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B. Fuels and Combustion - Lecture
B. Fuels and Combustion - Lecture
in English units
American Petroleum Institute Gravity Unit,
o
API
- Is the accepted standard by the petroleum and oil industry, it was drawn up to correct vales measured by
incorrectly calibrated hydrometers.
5 131
6 15
5 141
.
.
.
=
C at SG
API
Baume Gravity Unit,
o
Baume or
o
Be
- Another standard commonly associated with brine.
130
6 15
140
=
C at SG
Baume
.
16. Viscosity
Viscosity is measure of resistance to flow.
Absolute Viscosity is defined as that unit force required to move one layer of a fluid at unit relative velocity to
another layer of the fluid which is at unit distance from the first.
Kinematic Viscosity is defined as the ratio of absolute viscosity divided by density.
Units of viscosity:
Absolute viscosity,
1 reyn = 1 kb-sec / in
2
1 poise 1 dyne-se/cm
2
= 0.1 Pa-sec
Kinematic Viscosity, v
1 stoke = 1 cm
2
/sec = 0.0001 m
2
/sec
Centipoises and centistokes are more commonly used.
Saybolt viscosimeter measures the time required for a given quantity of oil at standard temperature to flow
through a specified tube.
SSU (Saybolt Second Universal) is obtained by timing the interval required for 60 cc of oil to flow through tube or
pass through a standard orifice.
For 30 to 45 SSU at 37.8 C, Centistokes = 0.308(SSU 26)
Or s centistoke
SSU
SSU
180
22 . 0 = v
SSF (Saybolt Second Furol) unit used for very viscous liquids using a relatively large orifice.
62 SSF = 600 SSU
B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE
5
17. Other Properties
Flash point is the temperature at which oil gives off vapor that burns temporarily when ignited.
Flash point is the temperature to which oil must be heated to give off sufficient vapor to form an inflammable
mixture with air.
Flash point is the temperature at which ignition of the fuel vapors rising above the heated oil will occur when
exposed to an open flame.
Fire point is the temperature at which oil gives off vapor that burns continuously when ignited.
Pour point is the temperature at which oil will no longer pour freely or the temperature at which oil will solidify.
Dropping point is the temperature at which grease melts.
Cloud point is the temperature at which the paraffin elements separate from oil.
Conradson number (carbon residue) is the carbonaceous residue remaining after destructive distillation, expressed
in percentage by weight of the original sample.
Viscosity index indicates the relative change in viscosity of an oil for a given temperature change.
Octane number the ignition quality rating of gasoline, which is the percentage by volume of iso-octane in a mixture
of iso-octane and heptanes that matches the gasoline in anti-knock quality.
Cetane number the ignition quality rating of diesel, which is the percent of cetane in the standard fuel.
Aniline point is that temperature where equal parts if oil and aniline will dissolve in each other.
Volatility is the ability of a liquid fuel to change into vapor which is manifested in the temperature range at which
various portions of the fuel are vaporized.
18. Composition of Fuels
a. Paraffins, CnH2n+2 saturated hydrocarbons, very stable in characters
b. Olefins, CnH2n unsaturated hydrocarbons, characterized by the presence of a double bond between carbon
atoms.
c. Diiolefins, CnH2n-2 less saturated than olefins, characterized by the presence of two double bonds.
19. Analysis of Composition
19.1 Proximate analysis is made by heating the coal until it decomposes successively into three of the four
complex items of proximate analysis. The fourth is found by the difference. A typical proximate analysis of
coal determines the percentage of moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon, and ash.
a. Moisture is determined by subjecting a 1-g sample of the coal to a temperature of 220 F to 230 F
for a period of exactly 1 hr.
b. Volatile matter consists of hydrogen and certain hydrogen-carbon compounds that can be
removed from the coal merely by heating it.
c. Ash is performed by heating the sample of coal used in the moisture determination to a
temperature of 1290 F to 1380 F in an uncovered crucible, with good air circulation, until the coal is
completely burned.
B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE
6
d. Fixed Carbon is the difference between 100 % and the sum of the percentages of moisture, ash,
and volatile matter.
19.2 Ultimate analysis analysis of composition of fuel which gives, on mass basis, the relative amounts of
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, ash, and moisture.
20. Basis of Reporting Analysis
a. As received or as fired
b. Dry or moisture free
c. Moisture and ash free or combustible
d. Moisture, ash, and sulfur free
21. Heating Values of Fuels or Calorific Value
a. Higher heating value (gross calorific value), HHV is the heating value obtained when the water in the products
of combustion is in the liquid state.
b. Lower heating value (net calorific value), LHV is the heating value obtained when the water in the products of
combustion is in the vapor state.
