ABSTRACT

This project aims at designing and executing the car parking system. This automatic multistoried car parking system helps to minimize the car parking area. In the modern world, where parking-space has become a very big problem and in the era of miniaturization, it has become a very crucial necessity to avoid the wastage of space, big companies and apartments etc. In places where more than 100 cars need to be parked, this system proves to be useful in reducing wastage of space. This Automatic Car Parking System enables the parking of vehicles, floor after floor and thus reducing the space used. Here any number of cars can be parked according to the requirement. These makes the systems modernized and even a space-saving one. In our embedded based application we are developing an automatic system. Here when a vehicle enter he has to enter the vehicle number by using Hex keypad, and that vehicle will be carried to floor where the parking space is available. There are IR sensors to sense the entry/ exit of the vehicles. While leaving if he enters the vehicle number it shows floor number in which floor the vehicle is parked. This can be displayed on the LCD.One more advance feature in this project using RFID technology parking fare will be deducted from the card.The parking area will be reserved in advance by the management using RF wireless communication. The programming language used for developing the software to the microcontroller is Embedded/Assembly. The KEIL cross compiler is used to edit, compile and debug this program. Here in our application we are using AT89C51 microcontroller which is Flash Programmable IC.AT represents the Atmel Corporation represents CMOS technology is used for designing the IC.

INDEX 1. INTRODUCTION OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT BLOCK DIAGRAM 2. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION SCHEMATIC SCHEMATIC EXPLANATION 3. HARDWARE DESCRIPTION DCMOTOR L293D IR SENSOR HEX KEYPAD MICROCONTROLLER MAX232 RFID READER DB9 CONNECTOR SERIAL COMMUNICATION LCD DISPLAY POWER SUPPLY PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD 4. SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION FLOW CHART ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE PROGRAM 5. FUTURE ENHANCEMENTS 6. CONCLUSION 7. BIBLIOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION

Objective: The main aim of this embedded application is to minimize the parking area by developing multistoried car parking system.

Block Diagram

Tx:
For Transmitter Selection s1 s2 Micro Controller Encoder HT12E RF Transmitter Module

Rx:
KEYPAD

Display unit MCU

SENSO R

RFID READER

DECODER

Driver Circuit

DC MOTOR

POWER SUPPLY CIRCUIT

Step down T/F

Bridge Rectifier

Filter Circuit

Regulator

Power supply to all sections

Description:

This application is in the area of embedded systems.

An embedded system is some combination of computer hardware and software, either fixed in capability or programmable, that is specifically designed for a particular function Since the embedded system is dedicated to specific tasks, design engineers can optimize it reducing the size and cost of the product and increasing the reliability and performance. Embedded systems are controlled by one or more main processing cores that is typically either a microcontroller or a digital signal processor (DSP). Embedded systems control many devices in common use today. The Keil C51 C Compiler for the 8051 microcontroller is the most popular 8051 C compiler in the world. It provides more features than any other 8051 C compiler available today.The C51 Compiler allows you to write 8051

microcontroller applications in C that, once compiled, have the efficiency and speed of assembly language. Language extensions in the C51 Compiler give you full access to all resources of the 8051. The C51 Compiler translates C source files into relocatable object modules which contain full symbolic information for debugging with the Vision Debugger or an in-circuit emulator. In addition to the object file, the compiler generates a listing file which may optionally include symbol table and cross reference information.

Embedded C is an extension for the programming language C to support embedded processors, enabling portable and efficient application programming for embedded systems The AT89C51 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with 4K bytes of Flash programmable and erasable read only memory (PEROM). The device is manufactured using Atmels high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard MCS-51 instruction set and pinout. The onchip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C51 is a powerful microcomputer which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications.

A display is provided at the ground floor which is basically a counter that displays floor number in which floor parking space is available. It informs whether the floors are fully filled with the cars or is it having place in a particular floor or not. There is facility of lift to carry the car to up . Movement of Lift is controlled by DC motor. In this project we have provided three floors of a building for car parking. Maximum storage capacity of each floor is given as three. Storage capacity can be changed according to the requirement. Vehicles are allowed only

after entering the car number through the hex keypad. While leaving if he enters his car number it will display the floor number in which floor his car is parked. There are IR sensors for sensing the entry and exit of vehicles. With these sensors the database regarding the number of cars in the building will be maintained. When the car enters the lift it will automatically carry the car to the particular floor where the parking space is available. After this process the lift will come back to the normal position ie., to the ground floor. In this we are using IR transmitter and IR receiver for sensing the entry and exit of the vehicles. The infrared frequency is 26Khz.The arrangement is in such a way where IR receiver continuously receives the IR frequency signals. Here we are using 16*2 LCD where 16 characters will be displayed in each row. The one more advanced feature in this application is to reserve the parking area in advance. This can be done only by using RF communication (434 MHz).Only the management has the authority to reserve the parking area in advance. The switches are provided at the transmitter end with the encoder and RF module for transmitting the data wirelessly.s

SCHEMATIC:

CAR PARKING SYSTEM

D14
Vcc
DB9 Connector

R10
330R

D9
LED-YELLOW

J1
5 9 4 8 3 7 2 6 1 CONN-D9M 14 13 7 8 2 6 19 18

RV4
POT

LED-BLUE

D13
LED-BLUE

R9
330R

D7
LED-YELLOW

RV3
POT

MAX232
1 C1+ 11 12 10 9 T1IN R1OUT T2IN R2OUT 3 C1T1OUT R1IN T2OUT R2IN VS+ VSC2+ 4 C25

U4

D12 RV2
POT LED-BLUE

R8
330R

D6
LED-YELLOW

AT89C51
U1
XTAL1 P0.0/AD0 P0.1/AD1 P0.2/AD2 P0.3/AD3 P0.4/AD4 P0.5/AD5 P0.6/AD6 P0.7/AD7 P2.0/A8 P2.1/A9 P2.2/A10 P2.3/A11 P2.4/A12 P2.5/A13 P2.6/A14 P2.7/A15 P3.0/RXD P3.1/TXD P3.2/INT0 P3.3/INT1 P3.4/T0 P3.5/T1 P3.6/WR P3.7/RD 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

D11 RV1
POT LED-BLUE

R7
330R

D8
LED-YELLOW LM016L

LCD

LCD1

XTAL2

MAX232 9 RST

VSS VDD VEE

RS RW E 4 5 6

1 2 3

29 30 31

PSEN ALE EA

keypad
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 P1.0 P1.1 P1.2 P1.3 P1.4 P1.5 P1.6 P1.7 AT89C51

Vcc
16 2 7 1 IN1 IN2 EN1 VSS 8 VS OUT1 OUT2

U2
3 6

1 4 7

2 5 8 0

3 6 9 #

9 10 15

EN2 IN3 IN4

GND

OUT3 GND OUT4

11 14

L293D

L293D

PORT 0: Port 0 can act as both input as well as output port also for addressing the external memory.In this we are connecting the IR sensor receivers to sense the entry and exit of vehicles. PORT 2: Port 1 can act as both input as well as output port. The 8 pins of Port 1 is connected to the eight data pins of LCD. We are using 16 pin LCD. The data is send through these pins if we selected the data register in LCD otherwise command code will be send if we selected command code register. PORT 1:

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7

DC Motor

Port 2 can act as both input as well as output port. The microcontroller port 2 pins are connected to the 4*3 hex keypad. If any key is pressed the input will be taken by the port pin and the microcontroller will display the data according to the key pressed. PORT 3: Port 3 is also called as communication port. It can be used as both input as well as output port. The control pins of LCD are connected to Port 3 first three pins. We have three control pins in the LCD ie. RS (register select), R/W, Enable pin. The Register select is used to select the registers present internally to the LCD. We are having two registers data register and command code register. If RS=0 then we are selecting data register, if RS=1 then we are going for command code register. This RS is connected to P3.0 pin. The R/W pin is connected to P3.1. This pin is used for reading and writing the data. Next is Enable pin which is connected to P3.2 and it is used to latch the information present in the data pins. In this we are also using the serial communication to interface with the RFID reader .so, RXD and TXD pins of port3 are used for serial communication.

HEX KEYPAD A general 32 matrix keypad contains only 0-9 keys.Whereas a hex keypad contains 0-9 keys and also it contains A,B,C,D,E,F keys.So it provides more number of combination of Passwords to the firms.

A keypad-matrix is very nice.

For a 3 X 4 keypad you need 7 I/O-pins. Such a keypad wants pullup resistors. So, you have to realise that in hardware, or you are forced to a port that has software pullups. The scanning of a matrix is, for a controller, a time wasting task.

That has to be different, and that's why I made a matrix decoder that reads the matrix, and transforms it to a 4-bits binary code.

This code matches with the printing on the key's of a 3 X 4 keypad. These 4 bits can be placed in the upper region of portB, so your interrupt lines (B0 and B1) are free again. Now you don't need pullups anymore, so you can use other ports as well for the keypad. The Schematic Please remember that every individual keypad can have it's own connections, so pay attention to this !! Pin 1 from the keypad stands for row 3 Pin 2 ---> row 2 Pin 3 ---> column 1 pin 4 ---> row 1 pin 5 --->column 3 pin 6 ---> row 4 Pin 7 --->column 2 The PIC runs on its internal oscillator, so we spare out a crystal and 2 caps. A 4-bit code can be taken from the middle 4 pins of J2. The outer pins must be connected to a 5 volt supply and GND. If no key is pressed, the output has the value 15 (bin 1111). If a key is pressed, the output gives the corresponding value of that key. The * gets the value 10, and the # gets the value 11. Every keypress gives a friendly beep. Additionally a negative 1 ms pulse is given on J4. You can use this pulse as an interrupt trigger,

if you wish. This pulse is generated after the data has arrived at the port. The data stays on the port until the key is released. If you've chosen the serial configuration, then the data-signal can be taken from RA0 (pin 5 of the header). The signal has a reverse polarity, is 9600 baud, 8 bits wide, and has no parity (9600, 8, n, 1) There's also an interrupt pulse here, too. This is sent by RA1 (pin 4 of the header). This pulse is generated before the data is sent, giving the main-controller the chance to anticipate it. In both configurations (parallel & serial) you are free to use the interrupt pulse. There is no requirement for it.

DC Motor DC motors are configured in many types and sizes, including brush less, servo, and gear motor types. A motor consists of a rotor and a permanent magnetic field stator. The magnetic field is maintained using either permanent magnets or electromagnetic windings. DC motors are most commonly used in variable speed and torque. Motion and controls cover a wide range of components that in some way are used to generate and/or control motion. Areas within this category include bearings and bushings, clutches and brakes, controls and drives, drive components, encoders and resolves, Integrated motion control, limit switches, linear actuators, linear and rotary motion components, linear position sensing, motors (both AC and DC motors), orientation position sensing, pneumatics and pneumatic components, positioning stages, slides and guides, power

transmission (mechanical), seals, slip rings,solenoids,springs. Motors are the devices that provide the actual speed and torque in a drive system. This family includes AC motor types (single and multiphase motors, universal, servo motors, induction, synchronous, and gear motor) and DC motors (brush less, servo motor, and gear motor) as well as linear, stepper and air motors, and motor contactors and starters. In any electric motor, operation is based on simple electromagnetism. A currentcarrying conductor generates a magnetic field; when this is then placed in an external magnetic field, it will experience a force proportional to the current in the conductor, and to the strength of the external magnetic field. As you are well aware of from playing with magnets as a kid, opposite (North and South) polarities attract, while like polarities (North and North, South and South) repel. The internal configuration of a DC motor is designed to harness the magnetic interaction between a current-carrying conductor and an external magnetic field to generate rotational motion.

Let's start by looking at a simple 2-pole DC electric motor (here red represents a magnet or winding with a "North" polarization, while green represents a magnet or winding with a "South" polarization).

Every DC motor has six basic parts -- axle, rotor (a.k.a., armature), stator, commutator, field magnet(s), and brushes. In most common DC motors (and all that Beamers will see), the external magnetic field is produced by high-strength

permanent magnets1. The stator is the stationary part of the motor -- this includes the motor casing, as well as two or more permanent magnet pole pieces. The rotor (together with the axle and attached commutator) rotates with respect to the stator. The rotor consists of windings (generally on a core), the windings being electrically connected to the commutator. The above diagram shows a common motor layout -- with the rotor inside the stator (field) magnets. The geometry of the brushes, commutator contacts, and rotor windings are such that when power is applied, the polarities of the energized winding and the stator magnet(s) are misaligned, and the rotor will rotate until it is almost aligned with the stator's field magnets. As the rotor reaches alignment, the brushes move to the next commutator contacts, and energize the next winding. Given our example two-pole motor, the rotation reverses the direction of current through the rotor winding, leading to a "flip" of the rotor's magnetic field, and driving it to continue rotating. In real life, though, DC motors will always have more than two poles (three is a very common number). In particular, this avoids "dead spots" in the commutator. You can imagine how with our example two-pole motor, if the rotor is exactly at the middle of its rotation (perfectly aligned with the field magnets), it will get "stuck" there. Meanwhile, with a two-pole motor, there is a moment where the commutator shorts out the power supply (i.e., both brushes touch both commutator contacts simultaneously). This would be bad for the power supply, waste energy, and damage motor components as well. Yet another disadvantage of such a simple motor is that it would exhibit a high amount of torque ripple" (the amount of torque it could produce is cyclic with the position of the rotor).

So since most small DC motors are of a three-pole design, let's tinker with the workings of one via an interactive animation (JavaScript required):

You'll notice a few things from this -- namely, one pole is fully energized at a time (but two others are "partially" energized). As each brush transitions from one commutator contact to the next, one coil's field will rapidly collapse, as the next coil's field will rapidly charge up (this occurs within a few microsecond). We'll see more about the effects of this later, but in the meantime you can see that this is a direct result of the coil windings' series wiring:

There's probably no better way to see how an average dc motor is put together, than by just opening one up. Unfortunately this is tedious work, as well as requiring the destruction of a perfectly good motor. This is a basic 3-pole dcmotor, with 2 brushes and three commutator contacts.

PWM technique: A pulse width modulator (PWM) is a device that may be used as an efficient light dimmer or DC motor speed controller. A PWM works by making a square wave with a variable on-to-off ratio; the average on time may be varied from 0 to 100 percent. In this manner, a variable amount of power is transferred to the load. The main advantage of a PWM circuit over a resistive power controller is the efficiency, at a 50% level, the PWM will use about 50% of full power, almost all of which is transferred to the load, a resistive controller at 50% load power would consume about 71% of full power, 50% of the power goes to the load and the other 21% is wasted heating the series resistor. Load efficiency is almost always a critical factor in solar powered and other alternative energy systems. One additional advantage of pulse width modulation is that the pulses reach the full supply voltage and will produce more torque in a motor by being able to overcome the internal motor resistances more easily. Finally, in a PWM circuits, common small potentiometers may be used to control a wide variety of loads whereas large and expensive high power variable resistors are needed for resistive controllers. Pulse width modulation consists of three signals, which are modulated by a square wave. The duty cycle or high time is proportional to the amplitude of the square wave. The effective average voltage over one cycle is the duty cycle times the peak-to-peak voltage. Thus, the average voltage follows a square wave. In fact, this method depends on the motor inductance to integrate out the PWM frequency.

A very simply off line motor drive can be built using a TRIAC and a control IC. This circuit can control the speed of a universal motor. A universal motor is a series wound DC motor. The circuit uses phase angle control to vary the effective motor voltage.

A micro controller can also be used to control a triac. A PNP of transistor may be used to drive the triac. As shown, the MCU ground is connected to the AC line. The gate trigger current is lower if instead the MCU 5V supply is connected to the AC line. The MCU must have some means of detecting zero crossing and a timer, which can control the triac firing. A general-purpose timer with one input capture and one output compare makes an ideal phase angle control.

