CAPACITY TO SOLITUDE AS A LEADERSHIP META-COMPETENCE

One is free only when one is alone

Schopenhauer

Undoubtedly leadership behavior and effectiveness is strongly related to leaders traits and the dynamic process of their psychological functioning. As Warren Bennis said (2003 p. xxix & xxxiii) : Leaders are made, not born and made more by themselves than by any external means No leader set out to be a leader for you but rather to express him / herself freely and fully. Becoming a leader is synonymous with becoming yourself.. the leaders work is inner work. Manz by developing the concepts of self leadership and inner

leadership describes some quite important dimensions of the leaders inner work (Manz 1986 & 2001). Kets de Vries (2001, p53) suggests that each leader adopts a particular leadership style and develops certain competencies (but not others) because of his or her inner theater. Inspite of the significant progress that has been made in leadership theory, Pratch and Levinson (2002) are right in arguing research that by neglecting important issues concerning the personality, fails to address the relationship between overt, easily observed traits, behaviors and decisions styles of executives and their inner worlds. In practice, Kets de Vries maintains that many executives dont pay much attention to their inner world. So if we want to go deeper into our understanding of the leadership phenomenon, we have to investigate and invent new unexplored paths. For example, trait theories have to examine the psychological functioning as a dynamic process in order to provide insights into the integrity of personality and the cohesion of an individuals value system (Pratch and Levinson 2002). We have to explore more the soul, the heart, the mind and the unconscious and irrational behaviors of the leaders (Kets de Vries, 2001). We have to answer why some people dispose specific competencies as for example, passion, edge, energy, focus, vision, integrity, courage, values, ideas, self-awareness, or emotional intelligence, and why others do not. Which process

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of the inner theater and which inner disciplines lead to the development of these competencies? In the present paper, we will try to contribute to the understanding of the inner world of the leader by using the concept of solitude which up to now is neglected / ignored by the leadership research and literature. Solitude is a vital social phenomenon, a familiar positive experience for anyone, we discussed in popular discourse, in poetry, music and literature. Solitude is a positive experience as opposed to the negative experience of loneliness, its painful nature and its contribution to psychological disorders such as schizophrenia and depression (Long and Averil 2003, Burke 1991). As Paul Tillich said our language has widely sensed the two sides of being alone. It has created the world loneliness to express the pain of being alone and it has created the world solitude to express the glory of being alone. The French writer Collette (1966) wrote: there are days when solitude is heavy wine that intoxicates you, others when it is a bitter tonic and still others when it is a poison that makes you beat your head against the wall (Colette 1966 p.p 139). Historically, solitude has been associated with beneficial outcomes. Religious leaders, Moses, Buda and Jesus as well as famous writers, Thoreau, Kafka and other scientists have experienced solitude in their adventures creation (Storr 1997). For example, Pablo Picaso said that without great solitude no serious work is possible, Thomas Edisson said: The best thinking has been done in solitude, Goethe said one can be instructed in society but can only be inspired in solitude and Enstein said: I live in that solitude which is painful in youth but delicious in the years of maturity. The Wall Street Journal (year 1996) NBC News found that 31% of US residents wanted more time to be alone, whereas only 6% wanted less (Crossen 1996). Additionally, the Wilderness Act of 1964 (USA public law 85577) recognized the importance of solitude as a soul phenomenon (Long and Averil 2003). References to solitude exist among organizational leaders. C. Handy (1995) sustains that a leader must have the capacity of being alone, because he has to be out front. Few will thank the leader when things go right,

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but many will blame the leader if things go wrong. Great leaders have to walk alone from time to time. Collins Powel said: H. Truman was right. Whether you are CEO or the temporary head of a project team, the buck stops here. You can encourage participative management and bottom-up employee involvement, but ultimately the essence of leadership is the willingness to make tough unambiguous choices that will have an impact on the fate of the organizations. Even as you create an informal, open, collaborative culture, prepare to be lonely.

In the literature of psychology, leisure and natural resources, there are enough studies that support either with concepts or with empirical evidences the positive effects of solitude. Here, we will use concepts and arguments from all these studies with the purpose of shading at the leadership phenomenon. To be specific, we will try to support that the capacity of solitude constitutes a leadership meta-competence, that is a competence which enables or facilitates the development of observed personality traits of the leader, such as willpower, self-confidence, courage, integrity, self-awareness, envisioning, creativity. Frankly speaking, we have to point out that in any case we dont believe that we can give answers to such a chaotic phenomenon. Our purpose is to set up some questions by searching propositions concerning the positive effects of solitude on leaders being and doing by transferring knowledge from other disciplines. This, we hope to contribute to the opening of the discussion on leaders solitude which could help enrich the leadership paradigm and mainly the leaders inner world.

