Table of Content

1. INRODUCTION: .............................................................................................................................2 2. LIST OF AFRICAN COUNTRIES..................................................................................................2 3. AFRICA AND CONFLICTS............................................................................................................3 3.1 BACKGROUND STATISTICS:...........................................................................................................3 4. DISPUTE VS CONFLICT................................................................................................................5 5. WHAT IS CONFLICT?....................................................................................................................5 6. TYPES OF CONFLICTS..................................................................................................................6 6.1 DYSFUNCTIONAL CONFLICT:.........................................................................................................6 6.2 FUNCTIONAL/CREATIVE CONFLICT:..............................................................................................7 6.3 ARMED CONFLICT:........................................................................................................................7 7. ALTERNATIVES TO CONFLICTS...............................................................................................7 8. CAUSES OF CONFLICTS IN AFRICA.........................................................................................7 8.1 POVERTY:.......................................................................................................................................8 8.2 THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM:....................................................................................................8 8.3 FORMALISATION OF EXPANSIONISM:............................................................................................9 8.4 RESOURCE CONTROL AND COMPETITION: ..................................................................................10 8.5 ETHNICITY:..................................................................................................................................10 8.6 EXTERNAL MILITARY AID:..........................................................................................................10 8.7 BASE OF THE WAR:.....................................................................................................................10 8.8 ECONOMIC REFORM PROGRAMS:................................................................................................11 8.9 DYSFUNCTIONAL STATE:.............................................................................................................11 8.10 COMPETITION FOR THE STATE POWER:......................................................................................11 8.11 DEVELOPMENT:.........................................................................................................................12 8.12 PROBLEM OF POLITICAL LIBERALISATION:...............................................................................12 8.13 MILITARISATION:.......................................................................................................................12 9. IMPACTS OF CONFLICTS IN AFRICA:...................................................................................12 9.1 COMMUNITY AND SOCIAL STRUCTURE:......................................................................................13 9.2 POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS:............................................................................................................14 11. SOLUTION TO CONFLICTS IN AFRICA...............................................................................15 12. REFERENCES...............................................................................................................................17

1. INRODUCTION: This assignment dealt extensively on the issue of Conflicts in Africa and how to put and end to this malady called Conflict on our continent. Comprehensive names of all African countries were listed alphabetically with a thorough background history of conflicts in Africa which was traced to the era of colonialism in Africa with statistics and comparison of Africa with rest of the world. Questions relating to conflicts, its meaning, and the difference between dispute and conflicts are thoroughly examined with appropriate examples. Also, critical examinations of issues like alternatives to Conflicts and the Causes of Conflicts in Africa with statistical data to support the reasons. Impact of Conflicts on the African community and its social structure and the political institutions was also examined. The role of the United Nations and the African Union in monitoring and maintaining peace in Africa is discussed while solutions to check and also put to a halt Conflicts in Africa are opined. Extensive use of relative maps and graphical statistics were employed to support facts regarding the existence of Conflict as a canker worn that has eaten deep into the fabric of Africa. Conclusively, with appropriate references, this paper paints a clearer picture of the devastating effects of Conflicts on the life of Africans and how to prevent Conflicts in Africa while the efforts of the International organisations to check Conflicts in Africa and the effects of their efforts so far are also mentioned.

2. LIST OF AFRICAN COUNTRIES Algeria, Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo (Kinshasa, formerly Zaire), Djibouti, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea Bissau, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Libya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mauritius, Morocco, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville), Reunion, Rwanda, Senegal, Seychelles, Sierra Leone,

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Sao Tome & Principe, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Togo, Tunisia, Uganda, Western Sahara*, Zambia, Zanzibar, Zimbabwe. 3. AFRICA AND CONFLICTS 3.1 Background Statistics: The population of Africa to the rest of the world is about 11% with a global representation on trade of about 2% globally. Presently, 54 sovereign nations/states are the entity of Africa as a continent and this represents 25% of states globally. The African Unity (AU) recognises over 2000 different languages being spoken in the continent. Africa has witnessed more conflicts than any other continent in the world. The United Nations security has spent not less than 75% of time and money resolving conflicts and performing humanitarian duties in Africa than any other part of the world. There have been over 9 million refugees and internally displaced people due conflicts in Africa.

