Grounding: Grounding is a conducting connection by which an electrical circuit or equipment is connected to earth or to some conducting body of relatively large

extent that serves in place of earth. It is used for establishing and maintaining the potential of the earth or approximately that potential, on conductors connected to it; and for conducting ground current to and from the earth. Bonding is intentional electrical interconnecting of conductive paths in order to ensure common electrical potential between the bonded parts. The primary purpose of grounding and bonding is electrical safety which include both personal and equipment protection. Grounding and bonding have taken on the additional roles of serving as reference planes for low-level analog or digital signals. The grounding plane provide a low impedance reference plane for communication between microelectronic devces. The resistance of an average human under conditions when the skin is dry is about 100k ohm or higher. When the skin is wet, the resistance drops to 10k ohm or lower. Threshold of perception of electric current through human body: 100 micro amperes. Irregular heart beat occurs at a current of 75mA. Essentials of Grounding System Grounded conductor: A circuit that is intentionally grounded . Grounding conductor: A conductor used to connect the grounded circuit of a system to a grounding electrode or electrodes. Equipment grounding conductor: Conductor used to connect the non-current carrying metal parts of equipment, raceways, and other enclosures to the system grounded conductor, the grounding electrode conductor , or both at the service equipment or at the source of a separately derived system. Grounding electrode conductor : Conductor used to connect the grounding electrode to the equipment grounding conductor, the grounded conductor, or both. Main bonding jumper: An unspliced connection used to connect the equipment grounding conductor and the services disconnect enclosure to the grounded conductor of a power system.

Power Quality Monitoring

Monitoring Objectives
Monitoring to characterize system performance Monitoring to characterize specific problems Monitoring as part of an enhanced power quality service Monitoring as part of predictive or just in time maintenance.

Monitoring as part of a facility site survey: Site surveys are performed to evaluate concerns for power quality and equipment performance throughout a facility. The initial site survey gives the following information: Nature of the problems Characteristics of the sensitive equipment experiencing problems The times at which problems occur Coincident problems or known operations Possible sources of power quality variations within the facility Existing power conditioning equipment used Electrical system data Determining What to Monitor Power quality encompasses a wide variety of conditions on the power system. Important disturbances can range from very high frequency impulses caused by lightning strikes or current chopping during circuit interruption to long-term over voltages caused by a regulator tap switching problem. The range of conditions that must be characterized creates challenges both in terms of the monitoring equipment performance specifications and in the data collection requirements. The methods for characterizing the quality of ac power are important for the monitoring requirements. For instance, characterizing most transients requires high-frequency sampling of the actual waveform. Voltage sags can be characterized with a plot of the rms voltage versus time. Outages can be defined simply by time duration. Monitoring to characterize harmonic distortion levels and normal voltage variations requires steady state sampling with results analysis of trends over time. Options for permanent power quality monitoring equipment: Digital fault recorders: These may already be I place at many substations. A DFR will typically trigger on fault events and record the voltage and current waveforms that characterize the event. DFRs also offer periodic waveform capture for calculating harmonic distortion levels.

Smart relays and other IEDs: Many types of substation equipment may have the capability to be an intelligent electronic device with monitoring capability. Manufactures of devices like relays and reclosers that monitor the current anyway are adding on the capability to record disturbances and make the information available to an overall monitoring system controller. Voltage Recorders: Sophisticated models of voltage recorders capable of characterizing momentary voltage sags and even harmonic distortion levels are available. It will not provide the duration with a resolution less than 2 second. In plant power monitors: waveshape capture for evaluation of harmonic distortion levels, voltage profiles for steady state rms variations, and triggered waveshape captures for voltage sag condition these capabilities are added to monitoring systems in industrial facilities to have some power quality capabilities. Special Purpose Power Quality Monitors: These monitoring instruments are specifically designed to measure the full range of power quality variations. This instrument features monitoring of voltage and current on all three phases plus the neutral. Simultaneous voltage and current monitoring with triggering of all channels during a disturbance is an important capability for these instruments. Power quality monitors have proven suitable for substations, feeder locations, and customer service entrance locations. Revenue meters: Revenue meters monitor the voltage and current anyway, so it seems logical to offer alternatives for more advanced monitoring that could include recording of power quality information. Virtually all the revenue meter manufacturers are moving in this direction and the information from these meters can then be incorporated into an overall power quality monitoring system.