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The Solitude Concept

Before we examine the solitude concept, it is useful, for understanding its meaning, to define loneliness. Loneliness is the generalized lack of satisfying personal, social or community relationship. It is an enduring condition of emotional distress that arises when a person feels estranged, misunderstood or rejected by others or lacks appropriate social partners for desired activities that provide social integration and opportunities for emotional intimacy (Anderson 1998). Solitude is quite opposite to loneliness. In the natural and leisure literature, the concept of solitude is almost exclusively grounded in spatial privacy, crowding and encounter norms. From this perspective solitude is defined as physical isolation, seclusion and withdrawal or the ability of the individual to control what, how and to whom information about self is communicated (Hollenhorest and Jones 2001). Within the philosophical and psychological framework, solitude is viewed as starving for independence and detachment from social constraints, norms and expectations. Koch (1994) identifies three features associated with solitude: physical isolation, social disengagement and reflection. Long and Averil (2003) conceptualize the solitude as a state of relative social disengagement usually characterized by decreased social inhibitions and increased freedom to choose ones mental and physical activities. Such state is typically experienced when a person is alone. However aloneness is not a necessary condition of solitude. Individuals can also experience the solitude in the presence of others, without any social interaction (as when dining alone in a restaurant or dancing in crowds.) Hollenhorst and Jones (2001), give a teleological definition which completes the previous. For them, solitude is psychological detachment from society for the purpose of cultivating the inner world of the self. It is an act of emotionally isolating oneself for self-discovery, self-realization, meaning, wholeness and heightened awareness of ones deepest feelings and impulses. It implies a morality that values itself at least occasionally, as above the common good.

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According to the previous meanings and definitions, the main features of solitude are: a) Solitude is a psychological state and mental experience. b) Solitude is a temporary withdrawal or social disengagement. c) Solitude is an individual choice (voluntary and desirable) and not a social imposed or enforced state. d) Loneliness is enabler and not a necessary condition for solitude.

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The positive effects of solitude

Despite the fact that research on solitude is limited, there are enough studies searching its positive effects on the soul, the heart and the mind of the individual. In the area of naturalistic studies, solitude is viewed as a state of contemplative reflection and is related to mental and emotional health. Hammit (1982) has identified a number of cognitive benefits in wilderness privacy such as cognitive freedom, self-evaluation, personal autonomy, self-identity,

emotional release and reflective thoughts. Hollenhorest and Jones (2001) have argued that solitude as a psychological detachment from society, serves two primary functions: 1) affirmation of individual will and self determination, and 2) cultivating the inner world of the self. In this way, wilderness solitude contributes to the search of meaning, happiness, self-awareness and emotional maturity. In the humanistic field, Emerson (1883, p40) suggested that solitude was not for the rare individual, but the democratic right of each individual to seek their own potential. He believed that solitude is related to the inner world of self-reliance and ingenuity. According to the Existential Approach, solitude represents an experience of discovering the personal truth and the reason of being. Kierkegaard (1994, p20), observes that human being consists of three basic dimensions: aesthetics, ethics and religious. Among these three

dimensions, aesthetics is connected with the search of pleasure and material goods hiding at the same time passive alienation and a feeling of loneliness. As most existentialists, he considers this form of existential solitude as an inevitable condition (treaty) of life which is tightly connected with the experiences and the questions that we put regarding life and death. Solitude constitutes a situation at which - through a process of searching for the "truth" of existence - we discover what we really are. For Heidegger (1968), the meaning of solitude has a positive dimension and constitutes one existential (ontological) necessity. He develops the idea that peoples life is authentic and integrated only when one makes his choices and acts by having conscience of its

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freedom, responsibility and solitude. On the contrary, when the individual allows others to determine the values and limits within which he will move, then meaning and authenticity are being lost in his life. Moustakas (1961, p102),

presents a phenomenological perspective of solitude: solitude constitutes the ideological "shelter" and the situation at which the individual is found during the process of recognition and acceptance of existence discriminating from others in order to live authentically and be effective in his relations with them. The individual enters in a situation of solitude when he feels the need to make the right choices or review some aspects of his life. According to this point of view, solitude does not constitute simply a normal side of life but a necessity for authentic communication and overall development of existence. Through solitude the individual achieves the deepening integration and ego, by

discovering and determining the values and the meaning of his existence with regard to others. One dimension of solitude that is pointed out by this researcher and presents particular interest is the aloneness that is experienced as a "peaceful" situation and as an opportunity for the individual to wonder about harmony in life, about relations with others and as an inner process helping the individual facing all questions that concern human existence. Mertons (1968) opinions also point towards this direction. In a very rational way, he stresses mainly the transcendence reached during solitude: the person who is afraid to stay alone, is confronted by loneliness, even if he is surrounded by other persons. On the other hand the person who is in a state of solitude and deep thinking and learns to live peacefully through his experience comes closer to God.

