Elgaaly, M.

Plate and Box Girders

Structural Engineering Handbook
Ed. Chen Wai-Fah
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 1999
Pl ate and Box Gi rders
Mohamed El gaal y
Department of Civil &
Architectural Engineering,
Drexel University,
Philadelphia, PA
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Stability of theCompression Flange
Vertical Buckling

Lateral Buckling

Torsional Buckling

Compression Flangeof aBox Girder
19.3 Web BucklingDueto In-PlaneBending
19.4 Nominal Moment Strength
19.5 Web Longitudinal Stiffenersfor BendingDesign
19.6 UltimateShear Capacity of theWeb
19.7 Web Stiffenersfor Shear Design
19.8 Flexure-Shear Interaction
19.9 Steel PlateShear Walls
19.10In-PlaneCompressiveEdgeLoading
19.11EccentricEdgeLoading
19.12Load-BearingStiffeners
19.13Web Openings
19.14Girderswith Corrugated Webs
19.15DeningTerms
References
19.1 Introduction
Plateand box girdersareused mostly in bridgesand industrial buildings, wherelargeloadsand/or
longspansarefrequently encountered. Thehigh torsional strength of box girdersmakesthem ideal
for girderscurvedinplan. Recently, thinsteel plateshear wallshavebeeneffectivelyusedinbuildings.
Such wallsbehaveasvertical plategirderswith thebuildingcolumnsasangesand theoor beams
asintermediatestiffeners. Although traditionally simply supported plateand box girdersarebuilt
upto150ft span, several three-span continuousgirder bridgeshavebeen built in theU.S. withcenter
spansexceeding400ft.
In itssimplest form aplategirder ismadeof two angeplateswelded to aweb plateto form an I
section, andaboxgirder hastwoangesandtwowebsfor asingle-cell boxandmorethantwowebsin
multi-cell boxgirders(Figure19.1). Thedesigner hasthefreedominproportioningthecross-section
of thegirder to achievethemost economical design and takingadvantageof availablehigh-strength
steels. Thelarger dimensionsof plateand box girdersresult in theuseof slender websand anges,
makingbucklingproblemsmorerelevant in design. Bucklingof platesthat areadequatelysupported
alongtheir boundariesisnot synonymouswithfailure, andtheseplatesexhibit post-bucklingstrength
that can beseveral timestheir bucklingstrength, dependingon theplateslenderness. Although plate
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
FIGURE19.1: Plateand box girders.
bucklinghasnot been thebasisfor design sincetheearly 1960s, bucklingstrength isoften required
to calculatethepost-bucklingstrength.
Thetrend toward limit stateformat codesplaced theemphasison thedevelopment of newdesign
approaches based on the ultimate strength of plate and box girders and their components. The
post-buckling strength of platessubjected to shear isdueto thediagonal tension eld action. The
post-bucklingstrength of platessubjected to uniaxial compression isdueto thechangein thestress
distributionafter buckling, higher near thesupportededges. Aneffectivewidthwithauniformstress,
equal to theyield stressof theplatematerial, isused to calculatethepost-bucklingstrength [ 40] .
Theangein abox girder and theweb in plateand box girdersareoften reinforced with stiffeners
to allow for the use of thin plates. The designer has to nd a combination of plate thickness and
stiffener spacingthat will optimizetheweight and reducethefabrication cost. Thestiffenersin most
casesaredesigned todividetheplatepanel intosubpanels, which areassumed tobesupported along
the stiffener lines. Recently, the use of corrugated webs resulted in employing thin webs without
theneed for stiffeners, thusreducing thefabrication cost and also improving thefatiguelifeof the
girders.
Theweb of agirder and load-bearingdiaphragmscan besubjected to in-planecompressivepatch
loading. Theultimatecapacity under thisloading condition iscontrolled by web crippling, which
can occur prior to or after local yielding. Thepresenceof openingsin platessubjected to in-plane
loadsisunavoidablein somecases, and thepresenceof openingsaffectsthestability and ultimate
strength of plates.
19.2 Stabilityof theCompressionFlange
Thecompression angeof aplategirder subjected to bendingusually failsin lateral buckling, local
torsional buckling, or yielding; if thewebisslender thecompressionangecanfail byvertical buckling
into theweb (Figure19.2).
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
FIGURE19.2: Compression angemodesof failure.
19.2.1 Vertical Buckling
Thefollowinglimitingvaluefor theweb slendernessratio toprecludethismodeof failure[ 4] can be
used,
h/t
w

_
0.68E/
_
F
yf
_
F
yf
+ F
r
_
_
_
A
w
/A
f
(19.1)
whereh and t
w
aretheweb height and thickness, respectively; A
w
istheareaof theweb; A
f
isthe
areaof theange; E isYoungsmodulusof elasticity; F
yf
istheyield stressof theangematerial;
and F
r
istheresidual tension that must beovercometo achieveuniform yielding in compression.
Thislimiting valuemay betoo conservativesincevertical buckling of thecompression angeinto
theweb occursonly after general yieldingof theange. Thislimitingvalue, however, can behelpful
to avoid fatiguecracking under repeated loading dueto out-of-planeexing, and it also facilitates
fabrication.
TheAmerican Instituteof Steel Construction (AISC) specication [ 32] usesEquation 19.1 when
thespacingbetween thevertical stiffeners, a, ismorethan 1.5 timestheweb depth, h (a/h > 1.5).
In such acasethespecication recommendsthat
h/t
w
14,000/
_
F
yf
(F
yf
+ 16.5) (19.2)
whereaminimumvalueof A
w
/A
f
=0.5wasassumed and theresidual tension wastaken tobe16.5
ksi. Furthermore, when a/h islessthan or equal to1.5, higher webslendernessispermitted, namely
h/t
w
2000/
_
F
yf
(19.3)
19.2.2 Lateral Buckling
When aangeisnot adequately supported in thelateral direction, elasticlateral bucklingcan occur.
Thecompression ange, together with an effectiveareaof theweb equal to A
w
/6, can betreated as
acolumn and thebucklingstresscan becalculated fromtheEuler equation [2] :
F
cr
=
2
E/()
2
(19.4)
where istheslendernessratio, whichisequal toL
b
/r
T
; L
b
isthelengthof theunbracedsegment of
thebeam; andr
T
istheradiusof gyrationof thecompressionangeplusone-thirdof thecompression
portion of theweb.
TheAISCspecicationadoptedEquation19.4, rounding
2
Eto286,000andassumingthat elastic
bucklingwill occur when theslendernessratio, , isgreater than
r
(= 756/
_
F
yf
).
Furthermore, Equation 19.4 isbased on uniform compression; in most casesthebending isnot
uniformwithinthelengthof theunbracedsegment of thebeam. Toaccount for nonuniformbending,
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
Equation 19.4should bemultiplied by acoefcient, C
b
[ 25] , where
C
b
= 12.5M
max
/(2.5M
max
+ 3M
A
+ 4M
B
+ 3M
C
) (19.5)
where
M
max
= absolutevalueof maximummoment in theunbraced beamsegment
M
A
= absolutevalueof moment at quarter point of theunbraced beamsegment
M
B
= absolutevalueof moment at centerlineof theunbraced beamsegment
M
C
= absolutevalueof moment at three-quarter point of theunbraced beamsegment
Whentheslendernessratio, , islessthanor equal to
p
(= 300/
_
F
yf
), theangewill yieldbefore
it buckles, and F
cr
= F
yf
. When theangeslendernessratio, , isgreater than
p
and smaller than
or equal to
r
, inelastic buckling will occur and astraight lineequation must beadopted between
yielding(
p
) and elasticbuckling( >
r
) to calculatetheinelasticbucklingstress, namely
F
cr
= C
b
F
yf
_
1 0.5(
p
)/(
r