Fig 1: New World Maps, Stealth Conflicts, December 30, 2008 Source: Virgil Hawkins, Virgil Hawkins, author of Stealth Conflicts; How the Worlds Worst Violence Is Ignored (Ashgate, October 2008), provides a useful map

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representing conflict death tolls between 1990 and 2007 where the square area of continents/regions corresponds to their proportion of conflict death tolls: Conflicts in Africa, as everywhere, are caused by human action, and can be ended by human action. Most of these conflicts has been characterised by extreme brutality. In Rwanda alone, in 100 days, about a million people were massacred, a scale of killings that is unprecedented in world history. More than 30 wars have been fought in Africa since 1970, and most of these have been internal rather than inter-state wars (Anup Shah 2009). From the above one can infer that most of the Conflicts in Africa are based on internal wrangling, Example of this can be seen fron the Ogoni land in Nigeria. In 1996 alone records shows 14 out of the 53 countries in Africa were involved in armed conflicts and it resulted in more that 8 million refugees and displaced people. Zimbabwe is another bomb waiting to explode as many Zimbabweans has fled the country to neighbouring counties in millions as a result of the political crisis in that country which has crippled the whole country as a result of the dispute from their last general election.(wikipaedia). From this disturbing historical statistics, it is not far fetch to conclude that Africa is a Conflicts ridden Continent. There are reasons for conflicts; there are no good reasons why these conflicts should be allowed to degenerate into violence and brutality. Other alternatives to conflicts resolution should be embraced. Disputes and disagreement between one another should not be allow to resort into Conflicts as between individuals, groups or as nations.

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Fig 2: Map of Africa African countries and year of independence

4. DISPUTE VS CONFLICT Disputes mean those situations in which the issues are negotiable, there can be compromise and the issue does not involve consideration of altered institutions and sacrifice. By contrast, dispute is the behaviour which is the main concern of the conflict. Series is the kind of behaviour on the part of the person, group or nations that goes beyond the normal disagreement and confrontations that characterised much of the usual social, economic and competitive life of society. Gasiye A (2003)

5. WHAT IS CONFLICT? Conflicts refer to disputes, disagreements, quarrels, struggles, fights, and wars between individuals, groups and countries. All over the world, there is no complete agreement as to how wealth, among other issues like power and

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status among individuals and groups should be shared and how to use it to effect the necessary changes and reforms. Since we all have diverse interests both as groups, nations and individuals, our aims are bound to differ with one another. Conflict s occurs when the deprived group, nation or individuals attempt to increase their share of power and wealth or to modify the dominant values, norms, beliefs or ideology. Gesiye A (2003). Conflicts involve more that one person, groups, multinationals or nations. Issues becomes a Conflict when disputes or disagreements cannot be resolved and that should be avoided Conflict could be viewed as a triangle with structure, attitudes and behaviour as it vertices. Conflict with reference to structure means the conflicts situation, the parties, and the conflict of interest among them. Conflict arises where the parties come to have incompatible interests among them. Conflicts arise where the parties come to have incompatible interests, values or goals. Attitudes refer to the tendency for the parties to see conflict from their own point of view, to identify with one side, and to diminish the concerns of others and lastly, behaviours includes gestures and communications, which can convey either a hostile or a conciliatory intent. Galtung (1996). Irreconcilable differences as an avenue for Conflicts is established but no matter what the problem is, there is a need to pursue the side of peace

6. TYPES OF CONFLICTS There are two (3) types of conflicts 1. Dysfunctional Conflict 2. Functional or Creative Conflict 3. Armed Conflict 6.1 Dysfunctional Conflict: This is reflected in its characteristics. It involves destruction and loss of lives, properties, investment opportunities, hunger and starvation, diseases, insecurity, lack of legitimate law and order and when it leads to violence, wars, mass strike, massacres and other forms of disruption follows

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6.2 Functional/Creative Conflict: This is a constructive way of expressing conflict. It reflects the differences and variety of human opinion and activity which exists in any free society. Where creative or functional conflict, which is a major source of innovations, new ideas, institutions and social change are suppressed altogether, a nation becomes stagnant and static. 6.3 Armed Conflict: When a conflict turn into open combat with at least 25 battles related deaths per year, then it is described as armed conflict. This is common between governments (inter state) of between governments and armed groups within the states or between opposed armed groups (intra-state).