Storr (1997), realizes that in our modern society we overestimate social relationships as a source of happiness and we underestimate the importance of the inner mind of the individual over from the influence of external attachment. He argues that the capacity of imagination and creative achievement hold central place in the inner world of mind. He believes that the capacity to be

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alone is one aspect of an inner security and solitude is a mean of becoming aware of ones deepest needs, feelings and impulses, of self-discovery and selfrealization. For this reason he proposes that capacity to be alone is considered as a criterion of emotional maturity equally important to the capacity of the individual to make social relationships. Recently, psychologists believe that solitude provides an opportunity to engage in self selected activities relatively free of social encumbrances and expectations (Burger 1998, Larson 1990). They argue that we need time alone as a relief for reflection and insight and a change for personal, spiritual and mental health, self-restoration, personal growth and creative development. (Burke 1991, Suedfeld et al 1982, Maslow 1970, Leary et al 2003, Burger 1995, Koch 1994). Koch identifies five benefits of solitude: Freedom from social norms and constraints that control interpersonal life, b) attachment with self, c) attunement with nature, d) reflection including introspection, recollection, contemplative analysis, and e) creativity. Long and Averil (2003), sum up the benefits of solitude in four fields: First, freedom of choice with respect to actions and thoughts. They distinguish between negative and positive freedom. Negative freedom is freedom from constraints, while positive is the freedom to engage in desired activities. Second, solitude contributes to creativity. They argue that solitude facilitates the imaginative involvement in multiple realities, self-transformation by selfexamination and creative reconceptualization of self and the reconstitution of cognitive structures by the emergence of new conceptual associations and combinations. Third, and as if paradoxical, they argue that solitude implies intimacy by involving feelings of connection with another person. Fourth, solitude enhances spirituality, ones ability to contemplate ones place in the universe and ones thoughts or desires. Spirituality is also closely related to the feeling of intimacy or connectedness to others and to the world. Long and associates (2003 b), by investigating undergraduate volunteer students, found that solitude is related to important cognitive and emotional issues such as problem solving, inner peace, self discovery, creativity, intimacy and spirituality.

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From the above mentioned literature we could drawn the following conclusions concerning the positive effects of solitude. First, the positive effects of solitude could be identified at the level of mental and psychological state: freedom, inner peace, inner security, intimacy and spirituality. Second, the above states facilitate the cognitive and emotional functioning process such as, self discovery, self-evaluation, self-determination, reflection, imagination, creative thinking, making choices, learning and connecting with others. In general from the literature on natural sciences philosophy and psychology as well as practical of important people who have contributed to the evolution of mankind, poets, authors composers, scientists etc, we can conclude that solitude can help in cultivating several types of intelligence as described by Gardner and mainly logic-mathematical, interpersonal and existential intelligence. (Gardner 1999, 2003).

. H. Gardner, Intelligence reframed: Multiple Intelligence for the twenty first century. Basic Book 1999. H. Gardner, changing Minds, HBSP 2003.
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The dynamics of leadership and the positive effect of solitude

The scientific knowledge accumulated from studies in social sciences on the leadership phenomenon is enough to form a big picture of the emerging leadership paradigm in the sense of transformational (Burns 1978, Bass 1985, Tichy & Devanna 1986), charismatic (House & Howell 1992, Conger & Kanungo 1987), visionary (Bennis & Nanus 1985) and value based leadership (House et al 1997). Despite the theoretical and methodological weaknesses that characterize each one of these leadership approaches, all together allow us to identify the fundamental parameters or the main parts which compose the leadership effectiveness puzzle (Figure 1). Undoubtedly, a leaders results concerning the present and future of his followers, the organization, its stakeholders, the society and himself is the raison d etre of the leadership (Urlich et al 1998). These results (that leaders have to achieve) are related to the leaders doing, that is the leadership behavior as content (what leaders do, leadership roles, generic leadership functions) and as character (how leaders act, styles, specific behaviors, manners, House & Aditya 1997). The leaders doing is a function of the leaders being, that is the leaders personality (traits, needs, values, skills, etc) House et al consider as axioms: that we do things because of who we are, because by doing them we establish and affirm an identity for ourselves, at times even when our behavior does not serve our materialistic or pragmatic self-interests (House et al 1997). Surely, the leadership as a social phenomenon does not take place in a vacuum. Thus the tree fundamental previous parameters (results, doing, being) and the relationships between them are related to contextual or situational factors which are studied in the contingency leadership theories (Fiedler 1971, Blanchard & Hersey 1982, Vroom & Vetton 1973). The research and empirical evidence for all these parameters and their relationships are necessary and precious for understanding the leadership phenomenon. But, further to all these, leadership dynamics are fed by the

inner theater (or of becoming) of the leader. The psychological states and

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the inner cognitive and emotional process, although considered in most leadership studies as a black box, constitute a very important relations mediator between leader being, leader doing and leader context situation. A leaders be defines his psychological state and his inner process which in turn define the leaders being and his development evolution. For example, the

cognitive resource theory (Fiedler and Garcia 1987) supports that stress, as a psychological state of a leader, mediates the correlations of performance with intelligence and experience. The inner processes influence leadership behavior as content and as character and are being together defined by them. Also the psychological state and the inner process define the context and the situation of the leader (how he perceives, understands, etc.). Assuming that thoughts can form an abstract drawing of leadership, then based on this framework we can approach the relation of solitude with leadership and its positive effects. (See Figure 1).