22. Methods of Determining Heating Values
22.1 Laboratory experiment
22.1.1 Bomb calorimeter for solid and liquid fuels
22.1.2 Gas calorimeter for gaseous fuels
22.2 Empirical formulas
22.2.1 Dulongs formula for solid fuels of known ultimate analysis.
kg kJ S
O
H HHV 304 , 9
8
212 , 144 820 , 33 +
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
lb Btu S
O
H HHV 4050
8
000 , 62 600 , 14 +
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
22.2.2 ASME Formula for petroleum products
( ) kg kJ API HHV
6 . 139 130 , 41 + =
( ) lb Btu API HHV
60 680 , 17 + =
22.2.3 Bureau of Standard formula
( ) kg kJ SG HHV
2
8 . 793 , 8 716 , 51 =
( ) lb Btu SG HHV
2
3780 230 , 22 =
Difference between higher and lower heating values
HHV LHV = 9H
2
(2442) in SI units
HHV - LHV = 9H
2
(1050) in English units
Where:
9H
2
= lbs or kg of water formed per lb or kg of fuel burned.
2442 kJ/kg or 1050 Btu/lb latent heat of vaporization of water.
Also H
2
= 26-15(SG), percent by weight.
23. Fuel Production Process
a. Fractional distillation the primary method of crude oil refining.
B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE
7
b. Thermal cracking changing heavy oil into gasoline by means of high pressure, high temperature and longer
exposure time.
c. Catalytic cracking subjects oil to high pressure and high temperature in the presence of a catalyst; permit
accurate control of the compounds formed and produces a gasoline of higher octane number than the one
produced in thermal cracking.
d. Hydrogenation process of catalytic cracking in a hydrogen atmosphere; obtained are more saturated products
than those from cracking process alone.
e. Isomerization process by which the atoms of carbon and hydrogen in normal hydrocarbons are rearranged to
produce a more complex structure of higher anti-knock value.
f. Polymerization makes use of high pressure, high temperature and a catalyst to combine light and volatile gases
into gasoline.
g. Alkylation process of combining an isoparaffin usually iso-butane, with an olefin, usually butane or propane, to
form a large isoparaffin molecule, usually iso-octane or iso-heptane, having a very high octane number.
h. Reforming used to obtain fuels with substantially higher than 100 octane number; currently used to process
about forty percent of motor gasoline.
i. Hydrodesulfurization process of adding hydrogen to unsaturated hydrocarbons and reducing the sulfur
content of the resulting fuel oil.
24. Combustion
Combustion a chemical reaction between fuel and oxygen (air) which is accompanied by heat and light.
25. Composition of Air and Molecular Weights
a. Composition by weight
76.8 % nitrogen, 23.2 % oxygen
Or 76.8 / 23.2 = 3.3 lb of nitrogen per lb of oxygen.
b. Composition by volume
79.0 % nitrogen, 21.0 % oxygen
Or 79.0/21.0 = 3.76 moles of nitrogen per moles of oxygen
c. Molecular weights
Air = 28.97 kg/kgmole
C = 12 kg/kgmole
H
2
= 2 kg/kgmole
O
2
= 32 kg/kgmole
N
2
= 28 kg/kgmole
S = 32 kg/kgmole
26. Air Fuel Ratio
Theoretical air-fuel ratio, W
ta
is the exact theoretical amount, as determined from the combustion reaction, of air
needed to burn a unit amount of fuel, kg air per kg fuel or lb air per lb fuel.
S
O
H C W
ta
32 4
8
36 34 53 11
2
2
. . . +
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
where:
W
ta
= theoretical air, lb per lb fuel
C = carbon, lb per lb fuel
H
2
= hydrogen, lb per lb fuel
O
2
= oxygen, lb per lb fuel
S = sulfur, lb per lb fuel
B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE
8
Actual air-fuel ratio, W
aa
is determined by the presence of excess air which is defined as the amount of air supplied
over and above the theoretical air.
( )
ta aa
W e W + = 1
ta
ta aa
W
W W
e
=
where e is the excess air in decimal.
27. Typical Combustion Reaction
Fuel + Air = Product of Combustion
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2
25 0 76 3 5 0 25 0 76 3 25 0 N m n O mH nCO N m n O m n H C
m n
. . . . . . + + + + + + +
( )( ) ( )
m n
m n
m n
m n
W
ta
+
+
=
+
+ +
=
12
25 0 28 137
12
28 76 3 32 25 0 . . . .
28. Classification of combustion reaction
a. Combustion reaction with chemically-correct or stoichiometric condition general chemical formula of the fuel is
C
n
H
m
.
b. Combustion reaction with greater amount of theoretical air, or having a fuel-lean mixture.
c. Combustion reaction with lesser amount of theoretical air, or having a fuel-rich mixture.
29. Equivalence ratio for a given mass of air, |.
aa
ta
W
W
= |
Note:
| = 1, for stoichiometric mixture.
| < 1, for fuel-lean mixture.
| > 1, for fuel-rich mixture.
30. Orsat Analyzer
Orsat analyzer is a convenient portable apparatus for determining the volumetric percentage of CO
2
, O
2
, and CO in
the dry flue gas.
31. Dry Flue Gases from Actual Combustion
( )
ab dg
C
CO CO
O CO
W
+
+ +
=
2
2 2
3
700 4
Boiler test code formula corrected to account for the SO
2
.
