, 6.0231026 molecules/kmol, or 2.7321026 molecules/lbmol. Viscosity [m/Lt] In oilfield units viscosity is usually expressed in centipoise (cp), which is 0.01 poise. In some English unit applications viscosity units of psis, lbm/fts, or lbfs/ft2 are also sometimes used. In SI units the fundamental viscosity unit is the mPas, which is exactly equivalent to a cp. Table 5 gives unit conversions among various viscosity units.

Table 5: Conversions for various viscosity units. To Obtain Multiply cp or mPas lbfs/ft 1 2.088543E-05 cp or mPas 4.788026E+04 1 lbfs/ft2 6.894757E+06 1.440000E+02 psis 1.488164E+03 3.108100E-02 lbm/fts
2

psis 1.450377E-07 6.944444E-03 1 2.158403E-04

lbm/fts 6.719689E-04 3.217400E+01 4.633056E+03 1

Permeability [L2] The basic unit of permeability is the darcy, which is defined based on Darcys law (see Conversions section below), although in most oilfield applications the millidarcy (md), which is 0.001 darcies, is usually used. Permeability is fundamentally a L2 unit. In SI it is expressed in m2, which is 10-12 m2. The conversion between oilfield and SI units is 1013.25 md/m2. For practical purposes a darcy and a m2 are essentially the same. Miscellaneous Constants and Conversion Factors There are a few common conversion factors utilized in the petroleum industry that should be committed to memory. One important one is the conversion from bbl to ft3: 5.6146 ft3/bbl. Another important conversion is from ft2 to acres: 43,560 ft2/acre. The constant 7758 that appears in reservoir volumetric calculations is the conversion from acre-ft to bbl, (43,560 ft2/acre)/(5.6146 ft3/bbl).
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The standard density of water should also be committed to memory: 62.4 lbm/ft3, 8.34 lbm/gal, and 350 lbm/bbl. The universal gas constant, R, can be thought of as either having units of energy/moletemperature or pressurevolume/moletemperature. The dimensions of R are mL2/nt2T. Common values of the universal gas constant are: R = 10.7315 psia ft 3 lbmol R ft lbf = 1545.3 lbmol R btu = 1.98586 lbmol R

(18)

in SI units, R = 8.31441 kPa m3 kmol K kJ = 8.31441 kmol K

(19)

Unit Prefixes Often units are preceded by a symbol to designate an appropriate power of ten to be appended to the number. For example, 3.5103 Pa can be written as 3.5 kPa, with the unit prefix k indicating a factor of 103. Table 6 gives unit prefixes typically used in both oilfield and SI unit systems. Table 6: Multiplication Factor 10-9 (nano) 10-6 (micro) 10-3 (milli) 103 106 109 1012 (tera)
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Unit prefixes Oilfield Prefix SI Prefix n m k (kilo) M (mega) G (giga) T

M (thousand) MM (million) B (billion)

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Unit Conversions Even many experienced engineers have difficulty with the use and conversion of units. This problem seems to be particularly troublesome in petroleum engineering because of the many non-standard units used in the discipline. Often equations are given in textbooks only in oilfield units. When trying to use other units or trying to use combinations of equations, problems often arise. This write-up will contain a few simple rules to avoid common pitfalls. Conversions of numbers from one set of units to another is usually fairly straightforward. A technique which has been taught for many years to engineering students is to place units conversion factors above and below a horizontal line and canceling units until the desired set is achieved. The following is an example showing how to convert from psi to kPa.
2 ft 1 lbf 12 in 4.448 N m Pa kPa = 6.895 kPa 2 in ft lbf 0.3048 m 1N 1000 Pa 2 2

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Dealing with units in equations always seems to create difficulties. However, if one rule is remembered, this can be done easily and correctly: Convert numbers, not equations! The best way to show this is by example. Consider Darcy's law in steadystate linear form: q= where, q k A p L = = = = = = flowrate, cm3/sec rock permeability, darcies cross-sectional area to flow, cm2 flowing pressure difference, atm fluid viscosity, cp flow length, cm kAp L (14)

Since this is the defining equation for the darcy unit of permeability, the equation is in what is usually termed consistent units. Always start the units conversion process with an equation that is dimensionally consistent!
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If this equation was desired to be in oilfield units, one of two things could be done. Either the field-unit quantities could individually be converted to the above units every time the equation was used, or the equation itself could be converted by deriving a constant that was the product of all the individual conversion factors for each individual quantity. This can be done by first converting each quantity from field units to the consistent units in the original equation: cm3 bbl 5.6146 ft 3 30.48 cm d q = q sec d bbl ft 86,400 sec
3

[ k darcies] = [ k md ]

darcy 1000 md
2

2 2 30.48 cm A cm = A ft ft

[ L cm] = [ L ft ]