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Figure 1:The Leadership Dynamics

ENVIRONMENT, CONTEXT, SITUATION

THE LEADER BE Traits, needs, values, knowledge, skills

THE LEADER INNER THEATER

Psychological states

Cognitive and emotional processes

THE LEADER DO Roles, functions Behaviors, style, manners

THE LEADER EFFECTIVENESS - RESULTS

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According to what has been discussed, solitude constitutes a psychological state which can positively affect a leader s inner cognitive and emotional processes and through these affect a leader is being and doing as well as in a leaders subjective context or situation. So the capacity to be alone constructively could be a leadership meta - competence which supports the development or full utilisation of a leaders observed competencies and traits. By combining

literature on leadership and solitude, we will try to identify the positive effects of solitude on leadership in the following three fields:

Leaders self-leadership Leaders creative thinking and tough decisions taking Leaders empathy and connecting with others

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Solitude and Self-leadership

According to Value Based Leadership Theory, that integrates five prominent theories of leadership (transformational, charismatic, visionary, LMP and path goal theories) leaders infuse collectives, organizations and work with ideological values by articulating an ideological vision, a vision of a better future to which followers are claimed to have moral right. They are characterized by a passionate commitment to their vision and values, self-confidence, strong conviction in the moral correctness of their beliefs, a sense of responsibility disposition, integrity, a concern for others and for consequences of theirs own actions and critical self judgment. In addition and as enablers of the above appear to be leadership traits or competencies such as self-awareness, internal locus of control, emotional stability and maturity, emotional and social intelligence (House & Aditya et al 1997, House et al 1999, Yukl 2004, p175.) Lately special emphasis is given to a leaders ability t execute and achieve results, which requires willpower, energy, focus, persistence, courage and edge (Bruch & Ghosal 2004, Ulrich 1998, Tichy 1998). All these competencies are linked directly or indirectly to the self leadership processes included the learning process. It is true that he that would govern others first should be master of himself (Phillip Massinger in Covey 2004, p65). Also it is true that leaders work is inner work, a work that the leader does within him or herself by the dynamics of cognitive processes (De Vries 2001, Manz 1986).. As we have mentioned, each leader adopts a particular style and develops certain competencies because of his or her inner theater. If we wish to analyze solitude as a leadership meta-competence we have to identify its positives effect at least on some of all these cognitive processes. Authentic leadership begins with knowing yourself deeply (Drucker 1999). Leaders must struggle with their identities: what type of leader am I, what do I want my legacy to be, what values do I want to ensure or embody in my business (Tichy 1997). Kets de Vries (2001) suggests that healthy people have the

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capacity for self observation and self analysis and they are highly motivated to spend time on self reflection. Self awareness, as a deep understanding of ones emotions, strengths, weakness, limitations and ones values and motives is considered as fundamental dimension of emotional intelligence. Solitude, by creating the states of dissociation, freedom, inner peace, inner security and spirituality facilitates the process of introspection of search and understanding of the deeper genuine self. In solitude, leader can listen his inner voice, to connect with himself at a deeper level, to find his own heart, to understand his soul, his deepest or hidden desires, emotions, feelings and impulses. It is easier for him to search for the meaning of life, his place in the universe and the legacy he wishes to live behind. Coleman and his associates (2002 p40) maintain that perhaps the most strong (though least visible) sign of self-awareness is a propensity for self-reflection and thoughtfulness. Self-aware people typically find time to reflect quietly often by themselves. Many outstanding leaders in fact bring to their work life the thoughtful mode of self-reflection that they cultivate in their spiritual life. For some this means prayer or meditation for others its a more philosophical quest for self-understanding. Storr suggested, that by extracting us from our customary social and physical contexts or at least altering our experience of them, solitude can remove those people and objects that define and confirm our identities and facilitate self-examination, reconceptualization of the self and coming to terms with change. Through these quest and self-discovery, the leader defines and realizes his own identity, acquires a sense of his destiny, a sense of purpose and meaning that he wants most to pursue in and through his life. Thus, he understands and keeps alive the answers to fundamentals questions such as who am I, where do I come form, where do I want to go. Through this introspection, self-analysis and selfreflection the leader creates the necessary background to make fundamental choices and commitments concerning his values, his vision and his goals which form a source of will power the force behind energy and focus (Bruch and Ghoshal 2004). William George, former chairman and CEO of Medtronic,