( )
( )
S S C
CO CO
N CO O CO
W
ab dg
8
5
8
3
3
7 8 11
2
2 2 2
+
(
+
+
+ + +
=
where:
CO
2
, O
2
, CO, and N
2
are volumetric Orsat analysis
C
ab
and S are decimal fractions by weight.
32. Weight of dry refuse from the coal analysis
r
r
C
A
W
=
1
B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE
9
where:
W
r
= dry refuse per lb coal as fired, lb
A = ash in coal, lb
C
r
= combustible In 1 lb of refuse.
33. Carbon Actually Burned
A W C C
r ab
+ =
Or
600 14,
r
r ab
HV
W C C =
where:
C
ab
= carbon actually burned per lb of fuel, lb
C = carbon in 1 lb of fuel, lb
HV
r
= heating value of the dry refuse, Btu per lb.
34. Carbon burned to CO due to incomplete combustion.
ab i
C
CO CO
CO
C
+
=
2
where C
i
is the pounds of carbon the CO per pound of fuel burned.
35. Air Actually Used During Combustion
2
2
2
8
8 N S C
O
H W W
ab dg aa
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
Values of H
2
, O
2
, S, and N
2
are obtained from the ultimate analysis of the fuel and all values are expressed as
decimals.
36. Boiler Heat Balance
Consist of percentage energy absorbed by boiler fluid, energy loss due to dry flue gases, energy loss due to moisture
in fuel, energy loss due to evaporating and superheating moisture formed by combustion of hydrogen, energy loss
due to incomplete combustion of carbon to CO, energy loss due to combustible in the refuse, and energy loss due to
radiation and unaccounted for totaling to higher heating value as 100%.
a. Energy absorbed by boiler fluid.
The useful output of the steam generator is the heat transferred to the fluid.
( )
f
w
W
h h W
Q
1 2
1
=
in which
W
w
= weight of fluid flowing through the boiler during the test, lb
h
1
and h
2
= fluid enthalpies entering and leaving the boiler, respectively, Btu per lb
W
f
= weight of fuel burned during test, lb
Q
1
expressed as a percentage of the higher heating value of the fuel is the boiler efficiency.
B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE
10
b. Energy loss due to dry flue gas.
This loss is the greatest of any of the boiler losses for a properly operated unit.
( )
a g dg
t t W Q = 24 0
2
.
in which
0.24 = specific heat of the flue gas at constant pressure, Btu per lb per deg F.
t
g
= temperature of the gas leaving the boiler, F
t
a
= temperature of the air entering the boiler, F
c. Energy loss due to evaporating and superheating moisture in fuel.
Moisture entering the boiler with the fuel leaves as a superheated vapor in the same way as does moisture
from the combustion of hydrogen.
( ) F t when t t M Q
g f g f
575 46 0 1089
3
< + = , .
( ) F t when t t M Q
g f g f
575 5 0 1066
3
> + = , .
where
M
f
= moisture in fuel, lb per lb of fuel
t
f
= temperature of fuel, F
d. Energy loss due to evaporating and superheating moisture formed by combustion of hydrogen.
This loss is higher for gaseous fuels containing relatively large percentages of hydrogen than for the average low-
hydrogen coal.
( )
ff
h h H Q =
2 4
9
where:
h
2
= weight of hydrogen in the fuel, lb per lb fuel
h = enthalpy of superheated vapor, Btu per lb
h
ff
= enthalpy of liquid at the incoming fuel temperature
or
( ) F t when t t H Q
g f g
575 46 0 1089 9
2 4
< + = , .
( ) F t when t t H Q
g f g
575 5 0 1066 9
2 4
> + = , .
The proper value of H2 to be used in the equation is the amount of hydrogen in the fuel that is available for
combustion. To obtain the value of H
2
, deduct from the value of H
2
in ultimate analysis one ninth of the weight
of moisture from the proximate analysis.
e. Energy loss due to incomplete combustion.
Products formed by incomplete combustion may be mixed with oxygen and burned again with a further release
of energy.
lb Btu
CO CO
CO
C C Q
ab i
+
= =
2
5
160 10 160 10 , ,
f. Energy loss due to unconsumed carbon.
All combustible in the refuse may be assumed to be carbon, since the other combustible parts of coal would
probably be distilled out of the fuel before live embers would drop into ash pit.
B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE
11
( ) lb Btu C C Q
ab
= 600 14
6
,
or
r r
HV W Q =
6
g. Unaccounted-for and radiation loss.
This loss is due to radiation, incomplete combustion resulting in hydrogen and hydrocarbons in the flue gas, and
unaccounted-for losses.
6 5 4 3 2 1 7
Q Q Q Q Q Q HHV Q =
h. Boiler Heat Balance Tabulation
Item Energy, Btu per lb fuel Percentage
Q
1
Q
2
Q
3
Q
4
Q
5
Q
6
Q
7
HHV 100%
- End -
B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE
12