p
)
_
F
yf
(19.6)
19.2.3 Torsional Buckling
If theoutstandingwidth-to-thicknessratioof theangeishigh, torsional bucklingmayoccur. If one
neglectsany restraint provided by theweb to theangerotation, then theangecan betreated asa
longplate, whichissimplysupported(hinged) at oneedgeandfreeat theother, subjectedtouniaxial
compression in thelongitudinal direction. Theelasticbucklingstressunder theseconditionscan be
calculated from
F
cr
= k
c

2
E/12(1
2
)
2
(19.7)
where k
c
is a buckling coefcient equal to 0.425 for a long plate simply supported and free at its
longitudinal edges; isequal to b
f
/2t
f
; b
f
and t
f
aretheangewidth and thickness, respectively;
and E and areYoungsmodulusof elasticity and thePoisson ratio, respectively.
TheAISCspecicationadoptedEquation19.7, rounding
2
E/12(1
2
) to26,200andassuming
k
c
= 4

h/t
w
, where 0.35 k
c
0.763. Furthermore, to allow for nonuniform bending, the
bucklingstresshasto bemultiplied by C
b
, given by Equation 19.5. Elastic torsional bucklingof the
compression angewill occur if isgreater than
r
(= 230/
_
F
yf
/k
c
). When islessthan or equal
to
p
(= 65/
_
F
yf
), theangewill yield beforeit buckles, and F
cr
= F
yf
. When
p
<
r
,
inelasticbucklingwill occur and Equation 19.6shall beused.
19.2.4 CompressionFlangeof aBoxGirder
Lateral-torsional buckling does not govern the design of the compression ange in a box girder.
Unstiffened anges and anges stiffened with longitudinal stiffeners can be treated as long plates
supported along their longitudinal edgesand subjected to uniaxial compression. In theAASHTO
(AmericanAssociationof StateHighwayandTransportationOfcials) specication[ 1] , thenominal
exural stress, F
n
, for thecompression angeiscalculated asfollows:
If w/t 0.57
_
kE/F
yf
, then theangewill yield beforeit buckles, and
F
n
= F
yf
(19.8)
If w/t > 1.23
_
kE/F
yf
, then theangewill elastically buckle, and
F
n
= k
2
E/12(1
2
)(w/t )
2
or
F
n
= 26,200 k(t /w)
2
(19.9)
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
If 0.57
_
kE/F
yf
< w/t 1.23
_
kE/F
yf
, then theangebucklesinelastically, and
F
n
= 0.592F
yf
[1 + 0.687 sin(c/2)] (19.10)
In Equations19.8to 19.10,
w = thespacingbetween thelongitudinal stiffeners, or theangewidth for unstiffened anges
c =
_
1.23 (w/t )
_
F
yf
/kE
_
/0.66
k =
_
8I
s
/wt
3
_
1/3
4.0, for n = 1
k =
_
14.3I
s
/wt
3
n
4
_
1/3
4.0, for n = 2, 3, 4, or 5
n = number of equally spaced longitudinal stiffeners
I
s
= themoment of inertiaof thelongitudinal stiffener about an axisparallel to theangeand
taken at thebaseof thestiffener
Thenominal stress, F
n
, shall bereduced for hybrid girdersto account for thenonlinear variation
of stressescaused by yieldingof thelower strength steel in theweb of ahybrid girder. Furthermore,
another reduction ismadefor slender websto account for thenonlinear variation of stressescaused
by local bend buckling of theweb. Thereduction factorsfor hybrid girdersand slender webswill
begiven in Section 19.3. Thelongitudinal stiffenersshall beequally spaced acrossthecompression
angewidth and shall satisfy thefollowingrequirements[ 1] .
Theprojectingwidth, b
s
, of thestiffener shall satisfy:
b
s
0.48t
s
_
E/F
yc
(19.11)
where
t
s
= thicknessof thestiffener
F
yc
= specied minimumyield strength of thecompression ange
Themoment of inertia, I
s
, of each stiffener about an axisparallel to theangeand taken at the
baseof thestiffener shall satisfy:
I
s
wt
3
(19.12)
where
= 0.125k
3
for n = 1
= 0.07k
3
n
4
for n = 2, 3, 4, or 5
n = number of equally spaced longitudinal compression angestiffeners
w = larger of thewidth of compression angebetween longitudinal stiffenersor thedistance
fromaweb to thenearest longitudinal stiffener
t = compression angethickness
k = bucklingcoefcient asdened in connection with Equations19.8to 19.10
Thepresenceof thein-planecompression in theangemagniesthedeection and stressesin the
angefrom local bending dueto trafc loading. Theamplication factor, 1/(1
a
/
cr
), can be
used to increasethedeectionsand stressesdueto local bending; where
a
and
cr
arethein-plane
compressiveand bucklingstresses, respectively.
19.3 WebBucklingDuetoIn-PlaneBending
Bucklingof theweb dueto in-planebendingdoesnot exhaust itscapacity; however, thedistribution
of the compressive bending stress changes in the post-buckling range and the web becomes less
efcient. Only part of thecompression portion of theweb can beassumed effectiveafter buckling.
A reduction in thegirder moment capacity to account for theweb bend bucklingcan beused, and
thefollowingreduction factor [ 4] hasbeen suggested:
R = 1 0.0005(A
w
/A
f
)(h/t 5.7
_
E/F
yw
) (19.13)
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
It must benoted that when h/t = 5.7
_
E/F
yw
, theweb will yield beforeit bucklesand thereis
no reduction in themoment capacity. Thiscan bedetermined by equatingthebend bucklingstress
to theweb yield stress, i.e.,
k
2
E/
_
12(1
2
)(h/t )
2
_
= F
yw
(19.14)
wherek istheweb bend bucklingcoefcient, which isequal to 23.9if theangesimply supportsthe
web and 39.6if oneassumesthat theangeprovidesfull xity; the5.7in Equation 19.13isbased on
ak valueof 36.
TheAISCspecication replacesthereduction factor given in Equation 19.13by
R
PG
= 1 [a
r
/(1,200 + 300a
r
)] (h/t 970/
_
F
cr
) (19.15)
wherea
r
isequal to A
w
/A
f
and 970 isequal to 5.7