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supports this argumentation: Self-awareness and other emotional intelligence skills come natural to some less so to others but these skills can be learned. One of the techniques I found most useful in gaining deeper self awareness is meditation.I have meditated 20 minutes, twice a day ever since. Meditation makes me calmer, more focused and better able to discern whats really important. Leaders by the very nature of their positions are under extreme pressure to keep up with the many voices clamoring for their attention. Indeed many leaders lose their way. It is only through a deep self-awareness that you can find your inner voice and listen to it. (Voices: HBR Summer 2004)

First, solitude facilitates a leader to find his voice which is absolutely critical to becoming an authentic leader (Kouzes and Posner, 2003, p147). Leader, in solitude, by listening to his inner voice, establishes or revitalizes his values, something that ichy (1998) considers as ne of the most crucial and toughest jobs of the leader. Establishing values is not a matter of instant discovery and process. It needs a continuous reflection and interpretation of the leaders external and internal world. The leader has often to confront dilemmas, doubts, conflicts and competing values and goals. According to cognitive dissonance theory, individuals experience anxiety-inducing cognitive dissonance when their self-evaluative cognitions and behavior are in conflict with each other (Festinger 1998). Leaders must go through an act of inner consensus building in which they resolve their own conflicts. Bruch and Ghoshal (2004) state that many managers report a disconnection between their feelings and their rationally developed goals. In this case, strong psychological conflicts and a sense of discomfort result, blocking purposeful action. Therefore leaders have to align their emotions and thoughts about their values and goals. The authors suggested specific strategies for this alignment which require an inner work of the leader which is facilitated during a state of solitude. Specifically they suggest: freeing yourself of external expectations such as taking some time off work to think and reflect which can help you pinpoint out your hidden emotions and

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honestly answer for your self what course you wish take. Secondly, the leader based on the above in a state of solitude, finds it easier to conceive and formulate vision for a better future which will express his aspirations, his hopes and his dreams and will incorporate his values. More precisely, solitude is necessary for the process of visualization through which the leader could simplify, his vision into a vivid mental picture.his process of mental imaging is very useful, if not necessary, because the clearer and more vivid his picture, the stronger his passion and personal commitment (attachment) to his vision. Besides that, the leader needs vivid mental picture since this facilitates

communication, understanding and acceptance of his vision by his followers. Experienced top athletes, consider the mental imagery very contributing to their success and they practice it usually (Feltz and Landers 1983). O Koesten baum (2002, p79), maintains that visioning means to be at home on the infinity of inner space and time. Solitude may help to achieve access to and control over inner space and time. Visioning is the ability to shift from the natural to the reflective attitude from being who you are to reflecting who you are, from acting out who you are to observing and evaluating who you are, from seing the world from within your subjective ego to seing yourself objectively within the world, from acting to examine your action. (p 80). Visioning is enhanced by an attitude of non attachment, of being detached from emotional identification with the issues of hand. Non attachment is a fundamental skill required for the creation of visionary leadership intelligence (Koestenbaum, 2002, p180). Thirdly, solitude reinforces a leaders focus and commitment to goals and long term objectives by simplifying them into a vivid mental picture and by intentional channeling all activities toward achieving the desired goal. Bruch and Ghosal (2004) suggest that focus requires time to reflect regularly on your own behavior and being willing and able to choose what you do and not do each day. Apart from that solitude helps leaders manage their peinful emotions and inner tensions which may decrease their energy, their focus and commitment to vision and goals. Heifetz & Linsky (2002 p 204) suggest that the leader has the

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need of a sanctuary, a place of reflection and renewal, where he can listen to himself and reaffirm his deeper sense of self and purpose. In turbulent seas of a change initiative, you need to find ways be steady and stabilize yourself. First, you must establish a safe harbor where each day you can reflect on the previous days journey, repair the psychological damage you have suffered renew your stores of emotional resources and recorientate your moral compass. Harbor might be a physical place, such as the kitchen table of a house, or a regular routine such a daily walk through the neighborhood (Heifetz and Linsky, 2002). Bruch and Ghosal (2004), found that effective leaders know exactly how to process their painful emotions and inner tensions. Most of them could name certain activities that help them cope with their strong emotions. One manager told us about his garden which had a strong stabilizing effect on him. During difficult periods, he spent long hours there, often talking to himself, about what bothered him. He knew that gardening would restore his inner balance so that could plan his next steps. The same authors stress that a leader by reflecting and visualizing his former success and the ways in which he overcome certain obstacles, can reinforce his self-confidence, his sense of competence and strengthen his courage. Storr (1997, p19) states that the capacity to be alone is one aspect of an inner security. Koestenbaum (2002) states to be courageous is to be prepared for the isolation of leadership (p139). Courage requires inner security. You must have power that comes from being comfortable with isolation so that you will be centered enough to wait patiently for results(p 150). Fourthly, leader in a state of solitude through introspection, selfdiscovery and self-management, finds it easier to realize and clarify his concern about meeting moral standards and obligations to others and his concern about consequences of his own action. This contributes to what Winter and Barembaum call responsibility disposion which according to House and others (1997) should be predictive of a leaders integrity.