8051 Micro controller The first microprocessor introduced in 1981/1971, was made possible by high levels of integration of digital circuits. Continued integration of peripherals and memory on the same integrated circuit as the microprocessor core led to the creation of micro controllers. A micro controller is an integrated circuit composed of a CPU, various peripheral devices, and typically memory, all in one chip. Using one chip that contains all the necessary functions in place of a microprocessor and multiple peripheral chips has reduced the size and the power consumption of control oriented applications.A micro controller is different from a microprocessor both in hardware and software. In hardware it includes peripherals such as I/O, memory, and analog and digital interface. Micro controllers are more suited for small applications with specific control functions requiring specialized peripherals and interfaces. They are designed for process control and are required to interface to the real world processes. Many of the peripheral devices integrated on a micro controller are for that specific purpose. Analog to digital converters perform the task of converting an analog signal to digital for use by the CPU, and digital to analog converters perform the task of converting digital data into analog value and waveforms to control analog functions. In addition to the analog interface, micro controllers contain peripheral devices that enable them to communicate to other digital components within a system or to monitor and control digital functions. Communication interfaces, digital I/O and interrupt controllers fall into this category of peripheral devices. Other peripheral devices often included on the same chip include clocks and timers. In terms of the software, micro controllers have a more compact set of instructions with commands more suited to process control such as input and output from. Single bit operations such as set and reset, bit-wise logical functions or branching instructions that depend on a single bit are commonly available as part of the instruction set to allow for reading input switch status or on/off control of an external event. Since in a given application the micro controller is programmed for one task, it only has one control program. In a microprocessor based system various programs are stored in a mass storage device and then loaded into the RAM for execution. In contrast the micro controller program is

typically stored in a ROM or PROM and RAM is used for temporary storage of data. Compared with discrete implementation of a system, the micro controller based approach provides shorter system development time, reduced implementation cost, lower power consumption, and higher reliability. The only drawback, which is often not important, is the lower speed of execution. For example, for a micro controller system to perform a logical operation, several clock cycles are needed to read the inputs, perform the function and output the results. The same operation when implemented with discrete components will provide the results as soon as the signals have propagated through the logic gates.

Micro-controllers are used in a variety of process control applications, replacing complex digital circuits and sometimes-analog functions while providing more flexibility due to their programmability. Portable electronic devices such as personal audio devices (CD players, MP3 players), mobile telephones, digital cameras and video camcorders rely heavily on the reduced size and low power consumption of micro controller based electronics. These features are crucial to applications like implantable medical devices such as pacemakers, or personal medical monitoring devices like glucometers (electronic devices used for the measurement of blood glucose). In other applications such as appliances, home audio and video, automotive, power management, and temperature control, using a micro controller results in reduced board level circuit complexity and consequently reduced cost. With the growing number of applications using micro controllers, it is not surprising that there are such a wide variety of these components. In addition to those commonly available, many manufacturers custom-design a micro controller to suit a specific application.

Architecture Architecturally all micro controllers share certain features. They all contain a CPU, memory and I/O on the same chip. Another common feature is the interrupt handling capability. What sets them apart from one another is the choice of CPU,

the structure of memory, and choice of peripheral devices, I/O and interrupt handling hardware. The major distinguishing architectural characteristic of micro controllers is the word size. Micro-controllers are available in 4, 8, 16, or 32 bit wide words. The width of the data path impacts several features of the micro controller. The complexity of the instruction set (number of available instructions and addressing modes), program efficiency (code generation and storage space), execution speed, as well as chip implementation and interfacing complexity are all influenced by the width of the data path. For simple control tasks 4-bit, and for a vast number of control and measurement applications 8-bit micro controllers would be sufficient. For higher precision and speed applications like speech and video processing, or complex instrumentation, 16-bit and 32-bit micro controllers are more appropriate. Another distinction between micro controllers is the instruction set. Microcontrollers with complex instruction set (CISC) provide capability to perform complex computations rapidly. The extensive set of instructions, allow complex operations to be performed with few instructions. On the other hand reduced instruction set computers (RISC) decrease program execution time by having fewer less complex instructions. Fewer available instructions results in faster execution due to smaller size of the op-code and less decoding time needed for each instruction. The trade-off depends on the complexity of operations needed for a specific application. In simple control applications a RISC based micro controller is more suitable because of its lower overhead for each instruction. In more complex applications, the availability of a more diverse instruction set results in a more efficient and faster executing code because fewer instructions are needed to accomplish a complicated task. For micro controller applications the instruction set should include common computational instructions plus instructions optimized for the specific application at hand. Just as in microprocessors, micro controllers are also differentiated according to their memory structure. Von Neumann architecture maps the data and program to same memory address space. In the Harvard architecture the instructions are stored in a separate memory space than that used for data storage. Another memory related architectural characteristic of a processor is the addressing

scheme. In linear addressing there is a one to one correspondence between an address and a memory location. So with an 8-bit address register, 2 8 distinct address locations can be accessed. In segmented addressing a separate register is used to point to a segment in memory, and the address register is used to point to an offset from that segments start point. This way if all of the program or data are in the same segment, in order to access them, only the address register need to be used and the segment register can remain pointing to the start point of that segment. Widely used group of micro controllers is Intels MCS51 family. These micro controllers are also 8-bit processors, but with a separate 64Kbyte of data and 64Kbyte of program memory space. As implied by this statement, devices in the MCS51 utilize Harvard architecture. All of I/O addresses as well as CPU registers and various peripheral devices registers are mapped in the same space as the data. The 8051, which is one of the options in this family, has 5 interrupt sources, 2 external, two timer interrupts and one serial port interrupt. Interrupt priority is resolved through a priority scheme and ranking in the polling sequence. The priority scheme allows each interrupt to be programmed to one of two priority levels. Furthermore if two interrupts with the same priority occur simultaneously, they are serviced based on their rank in the polling sequence. Other manufacturers such as AMD, Dallas Semiconductor, Fujitsu and Philips also supply micro controllers in the MCS51 family. Dallas Semiconductors DC87C550 provides increased performance over Intels 8051 while maintaining instruction set compatibility. Many instructions that execute in 12 CPU clock cycles in an 8051, will execute in only 4 clocks for the DC87C550 therefore resulting in increased execution speeds of up to three times. Additionally, the DC87C550 has a power management mode that allows slowing of the processor in order to reduce power consumption. This mode can be utilized in battery operated or otherwise low power applications. The architecture of the instruction set varies greatly from one micro controller to another. The choices made in designing the instruction set impact program memory space usage, code execution speed, and ease of programming.

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Fig. 6.2.1 Block Diagram of AT89C51 Microcontroller

PIN CONFIGURATION:

Fig Pin Configuration of AT89C51

Pin Description: VCC: Supply voltage. GND: Ground. Port 0: Port 0 is an 8-bit open-drain bi-directional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1sare written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high impedance inputs. Port 0 may also be configured to be the multiplexed low order address/data bus during accesses to external program and data memory. In this mode P0 has internal pull-ups. Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming, and outputs the code bytes during program verification. External pull-ups are required during program verification. Port 1: Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 1 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during Flash programming and verification. Port 2: Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external program memory and during accesses to external data memories that use 16-bit addresses (MOVX @DPTR). In this application, it uses strong internal pull-ups when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memories that use

8-bit addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register. Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and some control signals during Flash programming and verification. Port 3: Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pullups.The Port 3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pull-ups. Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features of the AT89C51 as listed below: Port 3 also receives some control signals for Flash programming and verification

Tab 6.2.1 Port pins and their alternate functions RST: Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets the device. ALE/PROG: Address Latch Enable output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming. In normal operation ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6the oscillator frequency, and may be used for external timing or clocking

purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse is skipped during each access to external Data Memory. If desired, ALE operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With the bit set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable bit has no effect if the microcontroller is in external execution mode. PSEN: Program Store Enable is the read strobe to external program memory. When the AT89C51 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data memory. EA/VPP: External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH. Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset. EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming, for parts that require 12-volt VPP. XTAL1: Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit. XTAL2: Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier. Oscillator Characteristics: XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an inverting amplifier which can be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator, as shown in Figs 6.2.3. Either a quartz crystal or ceramic resonator may be used. To drive the device from an external clock source, XTAL2 should be left unconnected while XTAL1 is driven as shown in Figure 6.2.4.There are no requirements on the duty cycle of

the external clock signal, since the input to the internal clocking circuitry is through a divide-by-two flip-flop, but minimum and maximum voltage high and low time specifications must be observed.

Fig 6.2.3 Oscillator Connections Configuration Notes:

Fig 6.2.4 External Clock Drive

1. Under steady state (non-transient) conditions, IOL must be externally limited as follows: Maximum IOL per port pin: 10 mA Maximum IOL per 8-bit port: Port 0: 26 mA Ports 1, 2, 3: 15 mA Maximum total IOL for all output pins: 71 mA If IOL exceeds the test condition, VOL may exceed the related specification. Pins are not guaranteed to sink current greater than the listed test conditions. 2. Minimum VCC for Power-down is 2V. AC CHARACTERISTICS Under operating conditions, load capacitance for Port 0, ALE/PROG, and PSEN = 100pF; load capacitance for all other outputs = 80pF

Hardware There are a variety of peripheral devices that are often integrated on a micro controller chip. Many of these peripheral devices are the same as those that may be included in a microprocessor while those that make a micro controller distinguishable from a microprocessor are the ones that deal with external interface and communication. Here is a brief description of the hardware components of a micro controller: 1. Interrupt Handlers An interrupt is an event (internal or external to the chip) that occurs asynchronously with other functions and requires immediate response from the micro controller. Such events can be detected if the micro controller constantly or periodically monitors their status. But such polling techniques could slow the operation of other functions. To detect and prioritize interrupts, interrupt handling hardware is often included on the micro controller chip. Interrupt handlers usually provide multiple interrupt inputs, with different levels of priority and the means to mask certain interrupts. An example of interrupts is power failure in a hand held thermometer. Should the battery voltage drop below acceptable limits at any

time, the device should inform the user of the condition and possibly perform preventive measures before returning control to the interrupted program. 2. I/O ports I/O ports provide means of digital data transfer to and from the micro controller. I/O ports are usually configured as a parallel interface where digital data can be simultaneously written to or read from a port address. In micro controller applications it is often possible to use the I/O ports with bit wise instructions. I/O ports can be used for crude user interface functions such as reading of switch settings or displaying some results using LEDs. It is also possible to use I/O ports for more sophisticated interface options. An I 2C interface, which is a serial communications protocol, can be emulated using two bits of an I/O port. 3. Digital to Analog Converters (DAC) DACs provide continuous time output capability by converting a digital word to a proportional voltage or current. Different DAC architectures provide trade-offs in design complexity, resolution, accuracy, and speed. Creating the audio waveforms from the data in a high-end digital audio player requires a high resolution DAC with moderate conversion rate, while creating the waveforms to drive an analog display requires lower resolution at higher conversion rate. 4. Analog to Digital Converters (ADC) ADCs are used to enable the micro controller to receive continuous time signals representing physical parameters. Temperature, sound, light intensity, color, liquid or gas flow, position and speed are all examples physical parameters that may be used by a micro controller. These data are first converted to a voltage or current waveform using appropriate transducers. It is then the function of the ADC to convert the voltage or current to digital form for processing by the microprocessor. There are different types of ADCs and the choice depends on the required accuracy, sampling rate and cost. A) Flash Converters In a flash ADC multiple analog comparators are used to evaluate the analog input voltage. All the bits of the output digital word are evaluated at once. The

only delay in this conversion is that of the analog comparators and the logic used to encode the digital word. This is therefore the fastest method of analog to digital conversion. The resolution is usually limited to 8-bits because of the large number of comparators needed. High speed video processing is an application where flash converters are well suited. b) Successive Approximation Register (SAR) In this type of converter, the digital output is evaluated one-bit at a time starting at the most significant bit. This type of ADC provides good resolution (10-12 bits) at relatively fast conversion rate. For a 10-bit conversion, 10 clock cycles are needed, where the maximum clock rate depends on the comparator settling and digital delays in the SAR circuit. The ADC circuit requires a high speed precise DAC. This is the most commonly used ADC in micro controller applications.

c) Dual Slope ADC For high resolution conversions dual slope converters provide a reasonable tradeoff at the expense of conversion speed. The conversion of an analog input to digital is performed by first converting the input voltage to time, and then measuring time using a clock. Because of the architecture of dual slope converters, non-ideal behavior of analog circuits is avoided and high resolutions (12-16 bits) and accuracies are achievable. This approach is most useful in applications where precise measurements of slow signals are needed. Medical instrumentation and monitoring is an area that fits these criteria. d) Over-sampling ADC Precision analog circuits used in conventional ADCs are sometimes difficult to implement in micro controller integrated circuits because of the highly noisy environment and process limitations associated with high levels of integration. The alternative is using over-sampling converters which can use simple but robust analog circuits along with fast and complex digital circuits. These converters sample the data with low resolution at much higher frequency than what is needed based on Nyquist theorem and use feedback to improve the

effective resolution. Because of the required over-sampling, the effective sampling rate is limited. Digitization of voice-band signals in telecommunication systems is often performed using over-sampling techniques.

5. Serial Communication Interface Through the use of serial communication the micro controller can be used with various system level peripherals. Here is a brief description of some the serial communication peripherals commonly integrated on a micro controller chip.

a SFRs: The 8051 is a flexible micro controller with a relatively large number of modes of operations. Your program may inspect and/or change the operating mode of the 8051 by manipulating the values of the 8051's Special Function Registers (SFRs). SFRs are accessed as if they were normal Internal RAM. The only difference is that Internal RAM is from address 00h through 7Fh whereas SFR registers exist in the address range of 80h through FFh. Each SFR has an address (80h through FFh) and a name. The following chart provides a graphical presentation of the 8051's SFRs, their names, and their address.

Tab 6.2.3a Chart of 8051 SFRs and their addresses As we can see, although the address range of 80h through FFh offer 128 possible addresses, there are only 21 SFRs in a standard 8051. All other addresses in the SFR range (80h through FFh) are considered invalid. Writing to or reading from these registers may produce undefined values or behavior.