29000; it must benoted that theyield stress

in Equation 19.13 wasreplaced by theangecritical buckling stress, which can beequal to or less
than theyield stressasdiscussed earlier. It must also benoted that in homogeneousgirderstheyield
stressesof thewebandangematerialsareequal; in hybridgirdersanother reduction factor, R
e
, [ 39]
shall beused:
R
e
=
_
12 + a
r
(3m m
3
)
_
/(12 + 2a
r
) (19.16)
wherea
r
isequal totheratioof thewebareatothecompression angearea( 10) and mistheratio
of theweb yield stressto theangeyield or bucklingstress.
19.4 Nominal Moment Strength
Thenominal moment strength can becalculated asfollows.
Based on tension angeyielding:
M
n
= S
xt
R
e
F
yt
(19.17a)
or
Based on compression angebuckling:
M
n
= S
xc
R
PG
R
e
F
cr
(19.17b)
whereS
xc
andS
xt
arethesectionmoduli referredtothecompressionandtensionanges, respectively;
F
yt
isthetensionangeyieldstress; F
cr
isthecompressionangebucklingstresscalculatedaccording
to Section 19.2; R
PG
isthereduction factor calculated usingEquation 19.15; and R
e
isareduction
factor to beused in thecaseof hybrid girdersand can becalculated usingEquation 19.16.
19.5 WebLongitudinal Stiffenersfor BendingDesign
Longitudinal stiffeners can increase the bending strength of plate girders. This increase is due to
thecontrol of theweb lateral deection, which increasesitsexural stresscapacity. Thepresenceof
thestiffener also improvesthebendingresistanceof theangedueto agreater web restraint. If one
longitudinal stiffener isused, itsoptimumlocation is0.20timesthewebdepthfromthecompression
ange. In this case the web plate elastic bend buckling stress increases more than ve times that
without thestiffener. Tests[ 8] showedthat an adequatelyproportionedlongitudinal stiffener at 0.2h
fromthecompression angeeliminatesbend bucklingin girderswith web slenderness, h/t , aslarge
as450. Girderswith larger slendernesswill requiretwo or morelongitudinal stiffenersto eliminate
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
web bend buckling. It must benoted that theincreasein thebending strength of alongitudinally
stiffened thin-web girder is usually small becausetheweb contribution to thebending strength is
small. However, longitudinal stiffeners can be important in a girder subjected to repeated loads
becausethey reduceor eliminatetheout-of-planebendingof theweb, which increasesresistanceto
fatiguecrackingat theweb-to-angejunctureand allowsmoreslender websto beused [ 42] .
TheAISCspecication doesnot addresslongitudinal stiffeners; on theother hand, theAASHTO
specication statesthat longitudinal stiffenersshould consist of either aplatewelded longitudinally
to onesideof theweb or abolted angle, and shall belocated at adistanceof 0.4 D
c
from theinner
surfaceof thecompressionange, whereD
c
isthedepthof thewebincompressionat thesectionwith
themaximumcompressiveexural stress. Continuouslongitudinal stiffenersplacedon theopposite
sideof theweb from thetransverseintermediatestiffeners, asshown in Figure19.3, arepreferred.
If longitudinal and transversestiffenersmust beplaced on thesamesideof theweb, it ispreferable
FIGURE19.3: Longitudinal stiffener for exure.
that thelongitudinal stiffener not beinterrupted for thetransversestiffener. Wherethetransverse
stiffenersareinterrupted, theinterruptionsmust becarefully detailed with respect to fatigue.
To prevent local buckling, theprojectingwidth, b
s
of thestiffener shall satisfy therequirementsof
Equation19.11. Thesectionpropertiesof thestiffener shall bebasedonaneffectivesectionconsisting
of the stiffener and a centrally located strip of the web not exceeding 18 times the web thickness.
The moment of inertia of the longitudinal stiffener and the effective web strip about the edge in
contact with the web, I
s
, and the corresponding radius of gyration, r
s
, shall satisfy the following
requirements:
I
s
ht
3
w
_
2.4(a/h)
2
0.13
_
(19.18)
and
r
s
0.234a
_
F
yc
/E (19.19)
where
a = spacingbetween transversestiffeners
19.6 UltimateShear Capacityof theWeb
Asstatedearlier, inmost designcodesbucklingisnot usedasabasisfor design. Minimumslenderness
ratios, however, arespecied to control out-of-planedeection of theweb. Theseratiosarederived
to giveasmall factor of safety against buckling, which isconservativeand in somecasesextravagant.
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
Before the web reaches its theoretical bucklingload the shear is taken by beam action and the
shear stress can be resolved into diagonal tension and compression. After buckling, the diagonal
compression ceasesto increaseand any additional loadswill becarried by thediagonal tension. In
verythin webswith stiff boundaries, theplatebucklingload isverysmall and can beignored and the
shear iscarried by acompletediagonal tension eld action [ 41] . In welded plateand box girdersthe
web isnot very slender and theangesarenot very stiff; in such acasetheshear iscarried by beam
action aswell asincompletetension eld action.
Basedontest results, theanalytical model showninFigure19.4canbeusedtocalculatetheultimate
shear capacity of theweb of awelded plategirder [ 5] . Theangesareassumed to betoo exibleto
FIGURE19.4: Tension eld model by Basler.
support thevertical component fromthetension eld. Theinclination andwidthof thetension eld
weredened by theangle, which ischosen to maximizetheshear strength. Theultimateshear
capacity of theweb, V
u
, can becalculated from
V
u
=
_

cr
+ 0.5
yw
(1
cr
/
yw
) sin
d
_
A
w
(19.20)
where

cr
= critical bucklingstressin shear

yw
= yield stressin shear

yw
= web yield stress

d
= angleof panel diagonal with ange
A
w
= areaof theweb
In Equation 19.20, if
cr
0.8
yw
, thebucklingwill beinelasticand

cr
=
cri
=
_
0.8
cr

yw
(19.21)
It wasshown later [ 23] that Equation 19.20 givestheshear strength for acompletetension eld
instead of thelimited band shown in Figure19.4. Theresultsobtained from theformula, however,
werein good agreement with thetest results, and theformulawasadopted in theAISCspecication.
Many variations of this incomplete tension eld model have been developed; are view can be
found in theSSRCGuidetoStabilityDesignCriteriafor Metal Structures[ 22] . Themodel shown in
Figure19.5[ 36, 38] givesbetter resultsandhasbeen adoptedin codesin Europe. In themodel shown
in Figure 19.5, near failure the tensile membrane stress, together with the buckling stress, causes
yielding, and failureoccurswhen hingesformin theangesto produceacombined mechanismthat
includestheyield zoneABCD. Thevertical component of thetension eld isadded to theshear at
buckling and combined with theframeaction shear to calculatetheultimateshear strength. The
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
FIGURE19.5: Tension eld model by Rockey et al.
ultimateshear strength isdetermined by addingtheshear at buckling, thevertical component of the
tension eld, and theframeaction shear, and isgiven by
V
u
=
cr
A
w
+
t
A
w
[(2c/h) + cot cot
d
] sin
2
+ 4M
p
/c (19.22)
where

t
= 1.5
cr
sin 2 +
_

2
yw
+ (2.25 sin
2
2 3)
2
cr
c = (2/ sin )