7. ALTERNATIVES TO CONFLICTS Avoidance: In a Conflict situation, all possible means should be encouraged to avoid it degenerating into Conflict. Collaboration: In a Conflict situation, one can work together with the aggrieved party to avoid the situation resulting into Conflict. Compromise: Sometimes to avoid Conflicts, compromised is advised for peace to reign. That gives enough time for reconciliation. Example of this is the present Zimbabwe government of two parties. Forging new ground: In a Conflict situation, the stake holders can come together to work together

8. CAUSES OF CONFLICTS IN AFRICA The roots of social conflicts are associated with the struggle for maintaining or challenging a dominant power status Dahrendorf (1975), frustration generated by relative deprivation (Gurr, 1970), repression of basic needs Burton(1982), and differences in cultural norms and values Avruch, et al (1991); LeBaron (1997). The need for one to be able to meet his daily basic needs is very essential. Living a life of fulfilment and contentment is non negotiable to man hence where the daily bread is threatened, there is bound to be Conflict.
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The causes of conflicts in Africa are numerous, interconnected and interrelated, ranging from individual to group violation, to structural inequality and injustice. Some causes of conflicts in Africa are local while others are the result transformations in the international structure since the end of the cold war. Continuing economic decline and material insecurity are accompanied in many countries in Africa by increase in political instability and conflicts. 8.1 Poverty: Both poverty and conflict are related. Poverty can cause conflict while conflict can lead to poverty based on the state of insecurity and bad governance Draman R (2003). Many communities in Africa most especially the conflict torn areas are suffering from hunger and starvation. Africa as a continent is seen as a poor continent 8.2 The Legacy of Colonialism: European nations were bickering over themselves about the spoils of Africa which has began to be a lucrative business in order to prevent conflicts between them, the historical Berlin Conference took place between 18841885 in Berlin to lay down the rules on how they will partition Africa between themselves. Between 1870 and the beginning of the famous World War 1, Europeans scramble for Africa. Colonial administration started to take hold. In some areas, the Europeans settled and thus creating a dominant minority societies. France even planned to incorporate Algeria into the French State; such was the dominance and confidence of the colonial rulers at the time. In most areas where they dont have manpower or resources to fully administer the territory they were forced to rely on the local power structure to help them. Throughout Africa, Europe stake claims Shah A (2009).

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Fig 3: Africa Maps Showing Modern and Pre-Colonial Areas Courtesy of Black Studies Library (BSL) Colonialism ended as European countries started fighting themselves during the World War 1and in effects weakened them in the process. The extent of the damage done to Africa was irreparable. Slavery and colonialism in some part of Africa had almost erased culture and community with an education and civilizing program that gave African only a minimal skill set that served the European colonial interests. 8.3 Formalisation of Expansionism: The British pushed their boundaries in Southern Sudan and Kenya until they met with resistance from Ethiopia, France and Italy, all whom were busy widening their rule concurrently. This trend continued after independence with Somali irredentism, Ethiopia annexation of Eritrea, claims on French protected Djibouti. This further led to what we have today as countries.

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8.4 Resource Control and Competition: The central role of states in determining resource distribution makes it a major target and, when power is over-centralised, it becomes a reason for conflicts. Resource scarcity and control in Africa arise from the natural resources base, population pressures and environmental degradation. 8.5 Ethnicity: This is a tool leaders use to gain and consolidate power. These divide and rule system created enduring ethnically linked economic and political inequalities which help fuel continuing cycles of rebellion and repression. Leaders emphasised differences rather than similarities among ethnic communities. Demand for liberation and ethnic self determination are often rather a form of elite advocacy representing particular organised movements on behalf of an entire nations and people. 8.6 External Military Aid: Conflicts in Africa have been fuelled greatly by external military aids to government and rebel groups. At the apex of 1980s arms transfers, USSR was providing Ethiopia with $1 billion per year in arms, while USA underwrote a significant portion of the defence budgets of Sudan, Somalia and Kenya. France, East Germany, Cuba, Israel, Iran and Libya have all been significant arms providers to combatants in Africa during the past decade. The private arms dealers have also been active in Africa also 8.7 Base of the War: This has to do with the rich natural resources Africa have. Timber, oil, diamond and copper to mention but a few, compounded in many cases by the foreign extractive industries presence, their opaque, unreported payment to the government and the government unreported use of the money. War serves as a distraction