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Fifth, by facilitating the reflection as conscious act, solitude can contribute to the learning process and to a leaders self development. Initially, through self awareness process and the formation of the ideal self, he realizes the gap which according to Senge (1990) is a source of creative tension for personal development. Also solitude facilitates the cognitive processes which are created by conscious thinking of his experiences, and rolling them over in his mind in order to draw lessons from them. Storr feels that thinking is predominantly a solitary activity although others may be present when an individual is concentrating upon his thoughts (Storr 1997, p28). Besides that, solitude contributes to the articulation of a leaders stories through which he understands better himself, he learns and he teaches his followers. (Tichy, 1997). In according to the above mentioned ideas, solitude contributes positively to the cognitive processes through which the leader acquires his self-identity, self-awareness and forms his values, his vision and his priorities then we can assume that indirectly i.e through these processes, observed leaders, trait such as willpower, passion, self-confidence, strng conviction for his beliefs, courage, persistency, determination, focus, consistency, integrity, emotional stability and emotional intelligence are influenced.

Solitude, creating thinking and making choices

Leaders have to generate ideas, to make choices and decisions in order to realize vision and achieve outstanding results. They have to think big, to think new, to think ahead. They have to generate ideas by constantly seeking new information, reflecting and searching insights not only about markets and technologies and human behavior but also about the larger world around them (Tichy 1998). Challenging of the status quo, change, innovation the

entrepreneurship require creativity, thinking the unthinkable, intuition, systems thinking, analysis, synthesis, inductive and deductive reasoning, judgment,

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cognitive complexity, independent thinking and tough decisions. Leaders mindfulness is a necessary competence as well as to appreciated new possibilities, to develop new ways of thinking and new assumptions, to see subtle forces, to anticipate changes and to create new labels and categories for interpreting the world. These cognitive functions require contemplative refection, concentration of the thought, attention, seriousness, inner peace, inner security, tranquility and time. Usually, these are not understood by the pressing work environment. Many managers are distracted by the thousand tasks that they juggle each day. According to Bruch and Ghoshal (2004), forty percent of managers are characterized by business and non action. Beside the organizational and social context, in combination to the established schemata, scripts, mindsets and knowledge structures favor in the box thinking, and stereotyped ready solutions. On the contrary solitude could care and contribute positively to the crucial cognitive functions of the leader. Daft and Lengel argue that becoming mindful means eliminating noisy mind chatter and fragmentation so that you can hear your subtle inner voice. The daily practice of contemplation or meditation may help unlock your subtle forces of creativity and independent thinking, generate assumptions, challenging questions and connect you with fresh insights and deeper truths.Leader mindfulness means being willing to stand apart.to determine your course by your inner rudder rather than by an external radar (p.79 & 88). In the same spirit Bruch & Choshal support that leader has to take time, to step back and to reflect (p. 23 & 29). If we look for more specific positive contributions of solitude in the cognitive functions of leader we could, on the basis of the existing bibliography, sustain the following. First of all, the state of freedom that a leader experiences being in solitude, facilitates his creative thinking. Freedom is often considered a prerequisite for creative activity (Amabile 1983). To the extent, then, that solitude affords freedom it should also facilitate creativity. Csiksxentihalgi (1996) has found that adolescents who cannot tolerate being alone often fail to develop their creative talents because such development

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usually relies on solitary activity such as practicing ones musical instrument or writing poetry in ones journal. Creativity consists of generating new useful ideas with impact by forming new associations combinations between previously unrelated ideas. Long and Averill (2003), after adopting Schutzs analysis of multiple realities perspective, argued that cognitive characteristics associated with solitude (e.g. freedom) offer opportunities for transition from the social world of work to the potentially creative world of phantasy and/or scientific theorizing. Imaginative involvement in multiple realities potentially implies the reconstitution of cognitive structures imposed by the often highly structured environments and functions of the leaders (Long and Averil 2003). Solitude could increase the level of external stimulation and at this state, according to Suedfeld et al (1987), the person may begin (sensing) internal stimuli such as physical sensation, is shifting emotions, daydreams and distorted thoughts. Storr maintains that learning, thinking, innovation and being in contact with ones own world of imagination are all facilitated by solitude. Specifically he believes that prayer and meditation, as practices of solitude state, facilitate integration by allowing time for previously unrelated thoughts and feelings to interact. Being able to get in touch with ones deepest thoughts and feelings, and providing time for them to regroup themselves into new formations and combinations, are important aspects of the creative processes (Storr p28). O Maslow (1970) directly links creativity to solitude by stating that the ability to become lost in the present seems to be a sine qua non for creativity-in whatever field as it has something to do with this ability to become timeless, selfless, outside of space, of society, of history (p. 64). Moreover, solitude reinforces the leaders creative thinking with indirect ways. As already reported, solitude can facilitate the self-transformation, envisioning and willpower of a leader. Self transformation the leader can watch things through different glasses and this discover new dimensions ideas and solutions (Long et Averill 2003). A leaders vision according to Senge, can strengthen his creative tension to discover new and probably revolutionary ways