Mp/(
t
t
w
) 0 c a
M
p
= plasticmoment capacity of theangewith an effectivedepth of theweb, b
e
, given by
b
e
= 30t
w
[1 2(
cr
/
yw
)]
where(
cr
/
yw
) 0.5; reduction in M
p
dueto theeffect of theangeaxial compression shall be
considered and when
cr
> 0.8
yw
,

cr
=
cri
=
yw
[1 0.16(
yw
/
cr
)]
Themaximum valueof V
u
must befound by trial; istheonly independent variablein Equa-
tion 19.22, and theoptimum isnot difcult to determineby trial sinceit isbetween
d
/2 and 45
degrees, and V
u
isnot sensitiveto small changesfromtheoptimum.
Recently [ 2, 33] , it hasbeen argued that thepost-buckling strength arisesnot dueto adiagonal
tension eld action, but by redistribution of shear stresses and local yielding in shear along the
boundaries. A casein between is to model theweb panel as a diagonal tension strip anchored by
corner zonescarrying shear stressesand act asgussetsconnecting thediagonal tension strip to the
vertical stiffenerswhich arein compression [ 9] . On thebasisof test results, it can beconcluded that
unstiffened webspossessaconsiderablereserveof post-bucklingstrength [16, 24] . Theincomplete
diagonal tension eld approach, however, isonly reasonably accurateup to amaximumaspect ratio
(stiffenersspacing: webdepth) equal to6. Research isrequired todevelop an appropriatemethod of
predictingthepost-bucklingstrength of unstiffened girders.
In the AISC specication, the shear capacity of a plate girder web can be calculated, using the
model shown in Figure19.4, asfollows:
For h/t
w
187
_
k
v
/F
yw
, theweb yieldsbeforebuckling, and
V
n
= 0.6A
w
F
yw
(19.23)
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
For h/t
w
> 187
_
k
v
/F
yw
, theweb will buckleand atension eld will develop, and
V
n
= 0.6A
w
F
yw
_
C
v
+ (1 C
v
)/1.15
_
1 + (a/h)
2
_
(19.24)
where
k
v
= bucklingcoefcient = 5 + 5/(a/h)
2
= 5, if (a/h) > 3 or [260/(h/t
w
)]
2
C
v
= ratio of theweb bucklingstressto theshear yield stressof theweb
= 187
_
k
v
/F
yw
/(h/t
w
), for 187
_
k
v
/F
yw
h/t w 234
_
k
v
/F
yw
= 44,000k
v
/[(h/t
w
)
2
F
yw
], for h/t
w
> 234
_
k
v
/F
yw
It must benoted that, in theabove, theweb bucklingiselasticwhen h/t
w
> 234
_
k
v
/F
yw
.
TheAISC specication does not permit theconsideration of tension eld action in end panels,
hybridandweb-taperedplategirders, andwhena/hexceeds3.0or [260/(h/t w)]
2
. Thisiscontraryto
thefact that atensioneldcandevelopinall thesecases; however, littleor noresearchwasconducted.
Furthermore, tension eld can beconsidered for end panelsif theend stiffener isdesigned for this
purpose. Whenneglectingthetensioneldaction, thenominal shear capacitycanbecalculatedfrom
V
n
= 0.6A
w
F
yw
C
v
(19.25)
Caremust beexercised in applyingthetension eld modelsdeveloped primarily for welded plate
girders to the webs of a box girder. The thin ange of a box girder can provide very little or no
resistance against movements in the plane of the web. If the web of a box girder is transversely
stiffened and if themodel shown in Figure19.4isused, it may overpredict theweb strength. Hence,
it isadvisableto usethemodel shown in Figure19.5, assumingtheplastic moment capacity of the
angeto benegligible.
19.7 WebStiffenersfor Shear Design
Transverse stiffeners must be stiff enough to prevent out-of-plane displacement along the panel
boundariesin computingshear bucklingof plategirder webs. To providetheout-of-planesupport
an equation, developed for an innitely long web with simply supported edgesand equally spaced
stiffeners, to calculatetherequired moment of inertiaof thestiffeners, I
s
, namely for a h,
I
s
= 2.5ht
3
w
[(h/a) 0.7(a/h)] (19.26)
TheAASHTOformulafor load-factor design is
I
s
= Jat
3
w
(19.27)
where
J = [2.5(h/a)
2
2] 0.5
Equation 19.27 isthesameasEquation 19.26 except that thecoefcient of (a/h) in thesecond
termbetween bracketsis0.8instead of 0.7. Equation 19.27wasadopted by theAISCspecication as
well. Themoment of inertiaof thetransversestiffener shall betaken about theedgein contact with
thewebfor single-sidedstiffenersandabout themid-thicknessof thewebfor double-sidedstiffeners.
To prevent local buckling of transversestiffeners, thewidth, b
s
, of each projecting stiffener ele-
ment shall satisfy therequirementsof Equation 19.11 usingtheyield stressof thestiffener material
rather than that of theange, asin Equation 19.11. Furthermore, b
s
shall also satisfy thefollowing
requirements:
16.0t
s
b
s
0.25b
f
(19.28)
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
where
b
f
= thefull width of theange
Transversestiffenersshall consist of platesor angleswelded or bolted to either oneor both sides
of theweb. Stiffenersthat arenot used asconnection platesshall beatight t at thecompression
ange, but need not bein bearingwith thetension ange. Thedistancebetween theend of theweb-
to-stiffener weld and thenear edgeof theweb-to-angellet weld shall not belessthan 4t
w
or more
than 6t
w
. Stiffenersused asconnectingplatesfor diaphragmsor cross-framesshall beconnected by
weldingor boltingto both anges.
In girderswith longitudinal stiffenersthetransversestiffener must also support thelongitudinal
stiffener asit forcesahorizontal nodein thebend bucklingconguration of theweb. In such acase
it isrecommended that thetransversestiffener section modulus, S
T
, beequal to S
L
(h/a), whereS
L
isthesection modulusof thelongitudinal stiffener and h and aaretheweb depth and thespacing
between thetransversestiffeners, respectively. In theAASHTOspecication, themoment of inertia
of transversestiffenersused in conjunction with longitudinal stiffenersshall also satisfy
I
t
(b
t
/b
l
)(h/3a)I
l
(19.29)
whereb
t
and b
l
=projectingwidth of transverseand longitudinal stiffeners, respectively, and I
t
and
I
l
= moment of inertiaof transverseand longitudinal stiffeners, respectively.
Transversestiffenersin girdersthat rely on atension eld must also bedesigned for their rolein
thedevelopment of thediagonal tension. In thissituation they arecompression members, and so
must bechecked for local buckling. Furthermore, they must havecross-sectional areaadequatefor
theaxial forcethat develops. Theaxial force, F
s
, can becalculated based on theanalytical model [ 5]
shown in Figure19.4, and isgiven by
F
s
= 0.5F
yw
at
w
_
1
_

cr
/
yw
__
(1 cos
d
) (19.30)
TheAISCand AASHTOspecicationsassumethat awidth of theweb equal to 18t
w
actswith the
stiffener and givethefollowingformulafor thecross-sectional area, A
s
, of thestiffeners:
A
s