SFR Types As mentioned in the chart itself, the SFRs that have a blue background are SFRs related to the I/O ports. The 8051 has four I/O ports of 8 bits, for a total of 32 I/O lines. Whether a given I/O line is high or low and the value read from the line are controlled by the SFRs in green. The SFRs with yellow backgrounds are SFRs which in some way control the operation or the configuration of some aspect of the 8051. For example, TCON controls the timers, SCON controls the serial port. The remaining SFRs, with green backgrounds, are "other SFRs." These SFRs can be thought of as auxiliary SFRs in the sense that they don't directly configure the 8051 but obviously the 8051 cannot operate without them. For example, once the serial port has been configured using SCON, the program may read or write to the serial port using the SBUF register. SFR Descriptions This section will endeavor to quickly overview each of the standard SFRs found in the above SFR chart map. It is not the intention of this section to fully explain the functionality of each SFR--this information will be covered in separate chapters of the tutorial. This section is to just give you a general idea of what each SFR does. P0 (Port 0, Address 80h, Bit-Addressable): This is input/output port 0. Each bit of this SFR corresponds to one of the pins on the microcontroller. For example,

bit 0 of port 0 is pin P0.0, bit 7 is pin P0.7. Writing a value of 1 to a bit of this SFR will send a high level on the corresponding I/O pin whereas a value of 0 will bring it to a low level. SP (Stack Pointer, Address 81h): This is the stack pointer of the microcontroller. This SFR indicates where the next value to be taken from the stack will be read from in Internal RAM. If you push a value onto the stack, the value will be written to the address of SP + 1. That is to say, if SP holds the value 07h, a PUSH instruction will push the value onto the stack at address 08h. This SFR is modified by all instructions which modify the stack, such as PUSH, POP, LCALL, RET, RETI, and whenever interrupts are provoked by the microcontroller. DPL/DPH (Data Pointer Low/High, Addresses 82h/83h): The SFRs DPL and DPH work together to represent a 16-bit value called the Data Pointer. The data pointer is used in operations regarding external RAM and some instructions involving code memory. Since it is an unsigned two-byte integer value, it can represent values from 0000h to FFFFh (0 through 65,535 decimal). PCON (Power Control, Addresses 87h): The Power Control SFR is used to control the 8051's power control modes. Certain operation modes of the 8051 allow the 8051 to go into a type of "sleep" mode which requires much less power. These modes of operation are controlled through PCON. Additionally, one of the bits in PCON is used to double the effective baud rate of the 8051's serial port. TCON (Timer Control, Addresses 88h, and Bit-Addressable): The Timer Control SFR is used to configure and modify the way in which the 8051's two timers operate. This SFR controls whether each of the two timers is running or stopped and contains a flag to indicate that each timer has overflowed. Additionally, some non-timer related bits are located in the TCON SFR. These bits are used to configure the way in which the external interrupts are activated and also contain the external interrupt flags which are set when an external interrupt has occurred. TMOD (Timer Mode, Addresses 89h): The Timer Mode SFR is used to configure the mode of operation of each of the two timers. Using this SFR your program may configure each timer to be a 16-bit timer, an 8-bit auto reload timer,

a 13-bit timer, or two separate timers. Additionally, you may configure the timers to only count when an external pin is activated or to count "events" that are indicated on an external pin. TL0/TH0 (Timer 0 Low/High, Addresses 8Ah/8Bh): These two SFRs, taken together, represent timer 0. Their exact behavior depends on how the timer is configured in the TMOD SFR; however, these timers always count up. What is configurable is how and when they increment in value. TL1/TH1 (Timer 1 Low/High, Addresses 8Ch/8Dh): These two SFRs, taken together, represent timer 1. Their exact behavior depends on how the timer is configured in the TMOD SFR; however, these timers always count up. What is configurable is how and when they increment in value. P1 (Port 1, Address 90h, Bit-Addressable): This is input/output port 1. Each bit of this SFR corresponds to one of the pins on the microcontroller. For example, bit 0 of port 1 is pin P1.0, bit 7 is pin P1.7. Writing a value of 1 to a bit of this SFR will send a high level on the corresponding I/O pin whereas a value of 0 will bring it to a low level. SCON (Serial Control, Addresses 98h, Bit-Addressable): The Serial Control SFR is used to configure the behavior of the 8051's on-board serial port. This SFR controls the baud rate of the serial port, whether the serial port is activated to receive data, and also contains flags that are set when a byte is successfully sent or received. SBUF (Serial Control, Addresses 99h): The Serial Buffer SFR is used to send and receive data via the on-board serial port. Any value written to SBUF will be sent out the serial port's TXD pin. Likewise, any value which the 8051 receives via the serial port's RXD pin will be delivered to the user program via SBUF. In other words, SBUF serves as the output port when written to and as an input port when read from. P2 (Port 2, Address A0h, Bit-Addressable): This is input/output port 2. Each bit of this SFR corresponds to one of the pins on the microcontroller. For example, bit 0 of port 2 is pin P2.0, bit 7 is pin P2.7. Writing a value of 1 to a bit of this SFR will send a high level on the corresponding I/O pin whereas a value of 0 will bring it to a low level.

IE (Interrupt Enable, Addresses A8h): The Interrupt Enable SFR is used to enable and disable specific interrupts. The low 7 bits of the SFR are used to enable/disable the specific interrupts, where as the highest bit is used to enable or disable ALL interrupts. Thus, if the high bit of IE is 0 all interrupts are disabled regardless of whether an individual interrupt is enabled by setting a lower bit. P3 (Port 3, Address B0h, Bit-Addressable): This is input/output port 3. Each bit of this SFR corresponds to one of the pins on the microcontroller. For example, bit 0 of port 3 is pin P3.0, bit 7 is pin P3.7. Writing a value of 1 to a bit of this SFR will send a high level on the corresponding I/O pin whereas a value of 0 will bring it to a low level. IP (Interrupt Priority, Addresses B8h, Bit-Addressable): The Interrupt Priority SFR is used to specify the relative priority of each interrupt. On the 8051, an interrupt may either be of low (0) priority or high (1) priority. An interrupt may only interrupt interrupts of lower priority. For example, if we configure the 8051 so that all interrupts are of low priority except the serial interrupt, the serial interrupt will always be able to interrupt the system, even if another interrupt is currently executing. However, if a serial interrupt is executing no other interrupt will be able to interrupt the serial interrupt routine since the serial interrupt routine has the highest priority. PSW (Program Status Word, Addresses D0h, Bit-Addressable): The Program Status Word is used to store a number of important bits that are set and cleared by 8051 instructions. The PSW SFR contains the carry flag, the auxiliary carry flag, the overflow flag, and the parity flag. Additionally, the PSW register contains the register bank select flags which are used to select which of the "R" register banks are currently selected. ACC (Accumulator, Addresses E0h, Bit-Addressable): The Accumulator is one of the most used SFRs on the 8051 since it is involved in so many instructions. The Accumulator resides as an SFR at E0h, which means the instruction MOV A, #20h is really the same as MOV E0h,#20h. However, it is a good idea to use the first method since it only requires two bytes whereas the second option requires three bytes.

B (B Register, Addresses F0h, Bit-Addressable): The "B" register is used in two instructions: the multiply and divide operations. The B register is also commonly used by programmers as an auxiliary register to temporarily store values. Basic Registers The Accumulator The Accumulator, as its name suggests, is used as a general register to accumulate the results of a large number of instructions. It can hold an 8-bit (1-byte) value and is the most versatile register the 8051 has due to the shear number of instructions that make use of the accumulator. More than half of the 8051s 255 instructions manipulate or use the accumulator in some way. For example, if we add the number 10 and 20, the resulting 30 will be stored in the accumulator. The "R" registers The "R" registers are a set of eight registers that are named R0, R1, etc. up to and including R7. These registers are used as auxiliary registers in many operations. To continue with the above example, perhaps you are adding 10 and 20. The original number 10 may be stored in the Accumulator whereas the value 20 may be store in, say, register R4. To process the addition you would execute the command: ADD A,R4 After executing this instruction the Accumulator will contain the value 30. The "R" registers as very important auxiliary, or "helper", registers. The Accumulator alone would not be very useful if it were not for these "R" registers. The "R" registers are also used to temporarily store values. MOV A, R3; Move the value of R3 into the accumulator ADD A, R4; Add the value of R4 MOV R5, A; Store the resulting value temporarily in R5 MOV A, R; Move the value of R1 into the accumulator ADD A,R2 ;Add the value of R2 SUBB A,R5 ;Subtract the value of R5 (which now contains R3 + R4)

In the above example we used R5 to temporarily hold the sum of R3 and R4. Of course, this isnt the most efficient way to calculate (R1+R2) - (R3 +R4) but it does illustrate the use of the "R" registers as a way to store values temporarily. The "B" Register The "B" register is very similar to the Accumulator in the sense that it may hold an 8-bit (1-byte) value. The "B" register is only used by two 8051 instructions: MUL AB and DIV AB. Thus, if you want to quickly and easily multiply or divide A by another number, you may store the other number in "B" and make use of these two instructions. Aside from the MUL and DIV an instruction, the B register is often used as yet another temporary storage register much like a ninth "R" register. The Data Pointer (DPTR) The Data Pointer (DPTR) is the 8051s only user-accessible 16-bit (2-byte) register. The Accumulator, "R" registers, and "B" register are all 1-byte values. DPTR, as the name suggests, is used to point to data. It is used by a number of commands which allow the 8051 to access external memory. When the 8051 accesses external memory it will access external memory at the address indicated by DPTR. While DPTR is most often used to point to data in external memory, many programmers often take advantage of the fact that its the only true 16-bit register available. It is often used to store 2-byte values which have nothing to do with memory locations.

The Program Counter (PC) The Program Counter (PC) is a 2-byte address which tells the 8051 where the next instruction to execute is found in memory. When the 8051 is initialized PC always starts at 0000h and is incremented each time an instruction is executed. It is important to note that PC isnt always incremented by one. Since some instructions require 2 or 3 bytes the PC will be incremented by 2 or 3 in these cases. The Program Counter is special in that there is no way to directly modify its value. That is to say, you cant do something

like PC=2430h. On the other hand, if you execute LJMP 2340h youve effectively accomplished the same thing. It is also interesting to note that while you may change the value of PC (by executing a jump instruction, etc.) there is no way to read the value of PC. That is to say, there is no way to ask the 8051. Events that Trigger Interrupts The 8051 can be configured so that any of the following events will cause an interrupt: Timer 0 Overflow. Timer 1 Overflow. Reception/Transmission of Serial Character. External Event 0. External Event 1. In other words, we can configure the 8051 so that when Timer 0 overflows or when a character is sent/received, the appropriate interrupt handler routines are called. Obviously we need to be able to distinguish between various interrupts and executing different code depending on what interrupt was triggered. This is accomplished by jumping to a fixed address when a given interrupt occurs.

Tab 6.2.4 Interrupt Handler Address and the Interrupts associated to them By consulting the above chart we see that whenever Timer 0 overflows (i.e., the TF0 bit is set), the main program will be temporarily suspended and control will jump to 00BH. It is assumed that we have code at address 0003H that handles the situation of Timer 0 overflowing. Setting up Interrupts By default at power up, all interrupts are disabled. This means that even if, for example, the TF0 bit is set, the 8051 will not execute the interrupt. Your program must specifically tell the 8051 that it wishes to enable interrupts and specifically

which interrupts it wishes to enable. Your program may enable and disable interrupts by modifying the IE SFR (A8h):

Tab 6.2.5 Setting up Interrupts For example, to enable Timer 1 Interrupt, you would execute either: MOV IE, #08h || SETB ET1 Both of the above instructions set bit 3 of IE, thus enabling Timer 1 Interrupt. Once Timer 1 Interrupt is enabled, whenever the TF1 bit is set, the 8051 will automatically put "on hold" the main program and execute the Timer 1 Interrupt Handler at address 001Bh. However, before Timer 1 Interrupt (or any other interrupt) is truly enabled, you must also set bit 7 of IE. Bit 7, the Global Interrupt Enable/Disable, enables or disables all interrupts simultaneously. That is to say, if bit 7 is cleared then no interrupts ill occur, even if all the other bits of IE are set. Setting bit 7 will enable all the interrupts that have been selected by setting other bits in IE. This is useful in program execution if you have time-critical code that needs to execute. In this case, you may need the code to execute from start to finish without any interrupt getting in the way. Accomplish this you can simply clear bit 7 of IE (CLR EA) and then set it after your timecriticial code is done. So, to sum up what has been stated in this section, to enable the Timer 1 Interrupt the most common approach is to execute the following two Instructions: SETB ET1 SETB EA Thereafter, the Timer 1 Interrupt Handler at 01Bh will automatically be called whenever the TF1 bit is set (upon Timer 1 overflow). Interrupt Priorities

The 8051 offer two levels of interrupt priority: high and low. By using interrupt priorities you may assign higher priority to certain interrupt conditions. For example, you may have enabled Timer 1 Interrupt, which is automatically called every time Timer 1 overflows. Additionally, we may have enabled the Serial Interrupt, which is called every time a character is received via the serial port. However, you may consider that receiving a character is much more important than the timer interrupt. In this case, if Timer 1 Interrupt is already executing you may wish that the serial interrupt itself interrupts the Timer 1 Interrupt. When the serial interrupt is complete, control passes back to Timer 1 Interrupt and finally back to the main program. You may accomplish this by assigning a high priority to the Serial Interrupt and a low priority to the Timer 1 Interrupt. Interrupt priorities are controlled by the IP SFR (B8h). The IP SFR has the following format:

Tab 6.2.6 Interrupt Priorities Bit Name Bit Address Explanation of Function 7 - - Undefined 6 - - Undefined 5 - - Undefined 4 PS BCh Serial Interrupt Priority 3 PT1 BBh Timer 1 Interrupt Priority 2 PX1 BAh External 1 Interrupt Priorities 1 PT0 B9h Timer 0 Interrupt Priority 0 PX0 B8h External 0 Interrupt Priority When considering interrupt priorities, the following rules apply: Nothing can interrupt a high-priority interrupt-- not even another high priority interrupt. A high-priority interrupt may interrupt a low priority interrupt.

 A low-priority interrupt may only occur if no other interrupt is already executing. If two interrupts occur at the same time, the interrupt with higher priority will execute first. If both interrupts are of the same priority the interrupt, which is serviced first by polling sequence, will be executed first. When an interrupt is triggered, the following actions are taken automatically by the Micro controller: The current Program Counter is saved on the stack, low-byte first. Interrupts of the same and lower priority are blocked. In the case of Timer and External interrupts, the corresponding interrupt flag is set. Program execution transfers to the corresponding interrupt handler vector address. The Interrupt Handler Routine executes. Take special note of the third step: If the Interrupt being handled is a Timer or External interrupt; the micro controller automatically clears the interrupt flag before passing control to your interrupt handler routine. An interrupt ends when your program executes the RETI instruction. When the RETI Instruction is executed the micro controller takes the following actions: Two bytes are popped off the stack into the Program Counter to restore normal program Execution. Interrupt status is restored to its pre-interrupt status. Serial Interrupts Serial Interrupts are slightly different than the rest of the interrupts. This is due to the fact that there is two interrupt flags: RI and TI. If either flag is set, a serial interrupt is triggered. As you will recall from the section on the serial port, the RI bit is set when a byte is received by the serial port and the TI bit is set when a byte has been sent. This means that when your serial interrupt is executed, it may have been triggered because the RI flag was set or because the TI flag was set-- or because both flags were set. Thus, the routine must check the status of these flags to determine that action is appropriate. Also, since the 8051 does not automatically clear the RI and TI flags You must clear these bits in your interrupt handler.