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to eliminate the gap between the current and the desired reality. A number of researchers sustain that the discovery of innovative and creative ideas comes from the internal motivation for achievement. (Amabile, 1983) A second positive effect of solitude is the contribution of inner peace and inner security to the better utilization of the cognitive skills of a leader. Inner peace as a psychological state of solitude allows the leader free of noises and with a most clear-cool thought analyze and understand various pieces of information and the relations between these, to wonder and to challenge the correctness of his assumptions and his beliefs, to see his self as an actor and observer simultaneously and thus to judge more objectively, calmly and correctly. One of the most important findings resulting from the research conducted by Fielder and his associates is that under low stress, intelligence is positively correlated and experience negatively correlated with performance. (Fielder 1995). Manz and Neck (1996 & 1991) propose the concept of self-leadership of thought and propose a self leadership procedure for establishing constructive thought paterns. Solitude can care the analysis and management of: 1) belief and assumptions, 2) internal dialogues (self-talk) and 3) mental images which the authors consider as primary vehicles for establishing and maintaining constructive desirable thought patterns. Third, in solitude, a leader can keep distance from the reality that he experiences and take the position of the observer, he can see things from far and high and so have a balcony or helicopter view or a big picture of something which can help him in his thinking and judgment. Heifetz & Linsky (2002) call this skill getting off the dance floor and going to the balcony. Great athletes must simultaneously play the game and observe it as a whole. They argue that leaders have to be both an observer and participant at the same time, having to move back and forth from the balcony to the dance floor, over and over again through out, days, weeks, months and years. As an example the authors propose a simple technique for enhancing this ability of the leader. They suggest that

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during a meeting a leader by pushing his chair a few inches away from the table after he speaks could have the literal as well as metaphorical distance he needs to become an observer. Finally, we could assume that the freedom, social detachment and inner security experienced by a leader us a state of solitude, may help his take taught decisions. Leaders often have to take tough unambiguous decisions whether that refer to people , to strategic choices or to circumstances of high risk and uncertainty. Freedom, social detachment and inner peace experienced by a leader in state of solitude, help him control his sense of anxiety and make it easier to him take taught decisions which are probably unpleasant to people by touching sacred cows, undebatable taboos or the zone of comfort witnessed by people within their status quo. Such decision are also facilitated by the fact that in a state of soliutude one can support such decisions by his inner voice, his deeper beliefs and on more strong feeling of self confidence and locus of control. Besides, solitude makes it easier for the leader to judge information efficiently, to think intuitively and to use his gut feelings which contribute considerably to making strategic choices for the future (Coleman et al 2002, p.14-20).

Solitude and connecting with others

Empathy is a main dimension of emotional intelligence and a basic leadership competence. Empathy includes the understanding and considering of others position, situation, feeling and perspectives. Solitude contribute to the leaders ability to empathize by facilitating his feeling of intimacy. Long at Averill (2003) suggested that though solitude usually means being alone, many people experience feelings of intimacy while in solitude. Nisenbaum (1984), based on interviews, novels and popular songs and analysis of dictionary definitions, supported that solitude often involves feelings of connection with

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another people. Model (1993) suggested that the person in solitude can be supported by the projected presence of a real or imagined person. From the philosophical perspective, Koch (1994) argued that ones consciousness of solitude does not necessarily imply a self or inward focus. He believes that the social disengagement of solitude does not exclude other types of engagement and he proposed the concepts of an indirect or substitutive engaged disengagement and indirect or substitutive engagement by describing certain outer directed solitude experiences. The research work of Long and his associates (2003) already mentioned confirms with emprical evidences that in solitude, people might experience feelings of intimacy or closeness to someone they care about. For example that if for a while we are isolated from our own people, our desire to meet them becomes strong. A leader with his close collaborators as well as with the rest of his people in the organization (distance leadership) must feel them close, understand their feelings, their perspectives, their expertations, their anxieties, fears and loves them as many authors state, (Daft & Lengel 2000, Kouzes and Posner 2003). n the context of the work, the daily pressures for achieving results, the physical and hierarchical distance may not favor feelings of intimacy and closeness as much as the state of solitude. We could therefore support that through the intimacy felt by the leader in solitude, the emotional and the cognitive process of empathy, caring and loving for others is facilitated.