_
0.15Bht
w
(1 C
v
)V
u
/0.9V
n
18t
2
w
_
(F
yw
/F
ys
) (19.31)
wherethenewnotationsare
0.9V
u
= shear dueto factored loads
B = 1.0for double-sided stiffeners
= 1.8for single-sided anglestiffeners
= 2.4for single-sided platestiffeners
If longitudinally stiffened girdersareused, h in Equation 19.31 shall betaken asthedepth of the
web, sincethetension eld will occur between theangesand thetransversestiffeners.
Theoptimumlocationof alongitudinal stiffener that isusedtoincreaseresistancetoshear buckling
isat thewebmid-depth. In thiscasethetwosubpanelsbucklesimultaneouslyandtheincreasein the
critical stressissubstantial. Toobtain thetension eld shear resistanceonecan assumethat onlyone
tension eld isdeveloped between theangesand transversestiffenerseven if longitudinal stiffeners
areused.
19.8 Flexure-Shear Interaction
Theshear capacityof agirder isindependent of bendingaslongastheappliedmoment islessthanthe
moment that can betaken by theangesalone, M
f
=
yf
A
f
h; any larger moment must beresisted
in part by theweb, which reducestheshear capacity of thegirder. When thegirder issubjected to
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
purebendingwith noshear, themaximummoment capacityisequal totheplasticmoment capacity,
M
p
, dueto yieldingof thegirdersentirecross-section. In viewof thetension eld action and based
on test results[ 3] , asimpleconservativeinteraction equation isgiven by
(V/V
u
)
2
+ (M M
f
)/(M
p
M
f
) = 1 (19.32)
whereM and V aretheapplied moment and shear, respectively.
In theAISCspecication, plategirderswith websdesigned for tension eld action and when the
ultimateshear, V
u
, isbetween 0.54 and 0.9V
n
, and theultimatemoment, M
u
, isbetween 0.675 and
0.9M
n
, whereV
n
and M
n
arethenominal shear and moment capacitiesin absenceof oneanother;
thefollowinginteraction equation must besatised,
M
u
/0.9M
n
+ 0.625(V
u
/0.9V
n
) 1.375 (19.33)
19.9 Steel PlateShear Walls
Although thepost-bucklingbehavior of platesunder monotonicloadshasbeen under investigation
for more than half a century, post-buckling strength of plates under cyclic loading has not been
investigated until recently [ 7] . Theresultsof thisinvestigation indicatethat platescan besubjected
to fewreversed cyclesof loadingin thepost-bucklingdomain, without damage. In steel plateshear
walls, theboundarymembersarestiff andtheplateisrelativelythin; in such casesacompletetension
eld can be developed. The plate can be modeled as a series of tension bars inclined at an angle,
[ 27] . Theangleof inclination, , isafunction of thepanel length and height, theplatethickness,
thecross-sectional areasof thesurroundingbeamsand columns, and themoment of inertiaof the
columns. It can bedetermined by applyingtheprincipleof least work and isgiven by
tan
4
= [(2/t
w
L) + (1/A
c
)] /
_
(2/t
w
L) + (2h/A
b
L) + (h
4
/180I
c
L
2
)
_
(19.34)
where
= angleof inclination of tension eld with thevertical axis
L = panel length
h = panel height
t
w
= wall thickness
A
b
= cross-sectional areaof beam
A
c
= cross-sectional areaof column
I
c
= moment of inertiaof column about axisperpendicular to theplaneof thewall
Although thismodel can predict theultimatecapacitytoareasonabledegreeof accuracyit cannot
depict theload-deection characteristicsto thesamedegreeof accuracy. Based on test resultsand
niteelement analysis[ 17, 18] , thestressesin theinclined tensileplatestripsarenot uniform but
arehigher near thesupporting boundariesthan thecenter of theplate, and yielding of thesestrips
startsnear their endsand propagatestoward themidlength. Thefollowing method can beused to
calculatetheultimatecapacity and determinetheload-deection characteristicsof athin-steel-plate
shear wall.
Theplateintheshear wall isreplacedbyaseriesof trusselementsinthediagonal tensiondirection,
asshown in Figure19.6. A minimum of four trussmembersshall beused to replacetheplatepanel
in order to depict thepanel behavior to areasonabledegreeof accuracy; however, six membersare
recommended. Thestress-strain relationship for thetrusselementsshall beassumed tobebilinearly
elastic perfectly plastic, as shown in Figure 19.7, where E is Youngs modulus of elasticity and
y
is the tensile yield stress of the plate material. In Figure 19.7 the rst slope represents the elastic
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
FIGURE19.6: Steel plateshear wall analytical model.
FIGURE19.7: Stress-strain relationship for trusselement.
responseand thesecond representsthereduced stiffnesscaused by partial yielding;
y1
and E
2
can
bedetermined usingasemi-empirical approach for welded aswell asbolted shear walls, and can be
calculated usingthefollowingequations:

y1
= (0.423 + 0.816b
e
/L)
y
(19.35)
where
b
e
=
_
14.6
2
E/12(1
2
)
y
_
0.5
t (19.36)
L = length of thestrip
t = thicknessof theplate
and
E
2
=
_
(
y2

y1
)(3
y1
)/
y2
(2 + )
_
E (19.37)
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
where istheratiobetween theplasticstrain,
p
, and thestrain at theinitiation of yielding,
y
. This
ratio isin therangeof 5 to 20, depending on thestiffnessof thecolumnsrelativeto thethickness
of the plate; a value of 10 can be used in design. In the derivation of Equations 19.35 and 19.36
theinclination angleof theequivalent trusselementswasassumed to be45 degrees. Theangleof
inclination isusually in therangeof 38to 43degreesand theeffect of thisassumption on theoverall
behavior of thewall isnegligible.
In order to denetheload displacement relationship of thetrusselementsin abolted shear wall,
theparametersP
y1
, K
1
, P
y
, and K
2
shown in Figure19.8need to becalculated. For abolted plate,
FIGURE19.8: Load-displacement relationship for trusselement.
theinitial yieldingcan occur when theplateat theboltedconnection startsslippingor when it locally
yieldsnear theboundariesasintheweldedplate. Theloadduetoslippageiscontrolledbythefriction
coefcient between theconnected surfaces and thenormal forceapplied by thebolts. In casethe
boltswerepre-tensioned to 70%of their ultimatetensilestrength, slip will occur at aload equal to
P
y1
= n(0.7F
b
u
A
b
) (19.38)
wheren isthenumber of boltsat oneend of thetrusselement; F
b
u
and A
b
aretheultimatetensile
strength and cross-section areaof thebolt, respectively; and isthefriction coefcient between the
connected surfaces. Theload that causesinitial yieldingat theendsof thestrip isthesameasfor the
welded plate, and can beobtained from Equation 19.35 by multiplying thestress,
y1
, by thestrip
cross-sectional area, A
p
.
Theusableload isthesmaller of theloadsthat causesslippageor initial yieldingat theendsof the
strip. Theinitial stiffnessof theequivalent trusselement can becalculated asfollows:
K
1
= EA
p
/L (19.39)
The ultimate load is controlled by the total yielding of the plate strip, tearing at the bolt holes,
or shearing of thebolts. Thesmallest failureload is thecontrolling ultimatecapacity of thetruss
element. Theultimateload dueto thestrip yieldingalongitsentirelength,
P