INT_SERIAL: JNB RI, CHECK_TI; if the RI flag is not set, we jump to check TI MOV A, SBUF; If we got to this line, its because the RI bit *was* set CLR RI; Clear the RI bit after weve processed it CHECK_TI: JNB TI, EXIT_INT; if the TI flag is not set, we jump to the exit point CLR TI; Clear the TI bit) Universal Asynchronous Receive Transmit (UART) The UART provides means of asynchronous serial communication between devices or systems. It is essentially a parallel to serial and serial to parallel converter that conforms to a certain protocol for coding the data and interface specifications. b) Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) SPI is used for synchronous serial communication. Because of its synchronous nature it uses a separate connection for clock. Additionally it requires a transmit data, receive data, and enable. SPI interfaces run as fast as 10MHz,which is why high density EEPROM are increasingly using this serial interface method. c) I2C I2C uses a bi-directional 3-wire (including ground) bus for communication between multiple devices. Communication protocol is based on a master/slave relationship. The maximum number of devices is limited by the 16K address space of the protocol and the maximum allowable capacitance on the lines (400pF). The original standard had a 100kHz maximum clock speed. The low pin count associated with the I2C has made it the industry standard for serial interface to EEPROM chips. The drawback with I 2C interface is its inherent intolerance to noise. Enhanced I2C schemes extend the address space to about 512K and the maximum clock speed to about 400kHz. e) Other serial interface standards Other serial interfaces have been developed that specialize in certain functionality. Controller Area Network (CAN) was designed to operate in noisy environments such as in automobiles and industrial applications. Universal Serial Bus (USB) and IEEE 1394 are two serial interface standards that address

interface speed issues. USB 2.0 supports data rates as high as 480 Mbps and IEEE 1394b supports data rates greater than 1Gbps. 6. Timers and Clocks a) General Purpose Timer : A free running timer can be used to keep

track of time of day and the date. A timer can also be used for precise measurement of time. For example, using an onboard timer and digital I/O, A dual slope ADC can be externally implemented using few analog components where the timer is used to set the integration period and measure the deintegration time. b) Watch Dog Timer (WDT) : A timer can be used to verify proper

operation of the CPU. This is typically done using a WDT. WDT operates by continuously incrementing a count value stored in the WDT register. If the value in the WDT register reaches a preset final count, an interrupt is generated which indicates a fault condition. During normal operation, the software should prevent the WDT register from reaching its final count by periodically resetting it to zero. For development or testing activities the WDT should be disabled. c) Real Time Clock (RTC) : RTC is a programmable timer that is used

to perform a certain task at regular intervals. For example to sample an analog waveform at regular intervals with an Analog to Digital Converter, an RTC can be programmed to generate interrupts at the sampling rate. The interrupt service routine will then activate the ADC and after completion of each conversion stores the result in an array. 7. Memory : Most often all the memory required for the operation of a

micro controller is included on board. Program is usually stored in non-volatile memory such as ROM. In that situation the program has to be fully tested before committing it to silicon. Micro controllers are usually equipped with an emulation mode that enables access to external memory. This mode of operation can be used for program development or debugging. Other forms of memory used in micro controllers include EEPROM and RAM. EEPROM is used for non-volatile storage of variables such as calibration data and system settings. RAM is used for temporary storage of variables.

External Device Drivers a) LCD Interface: Liquid Crystal Display drivers consisting of logic,

signal level generation and row and column drivers may be included on the micro controller chip. LCD interface usually involves a large number of pins for the LCD row and column drivers. Including LCD driver on the chip results in a significant increase in the package pin count. b) LED Interface: LEDs are used for status indicator or signal

transmission. Special high current drivers are needed to handle the large current required by the LED. Integrating the driver on the micro controller simplifies system level design but the large currents can complicate the design of the chip. FEATURES OF 8051 MICRO CONTROLLER The features of the micro controller are as follows: Compatible with MCS-51 Products 4K Bytes of In-System Reprogrammable Flash Memory Endurance: 1,000 Write/Erase Cycles Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz Three-level Program Memory Lock 128 x 8-bit Internal RAM 32 Programmable I/O Lines Two 16-bit Timer/Counters Six Interrupt Sources Programmable Serial Channel Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes

Status of External Pins During Idle and Power-down Modes Mode Program Memory ALE PSEN PORT0 PORT1 PORT2 PORT3

Idle Idle Power down Power down

Internal External Internal

1 1 0

1 1 0

Data Float Data

Data Data Data

Data Address Data

Data Data Data

External

Float

Data

Data

Data

Figure 2. External Clock Drive Configuration Power-down Mode In the power-down mode, the oscillator is stopped, and the instruction that invokes power-down is the last instruction executed. The on-chip RAM and Special Function Registers retain their values until the power-down mode is terminated. The only exit from power-down is a hardware reset. Reset redefines the SFRs but does not change the on-chip RAM. The reset should not be activated before V CC is restored to its normal operating level and must be held active long enough to allow the oscillator to restart and stabilize.

Program Memory Lock Bits On the chip are three lock bits that can be left unprogrammed (U) or can be programmed (P) to obtain the additional features listed in the table below. When lock bit 1 is programmed, the logic level at the EA pin is sampled and latched

during reset. If the device is powered up without a reset, the latch initializes to a random value, and holds that value until reset is activated. It is necessary that the latched value of EA be in agreement with the current logic level at that pin in order for the device to function properly.

Lock Bit Protection Modes

Program Lock Bits LB1 LB2 LB3 Protection Type

1 2

U P

U U

U U

No program lock features MOVC instructions executed from

external program memory are disabled from fetching code bytes from internal memory, EA is sampled and latched on reset and further programming of the Flash is disabled 3 disabled 4 P P P Same as mode 3, and also external P P U Same as mode 2, also verify is

execution is disabled

INTERRUPT PROGRAMMING WITH 8051

An interrupt is an external or internal event that interrupts the micro controller to inform it that a device needs its service. In the interrupt method, whenever any device needs its service, the device notifies the micro controller by sending it an interrupt signal. Upon receiving an interrupt signal, the micro controller interrupts whatever it is doing and serves the device. For every interrupt, there must be an service routine called as interrupt service routine (ISR) or interrupt handler. There is a fixed location in memory that holds the address of its ISR. The group of memory locations set aside to hold the addresses of ISRs is called the vector table. Steps in executing an interrupt Upon activation of an interrupt in a micro controller, it follows the following steps: It finishes the instruction it is executing and saves the address of the next instruction on the stack. It also saves the current status of all interrupts internally. It jumps to a fixed location in memory called vector table that holds the address of the interrupt service routine. The micro controller gets the address of the ISR from the interrupt vector table and jumps to it. It starts to execute the interrupt service subroutine until it reaches the last instruction of the subroutine, which is RETI (Return from Interrupt).Upon executing the RETI instruction, the micro controller returns to the place where it was interrupted. First, it gets the program counter (PC) address from the stack by popping the top two bytes of the stack into the PC. Then it starts execute from that address. SIX INTERRUPTS IN 8051 There are really five interrupts available to the user in the 8051 but many manufacturers data sheets state that there are six interrupts since they include RESET. RESET: When the reset pin is activated, the 8051 jumps to address location 0000. This is the power-up reset.

Two interrupts are set aside for the timers: one for timer0 and one for timer1. Memory locations 000BH and 001BH in the interrupt vector table belong to timer0 and timer1, respectively. Two interrupts are set aside for hardware external hardware interrupts. Pin numbers 12 (P3.2) and 13 (P3.3) in port34 are for the external hardware interrupts INT0 and INT1, respectively. Memory locations 0003H and 0013H in the interrupt vector table are assigned to INT0 and INT1, respectively. Serial communication has a single interrupt that belongs to both receive and transfer. The interrupt vector table location 0023H belongs to this interrupt. Table 1: Interrupt Vector Table for the 8051

INTERRUPT Reset interrupt 0 (INT0) Timer 0 interrupt 1 (INT1) Timer 1 SerialCOMinterrupt

ROM Locatio (Hex) 0000 0003 000B 0013 001B 0023

Pin 9 P3.2 (12) P3.3 (13)

Enabling and disabling an interrupt Upon rest, all interrupts are disabled (masked), meaning that none will be responded to by the micro controller if they are activated. The interrupts must be enabled by software in order for the micro controller to respond to them. There is a register called INTERRUPT ENABLE (IE) that is responsible for enabling and disabling the interrupts. IE (Interrupt Enable) Register

EA

ET2

ES

ET1

EX1

ET0

EX0

1. EA

IE.7 Disables all interrupts. If EA=0, no interrupt is acknowledged. If

ea=1, each interrupt source is individually enabled or disabled by setting or clearing its enable bit. 2. -3. ET2 4. ES 5. ET1 6. EX1 7. ET0 6. EX0 NOTE: * IE.6 IE.5 IE.4 IE.3 IE.2 IE.1 IE.0 Not implemented, reserved for future use.* Enables or disables timer2 overflow or capture interrupt. Enables or disables the serial port interrupt. Enables or disables timer1 overflow interrupt. Enables or disables external interrupt1. Enables or disables timer0 overflow interrupt. Enables or disables external interrupt0.

User software should not write 1s to reserved bits. These bits may be

used in future Flash micro controllers to invoke new features. Steps in enabling an interrupt To enable an interrupt, we take the following steps: Bit D7 of the TE register must be set to high to allow the rest of register to take effect. If EA=1, interrupts are enabled and will be responded to if their corresponding bits in IE are high. If EA=0, no interrupt will be responded to, even if the associated bit in the IE register is high.

The block diagram of the system is as shown in the fig. The system basically consists of a RF transmitter: General Description:

The ST-TX01-ASK is an ASK Hybrid transmitter module. ST-TX01-ASK is designed by the Saw Resonator, with an effective low cost, small size, and simple-to-use for designing. Frequency Range:315 / 433.92 MHZ. Supply Voltage: 3~12V. Output Power : 4~16dBm Circuit Shape: Saw Applications *Wireless security systems *Car Alarm systems *Remote controls. *Sensor reporting *Automation systems Absolute Maximum Ratings Specification Parameter Symbol Condition Min. Typical Max. Unit Operation Voltage 3V 5V 12V V 315MHz 4 10 16 dBm Supply current 11 20 57 mA 434MHz 4 10 16 dBm Output power Psens DATA 5V 1Kbps Data Rate Supply current 11 22 59 mA Tune on Time Ton Data start out by Vcc turn on 10 20 ms Data Rate 200 1k 3k bps

Input duty Vcc=5V; 1kbps data rate 40 60 % Temperature -20 +80 .

Fig 3.3 Transmitter Module

Fig 3.4 Transmitter Interface with micro controller unit

RF module (Receiver): Description: General Description: The ST- RX04-ASK is an ASK superhet receiver module with PLL synthesizer and crystal oscillator. The circuit shape is: PLL. Receiver Frequency: 315 / 433.92 MHZ Operation Voltage 5V IF Frequency: 500k Typical sensitivity: -105dBm Supply Current: 2.3mA

Applications: 1 2 3 4 5 Features 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Low power consumption. Easy for application. On-Chip VCO with integrated PLL using crystal oscillator reference. Integrated IF and data filters. Operation temperature range : 1060 Operation voltage : 5 Volts. Available frequency at : 315/434 MHz Car security system Wireless security systems Sensor reporting Automation system Remote Keyless entry

Remark: 1. Antenna length about :23cm for 315 MHz 17cm for 434 MHz

Fig 3.5 Receiver Module

Fig 3.6 RF receiver interface with Micro controller unit:

Table 3.1 Electrical characteristics:

Encoder HT12E The encoders are a series of CMOS LSIs for remote control system applications. They are capable of encoding information, which consists of N address bits and 12_N data bits. Each address/data input can be set to one of the two logic states. The programmed addresses/data are transmitted together with the header bits via an RF or an infrared transmission medium upon receipt of a trigger signal. The capability to select a TE trigger on the HT12E.

Fig 3.7 PIN diagram

Fig 3.8 pin diagram

Table 3.2 Pin description

Functional Description Operation The encoders begin a 4-word transmission cycle upon receipt of a transmission enable (TE for the HT12E, active low). This cycle will repeat itself as long as the transmission enable TE is held low. Once the transmission enable returns high the encoder output completes its final cycle and then stops as shown below. Transmission Enable For the HT12E encoders, applying a low signal to the TE pin enables transmission.

Fig 3.9 transmission timing Diagram Address/Data Programming (Preset) The status of each address/data pin can be individually pre-set to logic _high_ or _low_. If a transmission-enable signal is applied, the encoder scans and transmits the status of the 12 bits of address/data serially in the order A0 to AD11 for the HT12E encoder During information transmission these bits are transmitted with a preceding synchronization bit. If the trigger signal is not applied, the chip enters the standby mode and consumes a reduced current of less than 1_A for a supply voltage of 5V. Usual applications preset the address pins with individual security codes using DIPswitches or PCB wiring, while the data is selected by push buttons or electronic switches.

Fig 3.9.1 Address and data flow diagram

Flow chart:

Table3.3 Electrical characteristics

Receiver section: In the receiver section we are using RF receiver for receiving the data now the Decoder HT12D can decode received data. This decoded data will be fed into the Port 1 of micro controller from the Address/data lines of the Decoder IC. This Receiving data send through port2 of micro controller to the data lines of the LCD (D0-D7) .now the data displayed on the LCD.This output data can be displayed on an LCD. LCD: Most of the character type LCD modules have parallel bus for interfacing with in the embedded controls it has an eight bit bus, a module select signal (cs), a read/write signal and another line A0 it selects the address so the micro controller has to spare 11 I/O lines to display the given Data on the LCD.

Decoder HT 12D General Description The decoders are a series of CMOS LSIs for remote Control system applications. For proper operation, a pair of encoder/decoder with the same number of addresses and data format should be chosen. The decoders receive serial addresses and data from programmed encoders. Which are transmitted by a carrier using an RF or an IR transmission medium. They compare the serial input data three times continuously with their local addresses. If no error or unmatched Codes are found the input data codes are decoded and then transferred to the output pins. The VTpin also goes high to indicate a valid transmission. of decoders are capable of decoding Information that consists of N bits of address and 12_NBits of data of this series, the HT12D is arranged to provide8 address bits and 4 data bits, and HT12F is used to Decode 12 bits of address information.

Fig 3.9.2 Internal Block diagram

Fig 4.0 Receiver circuit:

FIG 4.1 PIN DIAGRAM

Functional Description Operation The 212 series of decoders provides various combinations of addresses and data pins in different packages so as to pair with the 212 series of encoders. The decoders receive data that are transmitted by an encoder and interpret the first N bits of code period as Addresses and the last 12_N bits as data, where N is the address code number. A signal on the DIN pin activates the oscillator, which in turn decodes the incoming address and data. The decoders will then check the received address three times continuously. If the received address codes all match the contents of the decoder_slocal address, the 12_N bits of data are decoded to activate the output pins and the VT pin is set high to indicate a valid transmission. This will last unless the address code is incorrect or no signal is received. The output of the VT pin is high only when the transmissionis valid. Otherwise it is always low. Decoder timing

L293D IC(DC MOTOR DRIVER)

FIGURE: L293 & L293D Driver ICs The L293 and L293D are quadruple high-current half-H drivers. The L293 is designed to provide bidirectional drive currents of up to 1 A at voltages from 4.5 V to 36 V. The L293D is designed to provide bidirectional drive currents of up to 600-mA at voltages from 4.5 V to 36 V. Both devices are designed to drive

inductive loads such as relays, solenoids, dc and bipolar stepping motors, as well as other high-current/high-voltage loads in positive-supply applications. All inputs are TTL compatible. Each output is a complete totem-pole drive circuit, with a Darlington transistor sink and a pseudo-Darlington source. Drivers are enabled in pairs, with drivers 1 and 2 enabled by 1,2EN and drivers 3 and 4 enabled by 3,4EN. When an enable input is high, the associated drivers are enabled and their outputs are active and in phase with their inputs. When the enable input is low, those drivers are disabled and their outputs are off and in the high-impedance state. With the proper data inputs, each pair of drivers forms a full-H (or bridge) reversible drive suitable for solenoid or motor applications. On the L293, external high-speed output clamp diodes should be used for inductive transient suppression. A VCC1 terminal, separate from VCC2, is provided for the logic inputs to minimize device power dissipation. The L293and L293D are characterized for operation from 0C to 70C.

Use of Infrared Detectors Basics

Principle : IR LED emits infrared radiation. This radiation illuminates the surface in front of LED. Surface reflects the infrared light. Depending on reflectivity of the surface, amount of light reflected varies. This reflected light is made incident on reverse biased IR sensor. When photons are incident on reverse biased junction of this

diode, electron-hole pairs are generated, which results in reverse leakage current. Amount of electron-hole pairs generated depends on intensity of incident IR radiation. More intense radiation results in more reverse leakage current. This current can be passed through a resistor so as to get proportional voltage. Thus as intensity of incident rays varies, voltage across resistor will vary accordingly. This voltage can then be given to OPAMP based comparator. Output of the comparator can be read by uC. Alternatively, you can use on-chip ADC in AVR microcontroller to measure this voltage and perform comparison in software. IR LED and IR sensor : IR LED is used as a source of infrared rays. It comes in two packages 3mm or 5mm. 3mm is better as it is requires less space. IR sensor is nothing but a diode, which is sensitive for infrared radiation. This infrared transmitter and receiver is called as IR TX-RX pair. It can be obtained from any decent electronics component shop and costs less than 10Rs. Following snap shows 3mm and 5mm IR pairs. Colour of IR transmitter and receiver is different. However you may come across pairs which appear exactly same or even has opposite colours than shown in above pic and it is not possible to distinguish between TX and RX visually. In case you will have to take help of multimeter to distinguish between them.