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Solitude as a leadership meta-competence

Solitude constitutes a leadership meta-competence only if the leader can tolerate, it, desire it, enjoy it, experience it constructively and get value from its positive effects on emotional and cognitive processes. Long et al based on the existing literature and on empirical data conclude that in order to benefit from solitude the individual must be able to draw on inner resources to find meaning in situations in which external support are lacking. The individual capacity for solitude contains the ability to choose it voluntarily and to live it occasionally for specific reasons because otherwise there is a danger to transformed to introversion and loneliness with negative consequences. Empirical research by using mainly the preference for solitude scale, constructed by Burger (1995), shows that not all individuals possess the same degree of preference to spend time alone. Larson et el considered solitude as and ecological niche that offers both opportunities and dangers and therefore the question of a persons ability to profit from the first and avoid the second is posed. Also, given the fact that the positive effects of solitude are linked with or facilitated by spatial and environmental elements (home, forest), the competence of solitude includes a persons ability to choose what he feels comfortable with, enjoy and facilitate the positive effects. A leader ability to experience the solitude constructively, does not exclude on the basis of what has already been described a same empirical works (Long et al 2003), other personality traits of leaders such as sociability, extroversion, agreeableness or sensitivity to others. On the contrary, when it forms a conscious, willing choice of limited time, it can not only coexist harmoniously with the previous traits but also re inforce them. For example when we are away from our loved ones, our desire to meet them becomes stronger. This coexistence of solitude with the other traits is supported by the concept of leadership complexity paradox proposed by Quinn and his associates (1996).

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As far as the development of the solitude competence is concerned, psychologists link it mainly with infancy. Store suggested that the capacity to experience solitude positively is a learned trait that begins in infancy. An important rolle in that is played by the mother who creates an environment of security in which the infant experiences of being alone in the presence of the mother (Storr 1997). In adult life, the capacity to be alone could be cultivated by training methods and techniques such as meditation, dissociation, retreat and personal exercise.

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Implications for research and practice

From the above mentioned we feel encouraged to make some proposition which could add even a little to the scope of research in the field of leadership (figure 2). First it would be of interest to explore the degree to which leader experience solitude and relevant questions such as the degree to which this is done consciously, for which reasons, under which cirmmistancies, in which location and with which methods or techniques. Second main topic for research solitude could be the relationship between solitude and leadership styles, leadership roles and leadership effectiveness. For example in the present paper we have tried to support the idea that solitude, by strengthening a leaders sense of freedom, sense of inner peace and inner security, intimacy and spirituality, facilitates the cognitive processes of self-leadership, identification and clarification, (self-awareness, envisioning) values and priorities self examination, learning of generating ideas and taking creative and tough decisions, of empathy and connecting with others. Through the above cognitive processes observed leaders traits and competencies such as will power and passion, consistency, integrity, responsibility disposition, self confidence and convictions for his beliefs, courage, edge, determination, focus, energy, empathy, concern and love for others could be reinforced. (Figure 2) It would be of special interest to explore the hypothesis when the solitude is positively correlated with transformational, charismatic or value based leadership and negatively with transactional leadership. According to the ideas supported we can assume that transformational leaders experience the positive effects of solitude to a larger extent than transactional leaders. Also research could be conducted more deeply into the relationship of solitude with emotional maturity, emotional intelligence and social intelligence. Third the relations between certain solitude facilitators (e.g. methods, spaces) and basic emotional and cognitive processes (e.g. sense of freedom, sense of security, creativity, self-discovery, decision taking), could be examinde. Fourth, if

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solitude is a leadership meta-competence, as maintained it could be useful to examine its link with other main personality traits. As far as leadership practice, is concerned if the propositions mentioned above are supported then some very useful implications will appear. For example, organizations could use the capacity or propensity to solitude as an evaluation criterion of leadership potential for selection or promotion as well as introduce practice for developing this meta-competence. Also, they can create

circumstances in their work environment and outside it which will facilitate and reinforce solitude of the leader, of course to the extent that this is required.

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Figure 2: A Research framework of the positives effects of solitude on leadership

COGNITIVE PROCESSES PSYCHOLOGICAL STATES Sense of freedom SOLITUDE META - COMPETENCE Inner peace
nner security

OBSERVED TRAITS COMPETENCES Vision, values Ideas Self-identity, self awareness Will powerpassion Consistencyintegrity self-confidence Strong convictions, edge, courage Determination Focus, energy Concern, love for others Responsibility 29
Leadership Behavior and Effectiveness

Self-leadership Self-discovery, listening the inner voice Self-examination Envisioning-visualizing Definitions of values and priorities Learning, selftransformation, Stories formulation Creative thinking and making choices Involvement in multiples realities Imagination Reconstruction of cognitive structures Conceptualization

Intimacy Spirituality

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