y
=
y
A
p
(19.40)
Thebolted shear wall should bedesigned such that plateyieldingcontrols.
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
Tearing at thebolt holes will occur when theedgedistanceis small or thebolt spacing is large,
which should beavoided in design becauseit isabrittlefailure. Thetearingload, denoted asP

y
, can
becalculated usingthefollowingformula:
P

y
= 1.4n
u
(L
e
D/2)t (19.41)
wheren isthenumber of boltsat theendof thetrusselement,
u
istheultimatetensilestrengthof the
platematerial, L
e
isthedistancefrom theedgeof theplateto thecentroid of thebolt hole, D isthe
diameter of thebolt, and t isthethicknessof theplate. Notethat in theaboveformulatheultimate
strength of theplatematerial in shear wasassumed to be0.7, itsultimatestrength in tension.
Theshear failureof theboltscan occur if theshear strength of theboltsissmall or thespacing
between them islarge. In such casetheultimatecapacity of thetrusselement, which isdenoted as
P

y
, can becalculated fromoneof thefollowingformulas:
P

y
= 0.45nF
b
u
A
b
(19.42a)
P

y
= 0.60nF
b
u
A
b
(19.42b)
wheren isthenumber of boltsand F
b
u
and A
b
aretheultimatestrength and thegrosscross-section
areaof thebolts, respectively. Equation 19.42aisused if theshear planeiswithin thethreaded part
of thebolt and Equation 19.42b isused if theshear planeisnot within thethreaded part of thebolt.
Theultimateload of thetrusselement isthesmallest valueof theplatetotal yieldingcapacity, the
tearingcapacity, and thebolt shearingcapacity, i.e.,
P
y
= min(P

y
, P

y
, P

y
) (19.43)
Asstated earlier, theplateyieldingshall control and thedesigner must ensurethat P

y
isthesmallest
of thethreevalues.
Ascan beseen in Figure19.8, in order to denethestiffness, K
2
, thedisplacement of thetruss
element when the load reaches the ultimate capacity, P
y
, needs to be determined. This ultimate
displacement includesthestretchingof theelement aswell astheslippageandthebearingdeformation
of the plate and the bolts at the connections. The plate strip represented by the truss element is
stretched under load; the elongation includes both elastic and plastic deformations. As discussed
earlier, duetothenonuniformstraindistributionalongthelengthof thestrip, theplasticdeformation
will occur mostly near theends. If oneassumesthat thestrain distribution alongthelength of the
strip is a second-degree parabola, and using a plastic deformation factor a, the elongation of the
trusselement dueto theplateelastic and plastic deformationscan becalculated usingthefollowing
equation:

def
= (
y
/3E)(2 + )L (19.44)
Theelongation of thetrusselement dueto slippagecan beapproximated by two timesthehole
clearance, takinginto consideration theslippageat both endsof theelement [ 26] . Thelocal defor-
mation at thebolt holesincludestheeffectsof shearing, bending, and bearingdeformationsof the
fastener aswell aslocal deformation of theconnected plates, and can betaken as0.2 timesthebolt
diameter [ 21] . Havingdenedtheultimateelongation of thetrusselement, itsreducedstiffnessafter
slippageand/or initial yieldingcan beobtained usingthefollowingequation:
K
2
= (P
y
P
y1
)/
_
0.125 + 0.2D +
y
( 1)L/(3E)
_
(19.45)
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
19.10 In-PlaneCompressiveEdgeLoading
Websof plateand box girdersand load-bearingdiaphragmsin box girderscan besubjected to local
in-planecompressiveloads. Vertical (transverse) stiffenerscanbeprovidedat thelocationof theload
to prevent web crippling; however, thisisnot alwayspossible, such asin thecaseof amovingload,
and it involveshigher cost. Failureof theweb under thisloadingisalwaysdueto crippling[10] , as
shown in Figure19.9; in thin webscrippling occursbeforeyielding of theweb and in stocky webs
after yielding. Theformulain theAISCspecication predictsthecripplingload, P
cr
, toareasonable
FIGURE19.9: Deformed shapeunder in-planeedgeloading(only half of thebeamisshown).
degreeof accuracy [ 37] ; thisformulais
P
cr
= 135t
2
w
_
1 + 3(N/d)
_
t
w
/t
f
_
1.5
_
_
F
yw
t
f
/t
w
_
0.5
(19.46)
Theformulagiven by Equation 19.46isapplicableif theload isapplied at adistancenot lessthan
half themembersdepth from itsend; if theload isat adistancelessthan half themembersdepth,
thefollowingformulaeshall beused [ 14] :
For N/d 0.2, P
cr
= 68t
2
w
_
1 + 3(N/d)
_
t
w
/t
f
_
1.5
_
_
F
yw
t
f
/t
w
_
0.5
(19.47a)
For N/d > 0.2, P
cr
= 68t
2
w
_
1 + (4N/d 0.2)(t
w
/t
f
)
1.5
_
_
F
yw
t
f
/t
w
_
0.5
(19.47b)
In addition to web crippling, theAISCspecication requiresaweb yieldingcheck; furthermore,
when therelativelateral movement between theloaded compression angeand thetension angeis
not restrained at thepoint of load application, sidesway bucklingmust bechecked.
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
19.11 Eccentric EdgeLoading
Eccentricitiesin loadingwith respect to theplaneof theweb areunavoidable, and it wasfound that
thereisareduction in theweb capacity dueto thepresenceof an eccentricity [13, 14] ; for example,
in onecase, an eccentricity of 0.5 in. reduced theweb ultimatecapacity to about half itscapacity
under in-planeload. Furthermore, it wasfoundthat theeffect of theloadeccentricityinreducingthe
ultimatecapacity decreasesastheratio of theange-to-web thicknessincreases. A deformed beam
subjected to eccentricload near failureisshown in Figure19.10. Web strength reduction factorsfor
variouseccentricitiesasafunction of theangewidth and for variousange-to-webthicknessratios
aregiven in Figure19.11.
FIGURE19.10: Deformed shapeunder eccentricedgeloading.
Thefailuremechanismin thecaseof eccentricloadingisdifferent fromthat for in-planeloading.
Theangetwisting moment acting at theweb-angeintersection can causefailuredueto bending
rather thancripplingof theweb, if theeccentricityislargeenough. Inmost cases, however, thefailure
modeisduetoacombinationof webbendingandcrippling. Failuremechanismsweredeveloped, and
formulastocalculatetheultimatecapacityof thewebunder eccentricedgeloadingwerederived[ 15] .
Currently, theAISCspecicationdoesnot addresstheeffect of theeccentricityonthereductionof the
webcripplingload. Eccentricitiescan alsoariseduetomomentsappliedtothetopangein addition
to vertical loads. An examplewould beabeam resting on thetop angeof another beam and the
two angesarewelded together. Rotation of thesupported beam will imposeatwistingmoment in
theangeof thesupportingbeamand bendingof itsweb, which will reduceitscripplingload.
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
FIGURE19.11: Eccentricity reduction factor.
19.12 Load-BearingStiffeners
Websof girdersareoften strengthened with transversestiffenersat pointsof concentrated loadsand
over intermediateand end supports. TheAISCspecication requiresthat thesestiffenersbedouble
sided, extend at least one-half thebeamdepth, and either bear on or bewelded to theloaded ange.
Thespecication, further, requiresthat they bedesigned asaxially loaded memberswith an effective
length equalsto 0.75 timestheweb depth; and astrip of theweb, with awidth equal to 25 timesits
thicknessfor intermediatestiffenersand 12timesthethicknessfor end stiffeners, shall beconsidered
in calculatingthegeometricpropertiesof thestiffener.
Thefailure, in caseswherethestiffener depth islessthan 75%of thedepth of theweb, can bedue
to cripplingof theweb belowthestiffener [ 14, 15] , asshown in Figure19.12. Thefailure, otherwise,
FIGURE19.12: Web cripplingbelowstiffener.
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
isdueto global buckling of thestiffener, provided that thethicknessof thestiffener isadequateto
prevent local buckling. Theoptimum depth of thestiffener is0.75 timestheweb depth. TheAISC
specication doesnot account for factorssuch asthestiffener depth and load eccentricity.
Inboxgirdersintermediatediaphragmsareprovidedtolimit cross-sectional deformationandload-
bearing diaphragms areused at thesupports to transfer loads to thebridgebearings. Diaphragm
design istreated in theBS5400: Part 3(1983) [ 6] and discussed in Chapter 7of theSSRCguide[ 22] .
19.13 WebOpenings
Openingsarefrequently encountered in thewebsof plateand box girders. Research on thebuckling
and ultimatestrength of plateswith rectangular and circular openingssubjected to in-planeloads
hasbeen performed by many investigators. Theresearch hasincluded reinforced and unreinforced
openings. Atheoretical methodof predictingtheultimatecapacityof slender webscontainingcircular
and rectangular holes, and subjected to shear, hasbeen developed [ 34, 35] . Thesolution isobtained
by considering theequilibrium of two tension bands, oneaboveand theother below theopening.
Thesebandshavebeen chosen to conformto thefailurepattern observed in tested plategirderswith
holes. Experimental results showed that the method gives satisfactory and safe predictions. The
calculated valueswerefound to bebetween 5and 30%belowthetest results.
Solutions for transversely stiffened webs subjected to shear and bending with centrally located
holesareavailable[ 28, 30] and areapplicablefor webswith depth-to-thicknessratiosof 120to 360,
panel aspect ratio between 0.7 and 1.5, holedepth greater than 1/10t h of theweb depth, and for
circular, elongated circular, and rectangular holes.
19.14 GirderswithCorrugatedWebs
Corrugated webs can be used in an effort to decrease the weight of steel girders and reduce its
fabrication cost. Studieshavebeen conductedin EuropeandJapan andgirderswithcorrugatedwebs
havebeen used in thesecountries[ 12] . Theresultsof thestudiesindicatethat thefatiguestrength
of girderswith corrugated webscan be50%higher compared to girderswith at stiffened webs. In
addition totheimprovedfatiguelife, theweight of girderswithcorrugatedwebscan beasmuchas30
to 60%lessthan theweight of girderswith at websand havethesamecapacity. Dueto theweight
savings, larger clear spanscan beachieved. Beamsand girderswith corrugated websareeconomical
to useand can improvetheaestheticsof thestructure. Beamsmanufactured and used in Germany
for buildings have a web thickness that varies between 2 and 5 mm, and the corresponding web
height-to-thicknessratio isin therangeof 150 to 260. Thecorrugated websof two bridgesbuilt in
Francewere8mmthick and theweb height-to-thicknessratio wasin therangeof 220to 375.
Failurein shear isusuallyduetobucklingof thewebandthefailurein bendingisduetoyieldingof
thecompression angeanditsvertical bucklingintothecorrugatedweb, whichbuckles[ 19, 20] . The
shear buckling modeisglobal for densecorrugation and local for coursecorrugation, asshown in
Figure19.13. Theload-carryingcapacity of thespecimensdropsafter buckling, with someresidual
load-carryingcapacity after failure. In thelocal bucklingmode, thecorrugated web actsasaseries
of at-platesubpanelsthat mutually support each other along their vertical (longer) edgesand are
supported by theangesat their horizontal (shorter) edges. Theseat-platesubpanelsaresubjected
to shear, and theelasticbucklingstressisgiven by