An infrared emitter is an LED made from gallium arsenide, which emits nearinfrared energy at about 880nm. The infrared phototransistor acts as a transistor with the base voltage determined by the amount of light hitting the transistor. Hence it acts as a variable current source. Greater amount of IR light cause greater currents to flow through the collector-emitter leads. As shown in the diagram below, the phototransistor is wired in a similar configuration to the voltage divider. The variable current traveling through the resistor causes a voltage drop in the pull-up resistor. This voltage is measured as the output of the device.

Photo IR reflectance sensors contain a matched infrared transmitter and infrared receiver pair. These devices work by measuring the amount of light that is reflected into the receiver. Because the receiver also responds to ambient light, the device works best when well shielded from abient light, and when the distance between the sensor and

the reflective surface is small(less than 5mm). IR reflectance sensors are often used to detect white and black surfaces. White surfaces generally reflect well, while black surfaces reflect poorly. One of such applications is the line follower of a robot.

How Infrared Trans Rex detectors work ?

Schematic Diagram for a Single Pair of Infrared Transmitter and Receiver

Theory of Sensor Circuit

To get a good voltage swing , the value of R1 must be carefully chosen. If Rsensor = a when no light falls on it and Rsensor = b when light falls on it. The difference in the two potentials is: Vcc * { a/(a+R1) - b/(b+R1) } Relative voltage swing = Actual Voltage Swing / Vcc = Vcc * { a/(a+R1) - b/(b+R1) } / Vcc = a/(a+R1) - b/(b+R1) The resistance of the sensor decreases when IR light falls on it. A good sensor will have near zero resistance in presence of light and a very large resistance in absence of light. We have used this property of the sensor to form a potential divider. The potential at point 2 is Rsensor / (Rsensor + R1). Again, a good sensor circuit should give maximum change in potential at point 2 for no-light and bright-light conditions. This is especially important if you plan to use an ADC in place of the comparator. To get a good voltage swing , the value of R1 must be carefully chosen. If Rsensor = a when no light falls on it and Rsensor = b when light falls on it. The difference in the two potentials is: Vcc * { a/(a+R1) - b/(b+R1) } Relative voltage swing = Actual Voltage Swing / Vcc

= Vcc * { a/(a+R1) - b/(b+R1) } / Vcc = a/(a+R1) - b/(b+R1)

Description of operation of a typical circuit

If the emitter and detector (aka phototransistor) are not blocked, then the output on pin 2 of the 74LS14 will be high (apx. 5 Volts). When they are blocked, then the output will be low (apx. 0 Volts). The 74LS14 is a Schmitt triggered hex inverter. A Schmitt trigger is a signal conditioner. It ensures that above a threshold value, we will always get "clean" HIGH and LOW signals. Not Blocked Case: Pin 2 High Current from Vcc flows through the detector. The current continues to flow through the base of Q2. Current from Vcc also flows through R2, and Q2's Drain and Emitter to ground. As a result of this current path, there will be no current flowing through Q1's base. The signal at U1's pin 1 will be low, and so pin 2 will be high. Blocked Case: Pin 2 Low Current "stops" at the detector. Q2's base is not turned on. The current is re-routed passing through R2 and into the base of Q1. This allows current to flow from Q1's detector and exiting out Q1's emitter. Pin 1 is thus high and pin 2 will be low.

To detect a line to be followed, we are using two or more number of potoreflectors. Its output current that proportional to reflection rate of the floor is converted to voltage with a resister and tested it if the line is detected or not. However the threshold voltage cannot be fixed to any level because optical current by ambent light is added to the output current. Most photo-detecting modules are using modurated light to avoid interference by the ambient light. The detected signal is filtered with a band pass filter and disused signals are filtered out. Therefore only the modurated signal from the light emitter can be detected. Of course the detector must not be saturated by ambient light, this is effective when the detector is working in linear region.

The line position is compeared to the center value to be tracked, the position error is processed with Proportional/Integral/Diffence filters to generate steering command. The line following robot tracks the line in PID control that the most popular algorithm for servo control. The proportional term is the commom process in the servo system. It is only a gain amplifier without time dependent process. The differential term is applied in order to improve the response to disturbance, and it also compensate phase lag at the controlled object. The D term will be required in most case to stabilize tracking motion. The I term that boosts DC gain is applied in order to remove left offset error, however, it often decrease servo stability due to its phase lag. When any line sensing error has occurred for a time due to getting out of line or end of line, the motors are stopped and the microcontroller enters sleep state of zero power consumption. Typical Examples of infrared Transmitter and Receiver installation

SERIAL COMMUNICATION BASICS OF SERIAL COMMUNICATION Computer transfers data in two ways these are 1. Parallel: Often 8 or more lines (wire conductors) are used to transfer data to a device that is only few feet away. 2. Serial: To transfer to a device located many meters away, the serial method is used. The data is sent one bit at a time.

Fig: Mode of Communication At the transmitting end, the byte of data must be converted to serial bits using parallel-in-serial-out shift register. At the receiving end, there is a serial-inparallel-out shift register to receive the serial data and pack them into byte. When the distance is short, the digital signal can be transferred as it is on a simple wire and requires no modulation. If data is to be transferred on the telephone line, it must be converted from 0s and 1s to audio tones. This conversion is performed by a device called a modem, Modulator/demodulator. Serial data communication uses two methods. First are synchronous method transfers a block of data at a time. Second is an asynchronous method transfer a single byte at a time. It is possible to write software to use either of these methods, but the programs can be tedious and long. There are special IC chips made by many manufacturers for serial communications namely UART (universal asynchronous Receiver-transmitter) & USART (universal synchronous-asynchronous Receivertransmitter).

Fig: Diagrammatic Simplex & Duplex Transmission A protocol is a set of rules agreed by both the sender and receiver. Asynchronous serial data communication is widely used for character-oriented transmissions where each character is placed in between start and stop bits, this is called framing and block-oriented data transfers use the synchronous method. The start bit is always one bit, but the stop bit can be one or two bits the start bit is always a 0 (low) and the stop bit(s) is 1 (high).

Fig: Transmissions of Data Due to the extended ASCII characters, 8-bit ASCII data is common in modern

PCs the use of one stop bit is standard. Assuming that we are transferring a text file of ASCII characters using 1 stop bit, we have a total of 10 bits for each character. In some systems in order to maintain data integrity, the parity bit of the character byte is included in the data frame. The rate of data transfer in serial data communication is stated in bps (bits per second). Another widely used terminology for bps is baud rate. As far as the conductor wire is concerned, the baud rate and bps are the same, and we use the terms interchangeably. The data transfer rate of given computer system depends on communication ports incorporated into that system. An interfacing standard RS232 was set by the Electronics Industries Association (EIA) in 1960. The standard was set long before the advent of the TTL logic family, its input and output voltage levels is not TTL compatible where a 1 is represented by -3 ~ -25 V, while a 0 bit is +3 ~ +25 V, making -3 to +3 undefined.

8051 has two pins that are used specifically for transferring and receiving data serially. These two pins are called TxD and RxD and are part of the port 3 group (P3.0 and P3.1).These pins are TTL compatible; therefore, they require a line driver to make them RS232 compatible. To allow data transfer between the PC and an 8051 system without any error, we must make sure that the baud rate of 8051 system matches the baud rate of the PCs COM port. REGISTER STRUCTURE SBUF Register: This is an 8-bit register used solely for serial communication. For a byte data to be transferred via the TxD line, it must be placed in the SBUF register. The moment a byte is written into SBUF, it is framed with the start and stop bits and transferred serially via the TxD line. SBUF holds the byte of data when it is received by 8051 RxD line. When the bits are received serially via RxD, the 8051 defames it by eliminating the stop and start bits, making a byte out

of the data received, and then placing it in SBUF. SCON Register: SCON is an 8-bit register used to program the start bit, stop bit, and data bits of data framing, among other things.

Table Functions of various bits in SCON register SM0, SM1: They determine the framing of data by specifying the number of bits per character, and the start and stop bits.

Table Mode selection using SM0 & SM1 SM2: This enables the multiprocessing capability of the 8051. REN (receive enable): It is a bit-addressable register. When it is high, it allows 8051 to receive data on RxD pin. If low, the receiver is disables (transmit interrupt). When 8051 finishes the transfer of 8-bit character. It raises TI flag to indicate that it is ready to transfer another byte. TI bit is raised at the beginning of

the stop bit RI (receive interrupt). When 8051 receives data serially via RxD, it gets rid of the start and stop bits and places the byte in SBUF register. It raises the RI flag bit to indicate that a byte has been received and should be picked up before it is lost. RI is raised halfway through the stop bit. History and technology background

An RFID vosough tag used for electronic toll collection. In 1945 Leon Theremin invented an espionage tool for the Soviet Union which retransmitted incident radio waves with audio information. Sound waves vibrated a diaphragm which slightly altered the shape of the resonator, which modulated the reflected radio frequency. Even though this device was a covert listening device, not an identification tag, it is considered to be a predecessor of RFID technology, because it was likewise passive, being energized and activated by electromagnetic waves from an outside source. Similar technology, such as the IFF transponder invented in the United Kingdom in 1915, was routinely used by the allies in World War II to identify aircraft as friend or foe. Transponders are still used by most powered aircraft to this day. Another early work exploring RFID is the landmark 1948 paper by Harry Stockman, titled "Communication by Means of Reflected Power" (Proceedings of the IRE, pp 11961204, October 1948). Stockman predicted that "... considerable research and development work has to be done before the remaining basic problems in reflected-power communication are solved, and before the field of useful applications is explored."

Mario Cardullo's U.S. Patent 3,713,148 in 1973 was the first true ancestor of modern RFID; a passive radio transponder with memory. The initial device was passive, powered by the interrogating signal, and was demonstrated in 1971 to the New York Port Authority and other potential users and consisted of a transponder with 16 bit memory for use as a toll device. The basic Cardullo patent covers the use of RF, sound and light as transmission media. The original business plan presented to investors in 1969 showed uses in transportation (automotive vehicle identification, automatic toll system, electronic license plate, electronic manifest, vehicle routing, vehicle performance monitoring), banking (electronic check book, electronic credit card), security (personnel identification, automatic gates, surveillance) and medical (identification, patient history). A very early demonstration of reflected power (modulated backscatter) RFID tags, both passive and semi-passive, was performed by Steven Depp, Alfred Koelle, and Robert Freyman at the Los Alamos National Laboratory in 1973. The portable system operated at 915 MHz and used 12-bit tags. This technique is used by the majority of today's UHFID and microwave RFID tags. The first patent to be associated with the abbreviation RFID was granted to Charles Walton in 1983 U.S. Patent 4,384,288. The largest deployment of active RFID is the US Department of Defense use of Savi active tags on every one of its more than a million shipping containers that travel outside of the continental United States (CONUS). The largest passive RFID deployment is the Defense Logistics Agency (DLA) deployment across 72 facilities implemented by ODIN who also performed the global roll-out for Airbus consisting of 13 projects across the globe. What is RFID? RFID is short for Radio Frequency Identification. Generally a RFID system consists of 2 parts. A Reader, and one or more Transponders, also known as Tags. RFID systems evolved from barcode labels as a means to automatically identify and track products and people. You will be generally familiar with RFID systems as seen in:

Contact less Payment Systems: RFID tags used to carry payment information. RFIDs are particular suited to electronic Toll collection systems. Tags attached to vehicles, or carried by people transmit payment information to a fixed reader attached to a Toll station. Payments are then routinely deducted from a users account, or information is changed directly on the RFID tag. Access Control: RFID Readers placed at entrances that require a person to pass their proximity card (RF tag) to be "read' before the access can be made.

Product Tracking and Inventory Control: RFID systems are commonly used to track and record the movement of ordinary items such as library books, clothes, factory pallets, electrical goods and numerous items. How do RFIDs work? Shown below is a typical RFID system. In every RFID system the transponder Tags contain information. This information can be as little as a single binary bit , or be a large array of bits representing such things as an identity code, personal medical information, or literally any type of information that can be stored in digital binary format.

Shown is a RFID transceiver that communicates with a passive Tag. Passive tags have no power source of their own and instead derive power from the incident electromagnetic field. Commonly the heart of each tag is a microchip. When the Tag enters the generated RF field it is able to draw enough power from the field to access its internal memory and transmit its stored information. When the transponder Tag draws power in this way the resultant interaction of the RF fields causes the voltage at the transceiver antenna to drop in value. This effect is utilized by the Tag to communicate its information to the reader. The Tag is able to control the amount of power drawn from the field and by doing so it can modulate the voltage sensed at the Transceiver according to the bit pattern it wishes to transmit. COMPONENTS OF RFID A basic RFID system consists of three components:

An antenna or coil A transceiver (with decoder) A transponder (RF tag) electronically programmed with unique

information These are described below:

1.

ANTENNA

The antenna emits radio signals to activate the tag and read and write data to it. Antennas are the conduits between the tag and the transceiver, which controls the system's data acquisition and communication. Antennas are available in a variety of shapes and sizes; they can be built into a door frame to receive tag data from persons or things passing through the door, or mounted on an interstate tollbooth to monitor traffic passing by on a freeway. The electromagnetic field produced by an antenna can be constantly present when multiple tags are expected continually. If constant interrogation is not required, a sensor device can activate the field.

Often the antenna is packaged with the transceiver and decoder to become a reader (a.k.a. interrogator), which can be configured either as a handheld or a fixed-mount device. The reader emits radio waves in ranges of anywhere from one inch to 100 feet or more, depending upon its power output and the radio frequency used. When an RFID tag passes through the electromagnetic zone, it detects the reader's activation signal. The reader decodes the data encoded in the tag's integrated circuit (silicon chip) and the data is passed to the host computer for processing.

2.

TAGS (Transponders)

An RFID tag is comprised of a microchip containing identifying information and an antenna that transmits this data wirelessly to a reader. At its most basic, the chip will contain a serialized identifier, or license plate number, that uniquely identifies that item, similar to the way many bar codes are used today. A key difference, however is that RFID tags have a higher data capacity than their bar code counterparts. This increases the options for the type of information that can be encoded on the tag, including the manufacturer, batch or lot number, weight, ownership, destination and history (such as the temperature range to which an item has been exposed). In fact, an unlimited list of other types of information can be

stored on RFID tags, depending on application needs. An RFID tag can be placed on individual items, cases or pallets for identification purposes, as well as on fixed assets such as trailers, containers, totes, etc. Tags come in a variety of types, with a variety of capabilities. Key variables include: "Read-only" versus "read-write" There are three options in terms of how data can be encoded on tags: (1) Readonly tags contain data such as a serialized tracking number, which is pre-written onto them by the tag manufacturer or distributor. These are generally the least expensive tags because they cannot have any additional information included as they move throughout the supply chain. Any updates to that information would have to be maintained in the application software that tracks SKU movement and activity. (2) "Write once" tags enable a user to write data to the tag one time in production or distribution processes. Again, this may include a serial number, but perhaps other data such as a lot or batch number. (3) Full "read-write" tags allow new data to be written to the tag as neededand even written over the original data. Examples for the latter capability might include the time and date of ownership transfer or updating the repair history of a fixed asset. While these are the most costly of the three tag types and are not practical for tracking inexpensive items, future standards for electronic product codes (EPC) appear to be headed in this direction.