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8.8 Economic Reform Programs: June 2002 G8 summit pointed out as cause of conflicts in Africa to include the legacy of colonialism, the support of the G8 for repressive regimes in the Cold War, the creation of debt traps, the massive failures of structural adjustment programs (SAP) impose by the IMF and World bank and the deeply unfair rule of the international trade. Introduction of fees for free services can promote social tensions, as has the removal of certain producer and consumer subsidies. Austerities measures have caused food riots and other forms of instability in a country like Nigeria in 1989 Shah A (2009). 8.9 Dysfunctional State: Political exclusion through single party, state dominated authoritarian rule has been an important cause of Africas deepening crisis. One state party exhibits various gradations of exclusionary rule, from fascist fundamentalist to narrowly base authority Election processes are manipulated, flawed or tightly controlled. Oppositions political parties are often not inclusive in the government as they have the monopolistic control of the machinery of the state. Examples of few are Arab control of Sudan, Issa Somali control of Djibouti, and former Amhara control of Ethiopia and presently Mugabe control of Zimbabwe. 8.10 Competition for the state power: There has been a profound demographic shift from post Cold war era in Africa, stemming from contests over state power and also from the transfer of states assets and resources that result in changes in government. Fundamentalist backed by the Sudanese government have gained control of the productive infrastructures and marketing channels in Northern Sudan and are penetrating the North and southern part of the country, pursuing policies of ethnic cleaning with great economic potentials such as Nuba Mountains and Northern Bahr al-Ghazar.

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8.11 Development: This also has contributed to conflicts in Africa through states decision about investment in export sectors, especially in Agriculture and livestock. It is common in African states to steer investment in areas controlled by the ruling elites: resulting investment patterns led to extraordinary disparities in economic opportunities from region to region. The most conflict areas in Africa are generally places that were excluded from the fruits of the state investment. Example of this can be seen from the Ogoni land in Nigeria where they have nothing to show for the dredging of oil in their community. 8.12 Problem of Political Liberalisation: In Africa, attempt to liberalise political processes with multi party elections have been incomplete and fraught with difficulties. To Africa, liberalisation is risky as change of any sort can cause instability. During the process for political liberalisation, new elites and old ruling groups, fighting over public support, often resort to nationalist appeals as winner takes all approach to democracy often cause conflict. These increase conflict between different political, economic and identity interest groups as it is prevalent in Africa. 8.13 Militarisation: Military rule was prominent in Africa. Well organised primitive weaponry can be devastating as seen in Rwanda. Access to arms is becoming easier day by day considering the level of conflicts that has degenerated to war in Africa. Militarisation has continue to improvish Africa, $1 Million is spent per day by Sudan to finance war in the South while Mengistu Halle Mariam is spending over $700 Million per year on arms.

9. IMPACTS OF CONFLICTS IN AFRICA: The toll of violence on individual, family and the country in a conflict situation makes life a constant process of adapting to basic insecurity and permanent crisis. Civilians mostly women and children are the major victims of conflicts. The people are prevented from meeting their daily basic needs, and agricultural farms are destroyed creating shortage in full supply leading to

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hunger and starvation. . In Africa, genocide and diseases are estimated to have claimed at least 19.6 million lives since 1945 not to mention Angola and Mozambique war. The number of refuges has increased from 2.5 million in 19 Conflicts, and in most cases leads to war and war displaced people and make millions homeless.

Fig 4: Statistics of refugees in Africa

Source: UNHCR, January 2009

Conflict situation have a very serious effects on the economy as conflict situations reorients resources from socio-economic development to military. It also reduces investment and retard development. Total destruction of the social structure and infrastructures, human capital, local economic institutions and also create insufficient labour for production. Trade and economic activities are disrupted, economy collapse. Outbreak of disease and violent crime (rape) and investment by the government will be drastically reduced. 9.1 Community and Social Structure: Conflicts destroy the society social structure and coping mechanism as the women and children are the targets. Also increases insecurity, hostilities, and promotes diseases. For example, after the Rwanda killings in 1994, death

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continues, number of refugees increases and the internally displaced suffer for lack of water and food 9.2 Political Institutions: In a state of conflict, the national political system is destroyed and the killing of the old (present) and young (future) is the order of the day. Bitterness, division and lack of trust are the order of the day between clans leading to the destruction of the traditional political systems and traditions.

10.

ROLE OF THE UNITED NATIONS AND AFRICAN

UNITY IN MAINTAING PEACE IN AFRICA

As of 1998, 14 counties in the region have experienced arm conflict or civil strife, 11 were under political crisis and turbulence and only the remaining 15 enjoyed more or less stable political conditions.

