Alain J.

Brizard Saint Michael's College

Lagrangian Mechanics
1 Principle of Least Action

The conguration of a mechanical system evolving in an n-dimensional space, with coordinates x = (x1 ; x2 ; :::; xn), may be described in terms of generalized coordinates q = (q1 ; q2; :::; q k ) in a k -dimensional conguration space, with k < n . The Principle of Least Action (also known as Hamilton's principle) is expressed in terms of a function L(q ; q _ ; t) known as the Lagrangian, which appears in the action integral A[q ] =
Z tf
ti

_ ; t) dt; L(q; q

(1)

where the action integral is a functional of the vector function q (t), which provides a path from the initial point q i = q (ti) to the nal point qf = q (tf ). The variational principle
" !# Z tf d @L d @L j 0 = A[q ] = A[q + q ] = q dt; d ti @ qj dt @ q _j =0

where the variation q is assumed to vanish at the integration boundaries (q i = 0 = qf ), yields the Euler-Lagrange equation for the generalized coordinate qj (j = 1; :::; k) d dt

@L @q _j

@L ; @ qj

(2)

The Lagrangian also satises the second Euler equation d @L L q _j dt @q _j

!

@L ; @t

(3)

and thus for time-independent Lagrangian systems (@L=@t = 0) we nd that L q _ j @L=@ q _j is a conserved quantity whose interpretation will be discussed shortly. _ ; t) is dictated by our requirement that The form of the Lagrangian function L(r ; r Newton's Second Law m r = r U (r; t) describing the motion of a particle of mass m in a nonuniform (possibly time-dependent) potential U (r ; t) be written in the Euler-Lagrange form (2). One easily obtains the form L(r ; r _ ; t) = m 2 jr _ j U (r; t); 2 1 (4)

which is simply the kinetic energy of the particle minus its potential energy. For a timeindependent Lagrangian (@L=@t = 0), we also nd that the energy function r _ m 2 @L L = jr _ j + U (r) = E; @r _ 2

is a constant of the motion. Hence, for a simple mechanical system, the Lagrangian function is obtained by computing the kinetic energy of the system and its potential energy and then construct Eq. (4).

Examples

The construction of a Lagrangian function for a system of N particles proceeds in three steps as follows. Step I. Dene k generalized coordinates fq1 (t); :::; q k(t)g that represent the instantaneous conguration of the system of N particles. Step II. Construct the position vector ra (q; t) and its associated velocity va (q ; q _ ; t) = for each particle (a = 1; :::; N ). Step III. Construct the kinetic energy _ ; t) = K (q ; q 1 X _ ; t)j 2 ma jv a (q; q 2 a
k X @ra @ ra + q _j @t @q j j=1

and the potential energy U (q; t) for the system and combine them to obtain the Lagrangian L(q; q _ ; t) = K (q; q _ ; t) U (q ; t); from which the Euler-Lagrange equations (2) are derived.

2.1

Example I: Pendulum

Consider a pendulum composed of an object of mass m and a massless string of constant length ` in a constant gravitational eld with acceleration g .

Although the motion of the pendulum is two-dimensional, a single generalized coordinate is needed to describe the conguration of the pendulum: the angle measured from the negative y-axis (see Figure above). Here, the position of the object is given as x() = ` sin and y () = ` cos ; with associated velocity components _) = ` _ cos and y _) = ` _ sin : x _ (; _ (; Hence, the kinetic energy of the pendulum is K = m 2 _2 ` ; 2

and choosing the zero potential energy point when = 0 (see Figure above), the gravitational potential energy is U = mg` (1 cos ): The Lagrangian L = K U is, therefore, written as _) = m `2 _ 2 mg` (1 cos ); L(; 2 and the Euler-Lagrange equation for is @L _ ! d = m`2 _ dt @
!

@L = m`2 _ @ @L = mg` sin @

or

+ g sin = 0 `

2.2

Example II: Bead on a Rotating Hoop

Consider a bead of mass m sliding freely on a hoop of radius R rotating with angular velocity !0 in a constant gravitational eld with acceleration g .

Here, since the bead of the rotating hoop moves on the surface of a sphere of radius R, we use the generalized coordinates given by the two angles (measured from the negative z -axis) and ' (measured from the positive x-axis), where ' _ = !0 . The position of the bead is given as x(; t) = R sin cos('0 + !0t) ; y(; t) = R sin sin(' 0 + !0t); z (; t) = R cos ; where '(t) = '0 + !0 t and its associated velocity components are _ ; t) = R _ cos cos ' !0 sin sin ' ; x _ (; _ ; t) = R _ cos sin ' + !0 sin cos ' ; y _ (; _ ; t) = R _ sin ; z _ (; so that the kinetic energy of the bead is
2 _ ) = m jv j 2 = m R _ 2 + ! 2 sin2 : K (; 0 2 2 The gravitational potential energy is

U ( ) = mgR (1 cos ); where we chose the zero potential energy point at = 0 (see Figure above). The Lagrangian L = K U is, therefore, written as
2 _) = m R _ 2 + !2 sin2 mgR (1 cos ); L(; 0 2

and the Euler-Lagrange equation for is @L d 2 _ = mR ! _ dt @

@L = mR2 _ @ @L = mgR sin @ 2 + mR2 !0 cos sin

or

g 2 + sin !0 cos = 0 R

2.3

Example III: Rotating Pendulum

Consider a pendulum of mass m and length b attached to the edge of a disk of radius a rotating at angular velocity ! in a constant gravitational eld with acceleration g .