cre
= k
s
_

2
E/12(1
2
)(w/t )
2
_
(19.48)
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
FIGURE19.13: Local and global buckling.
where
k
s
= buckling coefcient, which isa function of thepanel aspect ratio, h/w, and theboundary
support conditions
h = theweb depth
t = theweb thickness
w = theat-platesubpanel width thehorizontal or theinclined, whichever isbigger
E = Youngsmodulusof elasticity
= thePoisson ratio
Thebucklingcoefcient, ks, isgiven by
k
s
= 5.34 +2.31(w/h) 3.44(w/h)
2
+8.39(w/h)
3
, for thelonger edgessimply supported and
theshorter edgesclamped
k
s
= 8.98 + 5.6(w/h)
2
, in thecasewhereall edgesareclamped
An average local buckling stress,
av
(= 0.5[
ssf
+
f x
]), is recommended, and in the case of

cre
0.8
y
, inelasticbucklingwill occur and theinelasticbucklingstress,
cri
, can becalculated by

cri
= (0.8
cre

y
)
0.5
, where
cri

y
.
Asstatedearlier, themodeof failureislocal and/or global buckling; whenglobal bucklingcontrols,
the buckling stress can be calculated for the entire corrugated web panel, using orthotropic-plate
bucklingtheory. Theglobal elasticbucklingstress,
cre
, can becalculated from

cre
= k
s
_
(D
x
)
0.25
_
D
y
_
0.75
_
/t h
2
(19.49)
where
D
x
= (q/s)Et
3
/12
D
y
= EI
y
/q
I
y
= 2bt (h
r
/2)
2
+ {t (h
r
)
3
/6 sin }
k
s
= Bucklingcoefcient, equal to31.6for simplysupportedboundariesand59.2for clamped
boundaries
t = corrugated platethickness
b, h
r
, q, s, and areasshown in Figure19.14.
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
In theaforementioned, when
cre
0.8
y
, inelasticbucklingwill occur and theinelasticbuckling
stress,
cri
, can be calculated by
cri
= (0.8
cre