SOME OF THE CONFLICTS STATES IN AFRICA

Nigeria Angola Botswana Burundi Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo Cote d'Ivoire Eritrea Ethiopia Kenya Liberia Sao Tome Principe Sierra Leone Somalia Sudan Tanzania Zimbabwe Madagascar

Fig 5: Map of Africa University of Texas at Austin

courtesy of: Perry-Casta eda. The

African Union (AU), United Nation (UN) and their regional organisations have made serious efforts to deal with the scourge of conflicts by promoting peace negotiation and brokering peace agreement in Burundi, Cote d Ivoire, Democratic republic of Congo, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Angola, and the Sudan while

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there is a democratically elected government in Liberia. Peacekeeping mission to conflict torn zones to protect the civilians, children and women and restoring law and order in countries where there we coup de tat in Africa e g Guinea Bissau, Sao Tome, And Sierra Leone. Also, appointing special mediators to resolve conflicts in Sudan and Somalia and Convening of a conference of peace and development in the Great Lakes region by the UN. The Implementation of the ruling of the international court of Justice of 10 October 2002, on the land and maritime boundary between Nigeria and Cameroon and use of Arbitration to resolve conflicts between Ethiopia and Eritrea.

11. SOLUTION TO CONFLICTS IN AFRICA Although Africa is seen as a conflicts ridden continent, the significance of the selection of Africa for the first official overseas visit of Ban Ki-moon as Secretary-General of the UN reflect the importance of Africa as the cradle of civilization for the world. On the part of the United Nation, there is need to do more for the continent through aid, peace keeping and immediate response in a dispute situation before it degenerates into arm conflicts. Effective use of sanctions, dialogues and application of conflict prevention approaches should be embrace. African leaders should hold responsible for lack of progressive stewardships, accountability and bad governance. Democracy should be encouraged all over the continent so that everybody can participate in the government and the country resources properly distributed among all the stakeholders to avoid conflicts. In conclusion, although there are lots of Conflicts in Africa for quite sometimes now but the Continent is gradually getting out of the madness called Conflicts, Africans themselves through the African Union (AU) is doing much to check all these Conflicts situations and mediate where possible. Extensive discussion on the cause and solutions to conflicts as discussed in this paper with emphasis on the alternative approaches to prevent Conflict are

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thoroughly discussed. The International community are to do more for Africa and also check the activities of the multinationals.

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12. REFERENCES 1. Africa: Africa World Press Guide: Compiled and Edited by World Views: Conflicts in Africa: Causes and Prospects for Resolutions Retrieved on 3rd June 2009 from http://www.worldviews.igc.org/awpguide/conflicts 2. Africa Recovery (2003). Africa seeks own solutions to conflict: Africa Recovery (Online) vol.17 #1, May 2004. Retrieved on the 16 th of May 2009 from http://www.africarecovery.com 3. Africa Renewal (2004). Progress in tackling Africas conflicts. (online) Africa Renewal, Vol.18 #3, October 2004, page 15 4. Angaye G (2003). Causes and Cures of Conflicts in Nigeria (online) Retrieved on 30th May 2009 from http://www.nigerdeltacongress.com/gartcles/causes 5. Boulden J (2003). Dealing with Conflicts in Africa: The United Nations and regional Organisation. Palgrave Macmillan Press

6. Burton J (1990). Conflict: resolution and Prevention. The Macmillan Press Ltd, London. 7. Draman R (2003). Poverty and Conflicts in Africa: Expanding a Complex Relationship. Final Draft of paper for Expert Group Meeting on Africa-Canada Parliamentary Strengthening Program, Addis Ababa, May 19-23, 2003. Retrieved on 6 th of June, 2009 from http//www.parlcent.ca/povertyreduction/seminar 8. Gutto S (2002). Respect Can Provide Possible Solutions to Conflicts. Retrieved form http://www.wfn.org/2002/10

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9. Hawkins V (2008). Stealth Conflicts: How the Worlds Worst Violence Is Ignored. Ashgate Press. 10. Jeong H (1999). Research on Conflict Resolution. Ashgate Publishing Company, England. 11. Nye J (2000). Understanding International Conflict: An Introduction to Theory and History. (3rd Edition) Longman Publisher. 12. Shah A, (2009). Conflicts in Africa. (online) Retrieved on 5 th June 2009 from http://www.globalissues.org/article/84

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