Placing the origin at the center of the disk, the coordinates of the pendulum mass are x = a sin !t + b cos y = a cos !t + b sin so that the velocity components are _ sin x _ = a! cos !t b _ cos y _ = a! sin !t + b and the squared velocity is _2 + 2 ab ! _ sin( !t): v2 = a2!2 + b2 Setting the zero potential energy at x = 0, the gravitational potential energy is U = mg x = mga sin !t mgb cos : 5

The Lagrangian L = K U is, therefore, written as

h i _ ; t) = m a 2!2 + b2 _ 2 + 2 ab ! _ sin( !t) L(; 2 mga sin !t + mgb cos ;

(5)

and the Euler-Lagrange equation for is @L _ + m ab ! sin( !t) ! = mb2 _ @ ! d @L + m ab ! ( _ !) cos( !t) = mb2 _ dt @ and or @L _ cos( !t) mg b sin = m ab ! @

+ g sin a !2 cos( !t) = 0 b b We recover the standard equation of motion for the pendulum when a or ! vanish. Note that the terms [(m=2) a 2!2] and [ mga sin !t] in the Lagrangian (5) play no role in determining the dynamics of the system. In fact, as can easily be shown, a Lagrangian L is always dened up to an exact time derivative, i.e., the Lagrangians L and L0 = L + df=dt, where f (q; t) is an arbitrary function, lead to the same Euler-Lagrange equations. In the present case, f (t) = [(m=2) a2! 2] t + (mga=! ) cos !t and thus this term can be omitted from the Lagrangian (5) without changing the equations of motion.

2.4

Example IV: Compound Atwood Machine

Consider a compound Atwood machine composed three masses (labeled m1 , m2, and m3 ) attached by two massless ropes through two massless pulleys in a constant gravitational eld with acceleration g . The two generalized coordinates for this system (see Figure) are the distance x of mass m1 from the top of the rst pulley and the distance y of mass m2 from the top of the second pulley; here, the lengths `a and `b are constants.

The coordinates and velocities of the three masses m1 , m2, and m3 are x1 = x ! v1 = x; _ x2 = ` a x + y ! v 2 = y _ x; _ x3 = `a x + `b y ! v3 = x _ y; _ respectively, so that the total kinetic energy is m1 2 m2 m3 K = x _ + (y _ x _ )2 + (x _ +y _ )2 : 2 2 2 Placing the zero potential energy at the top of the rst pulley, the total gravitational potential energy, on the other hand, can be written as U = g x (m1 m2 m3 ) g y (m2 m3) ; where constant terms were omitted. The Lagrangian L = K U is, therefore, written as m1 2 m2 m3 L(x; x; _ y; y _) = x _ + (x _ y _ )2 + (x _+y _ )2 2 2 2 + g x (m1 m2 m3 ) + g y (m2 m3) : The Euler-Lagrange equation for x is @L = (m1 + m2 + m3 ) x _ + (m3 m2) y _ ! @x _ ! d @L = (m1 + m2 + m3) x + (m3 m2 ) y dt @ x _ @L = g (m1 m2 m3 ) @x 7

while the Euler-Lagrange equation for y is @L = (m3 m2) x _ + (m2 + m3) y _ ! @y _ ! d @L = (m3 m2 ) x + (m2 + m3 ) y dt @ y _ @L = g (m2 m3) @y or (m1 + m2 + m3 ) x + (m3 m2) y = g (m1 m2 m3 ) (m3 m2) x + (m2 + m3) y = g (m2 m3)

Symmetries and Conservation Laws

The Noether theorem states that for each symmetry of the Lagrangian there corresponds a conservation law (and vice versa). When the Lagrangian L is invariant under a time translation, a space translation, or a spatial rotation, the conservation law involves energy, linear momentum, or angular momentum, respectively. When the Lagrangian is invariant under time translations, t ! t + t, the Noether theorem states that energy is conserved, dE=dt = 0, where E = dq @L L _ dt @ q

denes the energy invariant. When the Lagrangian is invariant under spatial translations or rotations, ! + , the Noether theorem states that the component p = @L @ q @L = @ _ @ @ q _

of the canonical momentum p = @L=@ q _ is conserved, dp =dt = 0. Note that if is a linear spatial coordinate, p denotes a component of the linear momentum while if is an angular spatial coordinate, p = L denotes a component of the angular momentum (with denoting the axis of symmetry about which is measured).