Transients Impulsive transient Oscillatory transient Impulsive transient: An impulsive transient is a sudden, non-power frequency change in the steady state condition of voltage, current, or both that is unidirectional in polarity. Because of the high frequencies involved, the shape of impulsive transients can be changed quickly by circuit components and may have significantly different characteristics when viewed from different parts of the power system. They are generally not conducted far from the source of where they enter the power system, although they may, in some cases, be conducted for quite some distance along utility lines. Impulsive transients can excite the natural frequency of power system circuits and produce oscillatory transients. Oscillatory transient: An oscillatory transient is a sudden, non-power frequency change in the steady state condition of voltage, current or both that includes both positive and negative polarity values. An oscillatory transient consists of a voltage or current whose instantaneous value changes polarity rapidly. It is described by its spectral content, duration, and magnitude. Oscillatory transients can be divided into three:

High frequency: Primary frequency component greater than 500 kHz and a typical duration measured in microseconds. These transients are often the result of a local system response to an impulsive transient. Medium frequency: A transient with a primary frequency component between 5 and 500 kHz with duration measured in the tens of microseconds is termed a medium frequency transient. Back to back capacitor energization results in oscillatory transient currents in the tens of kilohertz. Cable switching results in oscillatory voltage transients in the same frequency range. Medium frequency transients can also be the result of a system response to an impulsive transient. Low frequency: A transient with a primary frequency component less than 5 kHz, and duration from 0.3 to 50ms, is considered a low frequency transient. This category of phenomena is frequently encountered on utility subtransmission and distribution systems and is caused by many types of events. The most frequent is capacitor bank energization, which typically results in an oscillatory voltage transient with a primary frequency between 300 and 900 Hz. The peak magnitude can approach 2pu, but is typically 1.3 to 1.5pu with duration of between 0.5 and 3 cycles depending on the system damping.

Long duration variation: Long duration variations encompass rms deviations at power frequencies for longer than 1 min. Overvoltage: An overvoltage is an increase in the rms ac voltage greater than 110 percent at the power frequency for duration longer than 1 min. They are the results of load switching or inaccurate tap settings on transformers. Undervoltage: An Undervoltage is a decrease in the rms ac voltage to less than 90 percent at the power frequency for a duration longer than 1 min. Sustained interruptions: When the supply voltage has been zero for a period of time in excess of 1 min, the long duration voltage variation is considered a sustained interruption.

Waveform distortion: DC Offset: The presence of a dc voltage or current in an ac power system is termed dc offset. Harmonics: Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or currents having frequencies that are integer multiples of the frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate. Inter harmonics: Voltages or currents having frequency components that are not integer multiples of the frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate. Notching: Notching is a periodic voltage disturbance caused by the normal operation of power electronic devices when current is commutated from one phase to other. Noise: Noise is defined as unwanted electrical signals with broadband spectral content lower than 200 kHz superimposed upon the power system voltage or current in phase conductors, or found on neutral conductors or signal lines.

Voltage fluctuation: Voltage fluctuation are systematic variations of the voltage envelope or a series of random voltage changes, the magnitude of which does not normally exceed the voltage ranges 0.9pu to 1.1pu.

Harmonic Signatures: Many of the loads present in the power system today like PCs,ASDs and flurescent lamps etc are non linear loads which are harmonic current generators which along with the impedance of the electrical power system produce harmonic voltages also. Flurescent lightning: The current waveform of fluscent lamp consists of third and fifth harmonic frequencies and slight traces of even harmonics also.The current waveform is flat topped due to initiation of arc within the glass tube, which causes the voltage across the tube and the current to become essentially unchanged for a portion of each half cycle. Adjustable Speed Drives: Adjustable speed drives draw a current from the input lines which contain double hump for each half cycle due to the conduction of input rectifier for a duration of two 60 degree interval. As the operating frequency is reduced the hump become pronounced with large THD. Personal Computer and Monitor: Third and Fifth harmonics is present .The current THD for both device exceed 100 percent as a result of high levels of individual distortions introduced by the third and fifth harmonics. Effect of harmonics on Transformers : The voltage harmonics produce losses in core due to hysteresis loops set up by high frequency harmonic voltage which superimpose on the fundamental loop. Each loop represent higher magnetization power requirements and higher core losses. The harmonic currents increases the net RMS current flowing in the transformer windings which results in additional I2R losses. Winding eddy current losses are also increased. Winding eddy currens are circulating currents induced in the conductors by the leakage magnetic flux. Eddy current concentrations are higher at the ends of the windings due to the crowding effect of the leakage magnetic field at the coil extremities. The winding eddy current losses increase as the square of the harmonic current and the square of the frequency of the current. Eddy current due to harmonics can significantly increase the transformer winding temperature. Transformers that are required to supply large nonlinear loads must be derated to handle the harmonics. This derating factor is based on the percentage of the harmonic currents in the load and the rated winding eddy current losses.

Transformer with k factor k would have the capability to carry the full RMS load current and handle winding eddy current losses equal to k times the normal rated eddy current losses.