RFID TAGS Data capacity

The amount of data storage on a tag can vary, ranging from 16 bits on the low end to as much as several thousand bits on the high end. Of course, the greater the storage capacity, the higher the price per tag. Form factor The tag and antenna structure can come in a variety of physical form factors and can either be self-contained or embedded as part of a traditional label structure (i.e., the tag is inside what looks like a regular bar code labelthis is termed a 'Smart Label') companies must choose the appropriate form factors for the tag very carefully and should expect to use multiple form factors to suit the tagging needs of different physical products and units of measure. For example, a pallet may have an RFID tag fitted only to an area of protected placement on the pallet itself. On the other hand, cartons on the pallet have RFID tags inside bar code labels that also provide operators human-readable information and a back-up should the tag fail or pass through non RFID-capable supply chain links. Passive versus active Passive tags have no battery and "broadcast" their data only when energized by a reader. That means they must be actively polled to send information. "Active" tags are capable of broadcasting their data using their own battery power. In general, this means that the read ranges are much greater for active tags than they are for passive tagsperhaps a read range of 100 feet or more, versus 15 feet or less for most passive tags. The extra capability and read ranges of active tags, however, come with a cost; they are several times more expensive than passive tags. Today, active tags are much more likely to be used for high-value items or fixed assets such as trailers, where the cost is minimal compared to item value, and very long read ranges are required. Most traditional supply chain applications, such as the RFID-based tracking and compliance programs emerging in the consumer goods retail chain, will use the less expensive passive tags. Frequencies

Like all wireless communications, there are a variety of frequencies or spectra through which RFID tags can communicate with readers. Again, there are tradeoffs among cost, performance and application requirements. For instance, lowfrequency tags are cheaper than ultra high-frequency (UHF) tags, use less power and are better able to penetrate non-metallic substances. They are ideal for scanning objects with high water content, such as fruit, at close range. UHF frequencies typically offer better range and can transfer data faster. But they use more power and are less likely to pass through some materials. UHF tags are typically best suited for use with or near wood, paper, cardboard or clothing products. Compared to low-frequency tags, UHF tags might be better for scanning boxes of goods as they pass through a bay door into a warehouse. While the tag requirements for compliance mandates may be narrowly defined, it is likely that a variety of tag types will be required to solve specific operational issues. You will want to work with a company that is very knowledgeable in tag and reader technology to appropriately identify the right mix of RFID technology for your environment and applications. EPC Tags EPC refers to "electronic product code," an emerging specification for RFID tags, readers and business applications first developed at the Auto-ID Center at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. This organization has provided significant intellectual leadership toward the use and application of RFID technology. EPC represents a specific approach to item identification, including an emerging standard for the tags themselves, including both the data content of the tag and open wireless communication protocols. In a sense, the EPC movement is combining the data standards embodied in certain bar code specifications, such as the UPC or UCC-128 bar code standards, with the wireless data communication standards that have been developed by ANSI and other groups. 3. RF Transceiver:

The RF transceiver is the source of the RF energy used to activate and power the passive RFID tags. The RF transceiver may be enclosed in the same cabinet

as the reader or it may be a separate piece of equipment. When provided as a separate piece of equipment, the transceiver is commonly referred to as an RF module. The RF transceiver controls and modulates the radio frequencies that the antenna transmits and receives. The transceiver filters and amplifies the backscatter signal from a passive RFID tag. Typical Applications for RFID

Automatic Vehicle identification Inventory Management Work-in-Process Container/ Yard Management Document/ Jewellery tracking Patient Monitoring

The Advantages of RFID Over Bar Coding

1.

No "line of sight" requirements: Bar code reads can sometimes be

limited or problematic due to the need to have a direct "line of sight" between a scanner and a bar code. RFID tags can be read through materials without line of sight 2. More automated reading: RFID tags can be read automatically

when a tagged product comes past or near a reader, reducing the labor required to scan product and allowing more proactive, real-time tracking. 3. Improved read rates: RFID tags ultimately offer the promise of higher read rates than bar codes, especially in high-speed operations such as carton sortation. Greater data capacity: RFID tags can be easily encoded with item details such as lot and batch, weight, etc. 5. "Write" capabilities: Because RFID tags can be rewritten with new data as supply chain activities are completed, tagged products carry updated information as they move throughout the supply chain.

Potential uses RFID can be used in a variety of applications such as

Access management Tracking of goods and RFID in retail Tracking of persons and animals Toll collection and contactless payment Machine readable travel documents Smart dust (for massively distributed sensor networks) Location-based services Tracking Sports memorabilia to verify authenticity Airport Baggage Tracking Logistics

RFID chips

Future technology Radio frequency identification (RFID), the technology of the future,has long established itself in our everyday lives. It is already deployed in various areas ranging from efficient inventory management and road toll collection through to timing the performance of individual participants in mass sporting events. Given RFIDs enormous potential it is only right that it is on everyones lips.RFID chips combine the physical world of a product with the virtual world of digital data. The technology meets the needs of companies cooperating in a closely knit value chain. RFID will soon be considered an indispensable part of the chain.Inefficiencies in the value chain and efforts to shore up internal security are driving demand for RFID. The retail trade is playing a decisive part in the broad-based roll-out of RFID projects. RFID represents an all-encompassing structural business concept that far transcends simply superseding the bar code. Speed of processing, reading error frequency, data protection and privacy issues, progress in standardization, and investment costs are still challenges that will ultimately decide the potential of RFID. RFID projects focused on transparency, reliability or speed of processing are particularly successful. RFID systems will rapidly continue to gain significance. This holds especially in areas where they can be used to manage processes within the value chain. All told, the market for RFID systems is likely to grow globally fromEUR 1.5 bn to EUR 22 bn between 2004 and 2010 (average growth rate: +57% p.a.). During the same period, the RFID market in the EU-15 is expected to expand from EUR 0.4 bn to EUR 4 bn (+47% p.a.).

MAX 232 The MAX232 is an integrated circuit that converts signals from an RS-232 serial port to signals suitable for use in TTL compatible digital logic circuits. The MAX232 is a dual driver/receiver and typically converts the RX, TX, CTS and RTS signals. The drivers provide RS-232 voltage level outputs (approx. 7.5 V) from a single + 5 V supply via on-chip charge pumps and external capacitors. This makes it useful for implementing RS-232 in devices that otherwise do not need any voltages outside the 0 V to + 5 V range, as power supply design does not need to be made more complicated just for driving the RS-232 in this case. The receivers reduce RS-232 inputs (which may be as high as 25 V), to standard 5 V TTL levels. These receivers have a typical threshold of 1.3 V, and a typical hysteresis of 0.5 V.The later MAX232A is backwards compatible with the original MAX232 but may operate at higher baud rates and can use smaller external capacitors 0.1 F in place of the 1.0 F capacitors used with the original device. The newer MAX3232 is also backwards compatible, but operates at a broader voltage range, from 3 to 5.5V. Voltage levels It is helpful to understand what occurs to the voltage levels. When a MAX232 IC receives a TTL level to convert, it changes a TTL Logic 0 to between +3 and +15V, and changes TTL Logic 1 to between -3 to -15V, and vice versa for converting from

RS232 to TTL. This can be confusing when you realize that the RS232 Data Transmission voltages at a certain logic state are opposite from the RS232 Control Line voltages at the same logic state. To clarify the matter, see the table below. For more information seeRS-232 Voltage Levels

RS232 Line Type & Logic Level

RS232 Voltage

TTL Voltage to/from MAX232

Data Transmission (Rx/Tx) Logic 0 +3V to +15V 0V Data Transmission (Rx/Tx) Logic 1 -3V to -15V 5V Control Signals (RTS/CTS/DTR/DSR) Logic 0 Control Signals (RTS/CTS/DTR/DSR) Logic 1 -3V to -15V 5V +3V to +15V 0V

SCHEMATIC OF MAX 232

DB9 CONNECTOR:

The DB9 (originally DE-9) connector is an analog 9-pin plug of the DSubminiature connector family (D-Sub or Sub-D). The DB9 connector is mainly used for serial connections, allowing for the asynchronous transmission of data as provided for by standard RS-232 (RS232C). Note that there are DB9-DB25 adapters for easily converting a DB9 plug into a DB25, and vice versa.

PINS Pin number Name 1 2 3 4 CD - Carrier Detect RXD - Receive Data TXD - Transmit Data DTR - Data Terminal Ready

5 6 7 8 9

GND - Signal Ground DSR - Data Set Ready RTS - Request To Send CTS - Clear To Send RI - Ring Indicator Shield

REGULATED POWER SUPPLY DESCRIPTION A variable regulated power supply, also called a variable bench power supply, is one where you can continuously adjust the output voltage to your requirements. Varyingthe output of the power supply is the recommended way to test a project after having double checked parts placement against circuit drawings and the parts placement guide.

This type of regulation is ideal for having a simple variable bench power supply. Actually this is quite important because one of the first projects a hobbyist should undertake is the construction of a variable regulated power supply. While a dedicated supply is quite handy e.g. 5V or 12V, it's much handier to have a variable supply on hand, especially for testing. Most digital logic circuits and processors need a 5-volt power supply. To use these parts we need to build a regulated 5-volt source. Usually you start with an unregulated power supply ranging from 9 volts to 24 volts DC (A 12 volt power supply is included with the Beginner Kit and the Microcontroller Beginner Kit.). To make a 5 volt power supply, we use a LM7805 voltage regulator IC (Integrated Circuit). The IC is shown below.

The LM7805 is simple to use. You simply connect the positive lead of your unregulated DC power supply (anything from 9VDC to 24VDC) to the Input pin, connect the negative lead to the Common pin and then when you turn on the power, you get a 5 volt supply from the Output pin.

CIRCUIT FEATURES: Brief description of operation: Gives out well regulated +5V output, output current capability of 100 mA Circuit protection: Built-in overheating protection shuts down output when regulator IC gets too hot Circuit complexity: Very simple and easy to build

Circuit performance: Very stable +5V output voltage, reliable operation Availability of components: Easy to get, uses only very common basic components Design testing: Based on datasheet example circuit, I have used this circuit succesfully as part of many electronics projects Applications: Part of electronics devices, small laboratory power supply Power supply voltage: Unreglated DC 8-18V power supply Power supply current: Needed output current + 5 mA Component costs: Few dollars for the electronics components + the input transformer cost.

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig 3.2.13: Power Supply Circuit Diagram

This 5V dc acts as Vcc to the microcontroller. The excess voltage is dissipated as heat via an Aluminum heat sink attached to the voltage regulator. Bridge Rectifier: A diode bridge is an arrangement of four diodes connected in a bridge circuit as shown below, that provides the same polarity of output voltage for any polarity of the input voltage. When used in its most common application, for conversion of alternating current (AC) input into direct current (DC) output, it is known as a bridge rectifier. The diagram describes a diode-bridge design known as a full-wave rectifier. This design can be used to rectify single phase AC when

no transformer center tap is available. A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge arrangement to achieve full-wave rectification. This is a widely used configuration, both with individual diodes wired as shown and with single component bridges where the diode bridge is wired internally.

Typical Bridge Rectifier For both positive and negative swings of the transformer, there is a Forward path through the diode bridge. Both conduction paths cause Current to flow in the same direction through the load resistor, accomplishing full-wave rectification. While one set of diodes is forward biased, the other set is reverse biased and effectively eliminated from the circuit.

Current Flow in the Bridge Rectifier

Current in Bridge Rectifier for +ve half cycle

Current in Bridge Rectifier for -ve half cycle

LM7805 3-Terminal 1A Positive Voltage Regulator Features Output Current up to 1A Thermal Overload Protection Short Circuit Protection Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection

Description The MC7805 three terminal positive regulators are available in the TO220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a wide range of applications. Each type employs internal current limiting,

thermal shut down and safe operating area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver over 1A output current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and currents.

Fig 6.1.4 Different Packages

Internal Block Diagram

Absolute Maximum Ratings

Electrical Characteristics of MC7805/LM7805 Note: Load and line regulation are specified at constant junction temperature. Changes in Vo due to heating effects must be taken into account separately. Pulse testing with low duty is used.

Electrical Characteristics of MC7805A Note: Load and line regulation are specified at constant junction temperature. Change in VO due to heating effects must be taken into account separately. Pulse testing with low duty is used.

Quiescent Current

Peak Output Current

Output Voltage Typical Performance Characteristics

Quiescent Current

LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD)

LCD is a type of display used in digital watches and many portable computers. LCD displays utilize to sheets of polarizing material with a liquid crystal solution between them. An electric current passed through the liquid causes the crystals to align so that light cannot pass through them. LCD technology has advanced very rapidly since its initial inception over a decade ago for use in laptop computers. Technical achievement has resulted in brighter displace, higher resolutions, reduce response times and cheaper manufacturing process. The liquid crystals can be manipulated through an applied electric voltage so that light is allowed to pass or is blocked. By carefully controlling where and what wavelength (color) of light is allowed to pass, the LCD monitor is able to display images. A backlight provides LCD monitors brightness. Over the years many improvements have been made to LCD to help enhance resolution, image, sharpness and response times. One of the latest such advancements is TFT or Thin Film Transistor. TFT-LCDs make use of a very thin transistor that is applied to glass during acts as switch allowing control of light at the pixel level, greatly enhancing image sharpness and resolution. This has been particularly important for improving LCDs ability to display small-sized fonts and image clearly. Other advances have allowed LCDs to greatly reduce liquid crystal cell response times. Response time is basically the amount of time it takes for a pixel to change colors. In reality response time is the amount of time it takes a liquid crystal cell to go from being active to inactive.

LCD interfacing with 8052 is a real-world application. In recent years the LCD is finding widespread use replacing LEDs (seven segment LEDs or other multisegment LEDs). This is due to following reasons: The declining prices of LCDs. The ability to display numbers, characters and graphics. This is in contrast to LEDs, which are limited to numbers and a few characters. An intelligent LCD display of two lines, 20 characters per line, that is interfaced to the 8051. Incorporation of a refreshing controller into the LCD, thereby relieving the CPU to keep displaying the data. Ease of programming for characters and graphics.

PIN DIAGRAM Most of the LCD modules conform to a standard interface specification. A 14pin access is provided having eight data lines, three control lines and three power lines. The connections are laid out in one of the two common configurations, either two rows of seven pins, or a single row of 14 pins. One of the, pins are numbered on the LCDs print circuit board (PCB), but if not, it is quite easy to locate pin1. Since this pin is connected to ground, it often has a thicker PCB track, connected to it, and it is generally connected to metalwork at same point.