30.48 cm ft atm 14.696 psi

[ p atm] = [ p psi ]

Substituting the above right hand sides for the left-hand sides in Eq. 14, then,

[ q bbl d ]

(5.1646)(30.48)3 (86, 400) (15)

A ft 2 [ k md ] (30.48) 2 [ p psi ] = (1000)(30.48)(14.696) [ cp ] [ L ft ] Grouping the constants, q= where, q k A p = = = = flowrate, bbl/d permeability, md cross-sectional area to flow, ft2 flowing pressure difference, psi 1 kAp 887.23 L

(16)

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= =

fluid viscosity, cp flow length, ft

Likewise in SI units (try it for practice): q = 0.086400 where, q k A p = = = = = = flowrate, m3/d permeability, m2 cross-sectional area to flow, m2 flowing pressure difference, kPa fluid viscosity, mPas flow length, m kAp L (17)

Significant Figures
When presenting the value of a quantity, it is important to display an appropriate number of significant digits to reflect the accuracy and/or potential use of that number. In general a reader will assume that the number of digits implies the accuracy to which the number is known. For example, a number such as 12.73 implies accuracy somewhere in the fourth digit, i.e., 0.01 or thereabouts. Remember two basic rules for significant digits: 1) trailing zeros are significant (e.g., 9,843,300 is seven significant figures), 2) leading zeros are not significant (e.g., 0.000043 is two significant figures). Be particularly cognizant of significant figures in computer applications. Just because the computer can calculate a large number of significant digits does not mean all should be reported. Make certain that every number presented reflects appropriate significant figures. Use scientific notation where necessary and/or appropriate.

References
Campbell, J.M. and R.A. Campbell: Application of the SI Metric System: Part I The Basic System, J. Pet. Tech. (Aug. 1985) 1415-1419; Trans. AIME (1985). Campbell, J.M. and R.A. Campbell: Application of the SI Metric System: Part I The Basic Units, J. Pet. Tech. (Oct. 1985) 1801-1805; Trans. AIME (1985). Engineering Data Book Volume II, Gas Processors Suppliers Association (1987) 23-2.
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McCain, W.D., Jr.: The Properties of Petroleum Fluids, PennWell Publishing Co., Tulsa, OK (1990). Petroleum Engineering Handbook, H.B. Bradley (ed.), Society of Petroleum Engineers, Richardson, TX (1987). Petroleum Production Handbook, T.C. Frick (ed.), Society of Petroleum Engineers, Richardson, TX (1962) 16-8 (API Standard 2500, 1955). SPE Letter and Computer Symbols Standard, Society of Petroleum Engineers, Richardson, TX (1993).

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Table 6: Common oilfield and SI units.

Quantity Mass Moles Force Length Area Volume - liquids Volume - gases Pressure Temperature Flowrate - liquids Flowrate - gases Viscosity Permeability

Fund. Symbol Units Oilfield Units m m lbm n n lbmol 2 F mL/t lbf L L ft A L2 acres V L3 bbl 3 V L ft3 p m/Lt2 psi T T R 3 q L /t bbl/d 3 q L /t ft3/d m/Lt cp 2 k L md

SI Units kg kmol N m m2 m3 m3 kPa K m3/d m3/d mPas m2

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Table 7: Summary of important units conversion factors. SI Mass Length Area Volume Temperature 1 kg 0.3048 m 4,046.873 m2 1 m3 1K K = C+273.15 C = (F-32)/1.8 Pressure 6.894757 kPa 1 MPa 101.325 kPa 1 bar = 100 kPa Dynamic viscosity Density Water density @ 60F/1 atm Energy 1 mPas 1000 kg/m3 999.04 kg/m3 1.055056 kJ 1 kWh 745.700 W kPa m3 8.31441 kmol K kJ 8.31441 kmol K 28.9625 kg/kmol kg m 9.80665 2 s kgf 1 m2
2 2

Oilfield 2.2046225 lbm 1 ft 1 acre = 43,560 ft2 6.2898106 bbl 1 bbl = 5.614583 ft3 1.8 R R = F+459.67 F = 1.8 C+32 1 psi 145.03774 psi 1 atm = 14.69595 psi 14.503774 psi 1 cp 62.42797 lbm/ft3 8.345405 lbm/gal 62.368 lbm/ft3 1 btu 3412.14 btu 1 btu=778.169 ftlbf 1 hp=550 ftlbf/s psia ft 3 10.7315 lbmol R btu 1.98586 lbmol R 28.9625 lbm/lbmol lbm ft 32.1740 2 s lbf 1013.25 md

Power Universal gas constant

Molecular weight of air Gravitational conversion constant Permeability

m mPa s ft 2 cp 1 m = 0.0864 158.0206 md = 1 d kPa d psi bbl cp 887.220 md = 1 ft d psi

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