+5V

-5V

07

08

09

10

11

12

13

14

D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 PIN DESCRIPTIONS Vcc, Vss and Vee

D5 D6

D7

RS

R/W

EN

While Vcc and Vss provide +5V and ground respectively, Vee is used for controlling LCD contrast. RS, register select There are two very important registers inside the LCD. The RS pin is used for their selection as follows. If RS=0, the instruction command code register is selected, allowing the user to send a command such as clear display, cursor at home, etc., If RS=1 the data register is selected, allowing the user to send data to be displayed on the LCD. R/W, read/write R/W input allows the user to write information to the LCD or read information from it. R/W=1 when reading; R/W=0 when writing. EN, Enable The LCD to latch information presented to its data pins uses the enable pin. When data is supplied to data pins, a high-to-low pulse must be applied to this pin in order for the LCD to latch in the data present at the data pins. This pulse must be a minimum of 450ns wide. D0-D7

The 8-bit data pins, D0-D7, are used to send information to the LCD or read the contents of the LCDs internal registers. To display letters and numbers, we send ASCII codes for the letters A-Z, a-z, and numbers 0-9 to these pins while making RS=1. There are also instruction command codes that can be sent to the LCD to clear the display or force the cursor to the home position or blink the instruction command codes. We also use RS=0 to check the busy flag bit to see if the LCD is ready to receive information. The busy flag is D7 and can be read when R/W=1 and RS=0, as follows: if R/W=1,RS=0. When D7=1 (busy flag=1), the LCD is busy taking care of internal operations and will not accept any information. Basic commands of LCD: When LCD is powered up, the display should show a series of dark squares, possibly only on part of display. These characters are actually in their off state, so the contrast control should be adjusted anti-clockwise until the squares are just visible. The display module resets itself to an initial state when power is applied, which curiously has the display blanked off so that even if characters are entered, they cannot be seen. It is therefore necessary to issue a command at this point, to switch the display on. Prototype circuit: For a LCD module to be used effectively in any piece of equipment, a microprocessor or a micro controller is usually required to drive it. However, before attempting to wire the two together, some initial experiments can be performed by connecting a series of switches to the pins of the module. This can be a quite beneficial step, if even you are thoroughly conversant with the workings of microprocessors.

OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS INSTRUCTION CODE EXPLANATIONS The two registers 1) Instruction Register (IR) and the 2) Data Register (DR) in the KS0066 controller chip are directly controlled by the MPU. Control information is temporarily stored in these registers prior to internal operation start. This allows interface to various types of MPUs which operate at different speeds from that of the KS0066, and allows interface from peripheral control ICs. Internal operations of the KS0066 are determined from the signals sent from the MPU. These signals, including register selection signals (RS), Read/Write (R/W) and data bus signals (DBO - DB7) are polled instructions.

Tab 6.6.1 Register Selection ADDRESS COUNTER (AC) The counter specifies an address when data is written into DD RAM or CG RAM and the data stored in DD RAM or CG RAM is read out. If an Address Set instruction (for DD RAM or CG RAM) is written in the IR, the address information is transferred from the IR to the AC. When display data is written into or read from DD RAM or CG RAM, the AC are output to DBO to DB6; refer to above Register Selection Table when RS = 0 and R/W= 1.

Clear all display memory and return the cursor to the home position. In other words, the cursor returns to the first character block on the first line on all 1, 2, and 4 line character modules except L4044. If the above is entered on E2 (the second controller for lines 3 and 4), the cursor will return to the first character on the third line.

Returns cursor to home position. First line first character blocks on all 1, 2 and 4 line display; except L4044 refer clear display: (Address 0; A,, 80). The contents of DD RAM remain unchanged.

Display & Clear Instructions ENTRY MODE SET

I/D: Increments (I/D = 1) or decrements (I/D = 0) the DD RAM address by one block when writing or reading a character code from DD RAM or CG RAM. The cursor automatically moves to the right when incremented by one or to the left if decremented by one.

DISPLAY AND CURSOR ON/OFF CONTROL

D: Display is turned ON when D = 1 and OFF when D =0. When display is OFF, display data in DD RAM remains unchanged. Information comes back immediately when D = 1 is entered. C: Cursor is displayed when C = 1 and not displayed when C = 0. If the cursor disappears, function of I/D etc. S: Shifts the entire display to either the right or left when S = 1 (high). When S = 1 and I/D = 1 the display shifts one position to the left. When S = 1 and I/D = 0 the display shifts one position to the right. This right or left shift occurs after each data write to DD RAM. Display is not shifted when reading from DD RAM. Display is not shifted when S = 0. In a 5 x 7 dot matrix there is an eighth line which functions as the cursor. B: When B = 1, the character at the cursor position starts blinking. When B = 0 the cursor does not blink. The blink is done by stitching between the all black dot matrix and displayed character at 0.4 second intervals. The cursor and the blink can be set at the same time (fosc = 250 kHz).

5 X 7 DOT MATRIX

C = 1 (cursor display)

B = 1 (blinking)

Cursor Conditions

CURSOR OR DISPLAY SHIFT

Cursor/Display Shift moves the cursor or shifts the display without changing the DD RAM contents. The cursor position and the AC contents match. This instruction is available for display correction and retrieval because the cursor position or display can be shifted without writing or reading display data. In case of a 2-line display, the cursor is shifted from character block 40 of line 1 to character block 1 of line 2. Displays of lines 1 and 2 are shifted at the same time. In case of a 4-line display, the cursor does not move continuously from line 2 to line 3. The cursor is shifted from character block 40 of line 3 to character block 1 of line 4. Displays of lines 3 and 4 are shifted at the same time. The display pattern of line 2 or 4 is not shifted to line 1 or 3.

PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD Printed circuit boards may be covered in two topics namely 1) Technology 2) Design Introduction to printed circuit boards: It is called PCB in short, printed circuit consists of conductive circuit pattern

Applied to one or both sides of an insulating base, depending upon that, it is called single sided PCB or double-sided PCB. (SSB and DSB). Conductor materials available are silver, brass, aluminium and copper. Copper is most widely used. The thickness of conducting material depends upon the current carrying capacity of circuit. Thus a thicker copper layer will have more current carrying capacity. The printed circuit boards usually serves three distinct functions. 1) it provides mechanical support for the components mounted on it. 2) It provides necessary electrical interconnections. 3) It acts as heat sink that is provides a conduction path leading to removal of the heat generated in the circuit. Advantages of PCB 1) When a number of identical assemblies are required. PCBs provide cost saving because once a layout is approved there is no need to check the circuit every time. 2) For large equipments such as computers, the saving on checking connections or wires is substantial. 3) PCBs have controllable and predictable electrical and mechanical properties. 4) A more uniform product is produced because wiring errors are eliminated. 5) The distributed capacitances are constant from one production to another. 6) Soldering is done in one operation instead of connecting discrete components by wires. 7) The PCB construction lands itself for automatic assembly. 8) Spiral type of inductors may be printed. 9) Weight is less.

10) It has miniaturization potential. 11) It has reproducible performance. 12) All the signals are accessible for testing at any point along conductor track. Classifications of laminates : Laminates

Glass base lamination

Paper base lamination

There materials are built from several layers of paper or glass, which are bound together under heat and pressure to form rigid sheets. The binder is usually a phenolic resin in the case of glass base. The copper layer is formed on either side or two sides of the laminate. Because of the different filters and binding resins the characteristic properties of copper clad laminates change. The rigid sheets of filters which form reinforcement use paper in the form of alpha cellulose, craft or rags. These are cheaper and have easy machinbillity. Glass filter uses glass fibers which are woven to give cloth like appearance. This gives a high mechanical strength, they are better moisture resistant than above type.

Binding resins are either phenolic or epoxy as resin has Good electrical and mechanical properties. Manufacture of cu clad laminate:

mentioned before in addition

to these; phenol formaldehyde and polyesters are also used. Of these, Epoxy

The base of laminate is either paper or glass fiber cloth, as mentioned before. The copper foil is produced by electroplating a thin layer of copper on a large rotating drum of stainless steel. As the drum runs the deposited copper layer is peeled off and forms a continuous length, which is coiled into rolls for use. To ensure good adhesion between copper foils and base material, surface of copper on the laminate and both are kept under hydraulic press for proper adhesion. Types of laminates: National electrical manufactures association (NEMA) has various grades of laminates that are obtained by different resins and filters. (1) Phenolic: Phenol and formaldehyde produce phenolic paper base laminate has phenolic resins with proper filter. The co lour of this base material is usually brown and it is opaque. Certain additives and the grid is called FR grade.

Disadvantages: (1) They are attacked by alkalis (2) They have poor are resistance. (3) Moisture resistant property is poor than other laminates. (2) Epoxy laminates;

They can be divided into (a) epoxy glass (b) epoxy paper Epoxy paper: this is also paper base is impregnated with epoxy resin. The co lour is yellowish white and it is translucent. Epoxy glass: this base material is more expensive but is combines relative strength and good is mainly because of glass fiber. The co lour of this material is usually green and it is semitransparent. Properties of epoxy laminates: (a) They are tougher than phenolic and polyesters. (b) Chemical nature of epoxies gives good adhesion. (c) They have better mechanical strength as mentioned before due to low shrinkage. (d) They have high alkali resistance. (e) They exhibit good electrical properties over different temperature. (f) They are moisture resistant. (3) Polyester laminates: They are mostly used with glass fiber. Their water resistance is good.

(4) Dilly phthalate laminate: These are mostly used with glass fiber. Their maximum temperature limit is 165C. (5) PTEF laminates: Advantages:

(a)It has low dissipation factor over wide rang of temperature, humidity and frequency rang. (b) Electric strength is high. (c) High insulation resistance. (6) Melamine laminates: This is normally used with glass. It has high are resistance. (7) Silicone laminates: They have good heat resistance and good electrical properties .However their mechanical properties are not good. (8) Polyamide laminates: This is the best polymer for heat resistance. When used with glass this gives good mechanical properties. They has better adhesion to copper. Normally used for military and space applications. There are a number of specifications that are applicable to copper clad laminated e.g. DIN is use for German standard. IS is used for join Indian standard. JSS is used for join services specifications (ministry of defence) MIL is used for military standard (U.S.A) NEMA National Electrical Manufactorys Association. By these standards, following parameters are checked: (1) Pull off strength (2) Surface resistively

(3) Permittivity and resistance (4) Temperature resistance (5) Blistering after heat shock. Before any pattern is transferred the copper surface is cleaned. Oxides, hydroxides and salts normally treated as contaminants on copper surface. Wet brushing is used after scrubbing. Acid dip may also used.

MANIFACTURING PROCESS OF PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD The conductor pattern which is on the master film is transferred on copper clad laminate by two methods. (1) Photo resist printing (2) Screen printing Photo resist printing: Photopolymer resist is a light sensitive organic material like KPR (Kodak photo resist), which is applied to the board as a film. The photo resist when exposed ultraviolet light hardens ore polymerizes. Once it is polymerized, it becomes insoluble to certain chemical solvents known as developers. The developer dissolves the portion which is masked or which is not exposed to light. Thus the pattern that is to be drawn on PCB is derived from the artwork, which is a photographical process. This is transferred to a master film on 1:1 scale. This can be reduced to any small size thus miniaturization is possible. The pattern is transferred to a mask. This mask is kept on PCB. The whole process is known as image transfer.

Now it is subjected to UV rays. The unpolymerized or masked portion is washed away in developer leaving wanted copper pattern on board. KPR or photo resist is then removed Requirements of photo resist: (1) It should have good resolution and light sensitivity. (2) It should be resistant to developers, which are used to remove unwanted copper. (3) It should have good possibility to strip after unwanted copper is removed. (4) Its cost must be less. Photo resist is normally applied by: (1) Flow coating or (2) Roller coating or (3) Dip coating or (4) Spraying coating or (5) Whirl coating. The light sources that are used for exposure are (1) Mercury vapour (2) Lamps (3) Pulsed xenon lamps (4) UV fluorescent tubes (5) Carbon arc lamps.

Screen-printing: This technique is similar to the used in printing industry. The copper foil is covered with printing ink where the conduction paths are going to be. The screen, which is used for pattern, is of either stainless steel or polyester mesh, which is dimensionally accurate and fine mesh. The open meshes of screen correspond to the pattern.

screen

squeegee
ink frame

hinge

PCB
Fig.8.1: Screen-printing machine

PCB is placed under the screen. Printing ink is placed at one end of the screen, and by means of a rubber of a squeegee it is pushed through open meshes. printed circuit board is then removed for drying. After drying board is washed in ferric chloride which acts as etchant. Etching is a chemical process by which unwanted copper is removed. The portion which is covered by ink is not removed, that is the pattern remains intact. Later ink stripping is done with tricholoroethylene. Requirements of inks: (1) The ink should dry rapidly on PCB. (2) It should be resistant to chemicals. (3) It should have the possibility of easy stripping. As shown in figure

ink

ink

ink screen Cu foil

Base material

After deposition of ink it spreads slightly under the mesh and shows a trapezoidal shape. The printing ink should not be too thin thick to get proper pattern on the board. The time or exposure to light depends upon the properties of ink, distance of board from light source and humidity also.

Screen printing can be done mechanically also. The screen cleaning is done from the side on which ink was applied. The cleaning solution is normally a thinner or a solvent. Protection of copper tracks: Copper when exposed to atmosphere for a long time gets tarnished and problems are created while soldering. Applying lacquer or varnishes can protect the tracks. However solder ability again depends on the lacquer or varnish properties, the thickness of these coatings. Copper is also protected by plating. There are three methods of plating (1) Immersion plating (2) Electronics plating (3) Electroplating (1) Immersion plating utilizes tin and its alloys and good. It is done by chemical replacement from coating material salt solution. This method is simple and less costly (2) In electronics copper plating, electric current is not used instead a chemical reducing agent is used which supplies electrons for reaction in which copper is reduced from its ionic state. (3) In electroplating a d.c. Current is passed between two electrodes and a thin coating is deposited on cathode when immersed in electrolyte. Etching: removal of unwanted copper, to give final copper pattern is known as etching. Solutions, which are used in etching, are known as enchants.

(1) Ferric chloride (2) Cupric chloride (3) Chromic acid (4) Alkaline ammonia Of these ferric chloride is widely used because it has short etching time and it can be stored for a longer time rinsing follows etching. Solders and Soldering Techniques: Solders are special alloys, which are used to get either a mechanically strong joint or electric joint of low contact resistance. Solders have low melting points compared to meals to be joined. Therefore when solder is heated, molten solder wets the metal, spreads and joins. Any contamination on the surface of the metal to be joined acts as a barrier and hampers as action of wetting. Solders are divided into two groups, soft and hard. Soft solders have lower melting point and lower tensile strength. soft solders are largely tin lead alloys with 18%to 19% of tin. Hard solders are copper zinc alloys and silver base compostions.fluxs are auxiliary materials used while soldering is done. (1) They dissolve and remove oxides and contaminants from surface of metals to be. Soldered. (2) They protect the metal surface and molten solder from oxidation (3) They reduce the surface tension of molten solder. (4) They improve the ability of solder to wet the metal. Fluxes are divided into four types.

(a) Active or acid fluxes: these are corrosive fluxes, which use hydrochloric acid, chlorides and fluorides of metals. These are the best fluxes to dissolve oxide film on the metal surface but because of their corrosive nature, the residue must be thoroughly removed after soldering. (b) Acid free fluxes: these are rosin base materials with addition of glycerin and alcohol. (c) Activated fluxes: these are rosin base fluxes with activating agents like hydrochlorides and phosphates of aniline, salicylic acid in small amount. (d) Corrosion resistant fluxes: these fluxes are based on phosphoric acid with addition of various organic compositions and solvents. Soldering is done with either (1) Soldering iron (manually) (2) Mass soldering Soldering iron consists of a bit usally made of copper and an insulated handle connected to the bit with a metal shank. The bit is heated which melts solders alongwith flux to make a joint. Soldering irons of different wattages are available for different kinds of work. Mass soldering is done in factories or electronic industries where the whole PCB assembly can be soldered from one side where the component leads come out. (1) Dip soldering: PCB assembly is lowered vertically in the solder bath as shown in fig so that one side makes contact with solder. (2) Drag soldering: PCB is dragged on the surface of solder bath.

(3) Wave soldering: in this, instead of lowering the board, a small solder wave is created in the solder bath by pumping out solder through a narrow slot and PCB side is soldered
PCB

DIP SOLDERING

DRAG SOLDERING

WAVE SOLDERING

FIG: SOLDERING TECHNIQUES Since in mass soldering of PCBs a large number of joints are to be soldered together following points must be borne in mind. (1)There should not be different in metal leads that are to be joined (2) The surface should be clean. (3) Physical shapes of the joints must be compartable. (4) PCB must be preheated (5) All the wire leads must be of same length under the board.

Component mounting on PCB:

Axial mounting

solder

Vertical mounting

Fig:8.2 correct way lead bending

Careful mounting of components on PCB increases the reliability of assembly. (1) Component leads must be cleaned before they are inserted in PCB holes. Asymmetric lead bending, too close lead bending must be avoided. The bent leads must fit into holes properly so that they can be soldered. (2) When the space is to be saved then vertical mounting is preferred. The vertical lead must have an insulating sleeve. (3) Where jumper wires cross over conductors, they must be insulated. (4) For mounting of ICS, TOS, DIP packages, special jigs must be used for easy insertion.

(5) While mounting transistors, each lead must has insulating sleeve. All the leads must be cut with sharp cutter to same lengths seen from the surface that is to be soldered. Designing of PCB: Layout and artwork are the most important aspects of designing of PCB Artwork is normally produced at 1:1 or 2:1 scale. Grid system is also used when drilling of holes for components while preparing layout, bishop graphics inc. puppets or replica of components or IC holders are used. There are certain standard norms that are to be followed while preparing layout or network. Component code is also to be standardized.ANSI or American national standard institute recommends. R= Resistor Q=Transistor C= Capacitor U= Integrated circuit T=T transformer CR= Diode Similarly certain coding is followed while drawing the sketch.

Conductor width 0.5 mm 1 mm 0.6 mm 1.1 mm

holes

2 mm

1.5 mm

4 mm

3.2 m

(1) Current carrying capacity depends upon the track width. Due to high currents, there is temperature rise caused in conductors. Ideally under normal working conditions there should not be temperature rise in conductors. (2) When two conductors are running parallel to each other, depending upon the dielectric constant of laminate, there exist certain capacitance. Similarly in double sided boards when tracks are on either side of board, there is capacitance as two tracks are considered to be metal conductors with laminate as dielectric. (3) For fast signals or high-speed logic circuits the tracks or conductors can be considered as transmission lines, with. Zo = C1 Where L= inductance / unit length L1

C= capacitance/ unit length Thus conductor spacing is a compromise. It depends on break through voltage also. Minimum spacing specifications are given by certain standards like MIL ( us military standard),IEEE,NEMA,IEC,etc. the thumb rule is minimum spacing , is applied only when it is unavoidable. (4) Mechanical considerations have to be taken into account, like heavy components like transformer may be given a separate mechanical support (5) The number of jumper wires should be minimum. (6) Heat sensitive components must be kept away from heat producing ones.

(7) Sufficient test points must be given and components must have easy accessibility for replacement. (8) When two signal lines are running close to each other, there is possibility of cross talk. To reduce this and electro magnetic interference all unused copper surfaces are connected to ground. Ground line is made sufficiently broad. (9) Normally low power level and high power level wires are twisted outside PCB to protect the circuits from electro magnetic coupling. ARTWORK AND PREPARATION OF MASTER FILM: For artwork adhesive tapes may be used which are obtained in various shapes and sizes. When conductors are to be routed, available space must be utilized to maximum extent. Conductor length must be kept to minimum, sharp comers must be avoided. The film (either negative or positive) that is used for direct exposure of photo resist coated PCB is known as master film. Special types cameras are to be used to reduce the artwork to a certain size. After exposure the film is developed which can be used as a mask on photo resist coated PCB to give required pattern.

Tos/8 pads

Dip

Conductor pads Transistor pad Conductors Fig: various shape and sizes of adhesive parts

(a) (b)
Fig:8.3 conductor routing

(c)

(e)

(d)

(f)

DOUBLE SIDED BOARDS:

Double sided boards are made with or without plated Through holes plated through holes are more expensive but they do not have the problem of deburring of holes after drilling. Ordinary DSBs must use jumper wires for interconnections. Different types of processes are in vogue while making double sided boards. (1) Print and etch process: this is similar subtractive process, which is used single sided board, where master negative film. is used on resist from both the sides. After exposure, developing, etching and stripping follows. Holes are drilled for component soldering. (2) Panel plating process: in this process, holes are drilled first then the whole panel is plated with the help of electro less plating. Thus holes get a thin layer of copper on the surface of walls. The board then follows the above print etch procedure. (3) Pattern plating process: this is an additive process in the sense the required pattern is left open with rest of the area covered. Thus after electroplating, the actual pattern and the holes get electroplated. This is most widely used procedure. (4)Tenting process: this is similar to print and etch process, which has plated through holes. The positive resists protects the required pattern and holes from etchant attacks, like a tent and hence the name.

Multilayer boards:

A number of PCB s are stacked together with adhesive and electrical connections between different conducting layer are done with plated through holes as shown in figure:

Multilayer boards
Advantages of multiplayer boards: (1) High components density can be achieved in multiplayer. (2) Whenever space and volume are of prime importance these boards are used. (3) Complex interconnections are possible between various components. (4) Multiplayer provides low impedance of supply lines. Flexible printed circuits: In these circuits, laminates base is replaced by thin insulation member such as fiber or paper. The main advantages are: (1) space saving (2) Ability to fit into irregular area (3) Multilayer capacity These are used in:

(a) Computers (b) Printed flat cables and (c) Communication devices. Polyester film flexible insulation has insulation thickness of 1 to 5 mils. Dielectric constant is 3 and fold endurance at 1 kg. Machine direction cycles is 14000. Epoxy glass cloth has insulation thickness of 1 to 3 mils. It has dielectric strength of 2000 volts/mil. And fold endurance of 10,000 cycles.

SOURCE CODE

1. 2.

Click on the Keil uVision Icon on DeskTop The following fig will appear

3. 4.

Click on the Project menu from the title bar Then Click on New Project

5.

Save the Project by typing suitable project name with no extension in u r own folder sited in either C:\ or D:\

6. 7. 8.

Then Click on Save button above. Select the component for u r project. i.e. Atmel Click on the + Symbol beside of Atmel

9.

Select AT89C52 as shown below

10. 11.

Then Click on OK The Following fig will appear

12.

Then Click either YES or NOmostly NO

13. 14.

Now your project is ready to USE Now double click on the Target1, you would get another option Source group 1 as shown in next page.

15.

Click on the file option from menu bar and select new

16.

The next screen will be as shown in next page, and just maximize it by double clicking on its blue boarder.

17. 18.

Now start writing program in either in C or ASM For a program written in Assembly, then save it with extension . asm and for C based program save it with extension .C

19.

Now right click on Source group 1 and click on Add files to Group Source

20.

Now you will get another window, on which by default C files will appear.

21. 22. 23.

Now select as per your file extension given while saving the file Click only one time on option ADD Now Press function key F7 to compile. Any error will appear if so happen.

24. 25.

If the file contains no error, then press Control+F5 simultaneously. The new window is as follows

26. 27.

Then Click OK

Now Click on the Peripherals from menu bar, and check your required port as shown in fig below

28.

Drag the port a side and click in the program file.

29. 30.

Now keep Pressing function key F11 slowly and observe. You are running your program successfully

FLOW CHART

STAR T

CONFIGURING THE SFR PORTS AND INITIALIZING VARIABLES

ENTRY

IS ENTR Y /EXIT

EXIT

WAITING FOR THE CAR NUMBER ENTRY THROUGH KEYPAD

WAITING FOR THE CAR NUMBER ENTRY THROUGH KEYPAD

NOW THE LIFT WILL TAKE THE CAR TO THE FLOOR AND RETURNS BACK TO GROUND FLOOR

FLOOR NUMBER WILL BE DISPLAYED ON LCD

WAITING FOR THE CARD TO DEDUCT THE PARKING CHARGES

Source Code for Transmitter

#include<reg52.h> #include<lcd.h> void disp_name() ; void delay(int x); void disp_name1(); void disp_name2(); void disp_name3(); void disp_name4(); void disp_name5(); void disp_name6(); void disp_name7(); void disp_name8(); void smoke(); void ldr(); void temp(); void timer_0_load(); char databyte[]={"0123456789"}; unsigned char i; int a,b,c,j,k,l; //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// void main() { lcd_init(); disp_name(); delay(100); disp_name1(); delay(100); disp_name2();

while(1) {

} } //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// void disp_name() { char i=0; char databyte[]={" temperature. reading"}; send_command(0x80); while(databyte[i]!='\0') { send_data(databyte[i]); delay(50); i++; } } ///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// void disp_name1() { char i=0; char databyte[]={" Degree Centegrate"}; send_command(0xC3); while(databyte[i]!='\0') { send_data(databyte[i]); i++;

}} //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// void disp_name2() { char i=0; char databyte[]={"Smoke/LPG "}; send_command(0x94); while(databyte[i]!='\0') { send_data(databyte[i]); i++; }} /////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// void disp_name3() { char i=0; char databyte[]={"LIGHT/BULB"}; send_command(0xd4); while(databyte[i]!='\0') { send_data(databyte[i]); i++; }} ///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// void disp_name4() { char i=0; char databyte[]={" is sensed" }; send_command(0x9e); while(databyte[i]!='\0')

{ send_data(databyte[i]); i++; }} ///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// void disp_name8() { char i=0; char databyte[]={" send_command(0x9e); while(databyte[i]!='\0') { send_data(databyte[i]); i++; }} ///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// void disp_name7() { char i=0; char databyte[]={"prohibited" }; send_command(0x9e); while(databyte[i]!='\0') { send_data(databyte[i]); i++; }} //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// void disp_name5() { char i=0; " };

char databyte[]={"is ON*"}; send_command(0xde); while(databyte[i]!='\0') { send_data(databyte[i]); i++; }} //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// void disp_name6() { char i=0; char databyte[]={"is OFF"}; send_command(0xde); while(databyte[i]!='\0') { send_data(databyte[i]); i++; }} //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// void timer_0_load()

{ TCON=0X01; TMOD=0X01; TH0=0XEC; TL0=0X78; TR0=0; ET0=1; EA=1;

TR0=1;

////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// void timet0(void) interrupt 1 {

timer_0_load(); smoke(); }

////////////////////DELAY//////////////////////////////////////// void delay(int x) { int i,j; for(i=0;i<=x;i++) { for(j=0;j<150;j++) { } } ///////////////////SMOKE SENSOR/////////////////////////////// void smoke() { }

disp_name7(); if(P37==0) {

for(k=0;k<1;k++) { P21=0; disp_name4(); delay(100); P21=1; disp_name8(); delay(100); k++; } } } ////////////////////////////////LDR//////////////////////////////////// void ldr() { if(P36==0) { P20=1; lcd_init1(); disp_name6(); } if(P36==1)

{ P20=0; lcd_init1(); disp_name5();

} } //////////////////TEMPERATURE SENSOR////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// void temp() { i=P0; a=i%10; b=i/10; c=i/100; send_command(0xc0); send_data(databyte[c]); lcd_init1(); send_command(0xc1); send_data(databyte[b]); lcd_init1(); send_command(0xc2); send_data(databyte[a]); if(b>2) { P22=0; } else { P22=1; } } ///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

Source Code for Receiver #include<reg52.h> #include<lcd.h> void disp_name() ; void delay(int x); void disp_name1(); void disp_name2(); void disp_name3(); void disp_name4(); void disp_name5(); void disp_name6(); void temp(); void light(); void timer_0_load();

void main() { P0=0x00; delay(1); lcd_init(); timer_0_load(); while(1) {

if(P21==0) { P01=1; } if(P21==1) { lcd_init1(); disp_name3(); P01=0; } lcd_init1(); disp_name2();

} } ///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// void delay(int x) { int i,j; for(i=0;i<x;i++) {

for(j=0;j<1000;j++) {} } } //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// void disp_name() { char i=0; char databyte[]={"BULB ON "}; send_command(0x80); while(databyte[i]!='\0') { send_data(databyte[i]);

i++; } } ////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// void disp_name5() { char i=0; char databyte[]={"BULB OFF**"}; send_command(0x80); while(databyte[i]!='\0') { send_data(databyte[i]);

i++; } }

////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// void disp_name2() { char i=0; char databyte[]={"SMOKE/LPG SENSED"}; send_command(0xC0); while(databyte[i]!='\0') { send_data(databyte[i]);

i++; } } ///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// void disp_name3() { char i=0; char databyte[]={"SMOKE prohibited"}; send_command(0xC0); while(databyte[i]!='\0') { send_data(databyte[i]);

i++; } } /////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// void disp_name4()

{ char i=0; char databyte[]={"*****FAN ON*****"}; send_command(0x80); while(databyte[i'\0') { send_data(databyte[i]);

i++; } } ////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// void disp_name6() { char i=0; char databyte[]={"****FAN**OFF****"}; send_command(0x80); while(databyte[i]!='\0') { send_data(databyte[i]);

i++; } } /////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// void timer_0_load()

{ TCON=0X01;

TR0=0;

TMOD=0X02; TH0=0X0ec; TL0=0X00; TR0=1; ET0=1; EA=1; } ////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// void timet0(void) interrupt 1 {

timer_0_load(); light();

} ////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// void temp() { if(P22==0) { P02=1; disp_name4(); } if(P22==1) { P02=0;

disp_name6();

} } ////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// void light() { if(P20==0) { disp_name() ; P00=1; } if(P20==0 { disp_name5() ; P01=0; }}

FUTURE ENHANCEMENT Wireless is the buzz of communication industry today. The field of wireless communication is growing leaps and bounds day by day. There have been many advancements taking place in the semiconductor industry leading to more and more advancements in wireless technology. In the present project our main aim is to park the car in multi floors when the car enters, to enhance this application the parking area will be reserved in advance. The data will be transferred through RF module HT12E encoder that acts like a Transmitter. When the data is subjected to transfer the emitter collects it and sends it into the air, which will then be collected by the RF receiver situated at the other end. As we talk about the advancements in this module, the data can be transferred to a particular controller when in a group of them, which we technically call as Routing.

There is a huge scope for improvement in wireless communication technology. One of the highly hyped advancement is in Wireless LANS. For example the data can be transmitted between different LANS by using simple coding technique and that too very efficiently. Wireless RF communication is finding a huge development in Satellite Communications. The RF signals are sensed and reflected back to the earth stations. These signals contain information about weather forecasting, geological surveys and other cosmic developments.

CONCLUSION The project MULTISTORIED CAR PARKING SYSTEM USING RFID has been successfully designed and tested. It has been developed by integrating features of all the hardware components used. Presence of every module has been reasoned out and placed carefully thus contributing to the best working of the unit. Secondly, using highly advanced ICs and with the help of growing technology the project has been successfully implemented. Wireless communication industry is blossoming at a great pace. As wireless communication systems evolve, service quality and capacity are of primary importance. To ensure reliable communication over a radio channel, a system must overcome multi path fading, polarization mismatch, and interference. The trend towards low power hand held transceivers increases all of these challenges. Keeping all the above parameters in view we have designed a low cost integrated system for monitoring the different types of parameters between two systems. Finally we conclude that embedded based application is an emerging field and there is a huge scope for research and development.

BIBLIOGRAPHY The 8051 Micro controller and Embedded Systems -Muhammad Ali Mazidi Janice Gillispie Mazidi The 8051 Micro controller Architecture, Programming & Applications -Kenneth J.Ayala Fundamentals Of Micro processors and Micro computers -B.Ram Micro processor Architecture, Programming & Applications -Ramesh S.Gaonkar Electronic Components -D.V.Prasad Wireless Communications - Theodore S. Rappaport

Mobile Tele Communications - William C.Y. Lee References on the Web: www.national.com www.atmel.com www.microsoftsearch.com www.geocities.com