y
)
0.5
, where cri
y
. For design, it is
recommended that thelocal and global bucklingvaluesbecalculated and thesmaller valuecontrols.
Asstated earlier, thefailurein bendingisdueto compression angeyieldingand vertical buckling
into theweb, asshown in Figure19.15. Thefailureissudden, with no appreciableresidual strength.
Theweboffersnegligiblecontribution tothemoment carryingcapacity of thebeam, and for design,
FIGURE19.14: Dimensionsof corrugation prole.
FIGURE19.15: Bendingfailureof abeamwith corrugateweb.
theultimatemoment capacitycan becalculated based on theangeyielding, ignoringanycontribu-
tion from theweb. Thestressesin theweb areequal to zero except near theanges. Thisisbecause
thecorrugated web hasno stiffnessperpendicular to thedirection of thecorrugation, except for a
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
verysmall distancewhich isadjacent toandrestrainedbytheanges, andthestressesareappreciable
only within thehorizontal foldsof thecorrugation.
It must benoted that thecommon practiceisto llet weld theweb to theangesfrom oneside
only; under static loadingthisweldingdetail wasfound to beadequateand thereisno need to weld
from both sides. Finally, thebracingrequirementsof thecompression angein beamsand girders
with corrugated webs are less severe compared to conventional beams and girders with at webs.
Lateral-torsional bucklingof beamsand girderswith corrugated webshasbeen investigated [ 20] .
19.15 DeningTerms
AASHTO: American Association of StateHighway and Transportation Ofcials.
AISC: American Instituteof Steel Construction.
Bucklingload: Theload at which acompressed element or member assumesadeected posi-
tion.
Effectivewidth: Reduced at width of a plateelement dueto buckling, thereduced width is
termed theeffectivewidth.
Corrugated web: Aweb madeof corrugated steel plates, wherethecorrugationsareparallel to
thedepth of thegirder.
Factored load: Thenominal load multiplied by aload factor to account for unavoidabledevi-
ationsof theactual load fromthenominal load.
Limit state: A condition at which a structure or component becomes unsafe (strength limit
state) or no longer useful for itsintended function (serviceability limit state).
LRFD (Load and ResistanceFactor Design): A method of proportioning structural compo-
nents such that no applicable limit state is exceeded when the structure is subjected
to all appropriateload combinations.
Shear wall: A wall in abuildingto carry lateral loadsfromwind and earthquakes.
Stress: Forceper unit area.
Web crippling: Local bucklingof theweb plateunder local loads.
Web slendernessratio: Thedepth-to-thicknessratio of theweb.
References
[ 1] American Association of StateHighway and Transportation Ofcials. 1994. AASHTO LRFD
BridgeDesign Specications, Washington, D.C.
[ 2] Ajam, W. and Marsh, C. 1991. Simple Model for Shear Capacity of Webs, ASCE Struct. J.,
117(2).
[ 3] Basler, K. 1961. Strengthof PlateGirdersUnder CombinedBendingandShear, ASCEJ. Struct.
Div., October, vol. 87.
[ 4] Basler K. and Th urlimann, B. 1963. Strength of PlateGirdersin Bending, Trans. ASCE, 128.
[ 5] Basler, K. 1963. Strength of PlateGirdersin Shear, Trans. ASCE, Vol. 128, Part II, 683.
[ 6] BritishStandardsInstitution. 1983. BS5400: Part 3, Codeof Practicefor Designof Steel Bridges,
BSI, London.
[ 7] Caccese, V., Elgaaly, M., andChen, R. 1993. Experimental Studyof Thin Steel-PlateShear Walls
Under CyclicLoad, ASCEJ. Struct. Eng., February.
[ 8] Cooper, P.B. 1967. Strength of Longitudinally Stiffened Plate Girders, ASCE J. Struct. Div.,
93(ST2), 419-452.
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
[ 9] Dubas, P. andGehrin, E. 1986. Behavior andDesign of Steel PlatedStructures, ECCSPubl. No.
44, TWG8.3, 110-112.
[ 10] Elgaaly, M. 1983. Web Design Under CompressiveEdgeLoads, AISCEng. J., Fourth Quarter.
[ 11] Elgaaly, M. and Nunan W. 1989. Behavior of Rolled Sections Webs Under Eccentric Edge
CompressiveLoads, ASCEJ. Struct. Eng., 115(7).
[ 12] Elgaaly, M. and Dagher, H. 1990. Beamsand Girderswith Corrugated Webs, Proceedingsof
theSSRCAnnual Technical Session, St. Louis, MO.
[ 13] Elgaaly, M. and Salkar, R. 1990. Behavior of WebsUnder Eccentric CompressiveEdgeLoads,
Proceedingsof IUTAM Symposium, Prague, Czechoslovakia.
[ 14] Elgaaly, M. and Salkar, R. 1991. Web CripplingUnder EdgeLoading, Proceedingsof theAISC
National Steel Construction Conference, Washington, D.C.
[ 15] Elgaaly, M., Salkar, R., and Eash, M. 1992. Unstiffened and Stiffened WebsUnder Compressive
EdgeLoads, Proceedingsof theSSRCAnnual Technical Session, Pittsburgh, PA.
[ 16] Evans, H.R. and Mokhtari, A.R. 1992. PlateGirderswith Unstiffened or Proled Web Plates, J.
SingaporeStruct. Steel Soc., 3(1), December.
[ 17] Elgaaly, M., Caccese, V., and Du, C. 1993. Postbuckling Behavior of Steel-Plate Shear Walls
Under CyclicLoads, ASCEJ. Struct. Eng., 119(2).
[ 18] Elgaaly, M., Liu, Y., Caccese, V., Du, C., Chen, R., and Martin, D. 1994. Non-Linear Behav-
ior of Steel PlateShear Walls, Computational Structural Engineeringfor Practice, edited by
Papadrakakisand Topping, Civil-Comp Press, Edinburgh, UK.
[ 19] Elgaaly, M., Hamilton, R., and Seshadri, A. 1996. Shear Strength of Beams with Corrugated
Webs, J. Struct. Eng., 122(4).
[ 20] Elgaaly, M., Seshadri, A., and Hamilton, R. 1996. BendingStrength of Beamswith Corrugated
Webs, J. Struct. Eng., 123(6).
[ 21] Fisher, J.W. 1965. Behavior of Fastenersand Plateswith Holes, J. Struct. Eng., ASCE, 91(6).
[ 22] Galambos, T.V., Ed. 1988. GuidetoStabilityDesign Criteria for Metal Structures, 4th ed.,
Wiley Interscience, NewYork.
[ 23] Gaylord, E.H. 1963. Discussion of K. Basler Strength of PlateGirdersin Shear, Trans. ASCE,
128, Part II, 712.
[ 24] Hoglund, T. 1971. Behavior and Load CarryingCapacity of Thin PlateI-Girders, Division of
Building Statics and Structural Engineering, Royal Institute of Technology, Bulletin No. 93,
Stockholm.
[ 25] Kirby, P.A. and Nethercat, D.A. 1979. Designfor Structural Stability, John Wiley & Sons, New
York.
[ 26] Kulak, G.L., Fisher, J.W., and Struik, J.H.A. 1987. GuidetoDesign Criteria for Bolted and
RivetedJoints, 2nd ed., Wiley Interscience, NewYork.
[ 27] Kulak, G.L. 1985. Behavior of Steel Plate Shear Walls, Proc. of the AISC Int. Eng. Symp. on
Struct. Steel, American Instituteof Steel Construction (AISC), Chicago, IL.
[ 28] Lee, M.M.K., Kamtekar, A.G., andLittle, G.H. 1989. An Experimental Studyof PerforatedSteel
Web Plates, Struct. Engineer, 67(2/24).
[ 29] Lee, M.M.K. 1990. Numerical Studyof PlateGirder WebswithHoles, Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., Part
2.
[ 30] Lee, M.M.K. 1991. A Theoretical Model for Collapseof PlateGirderswith Perforated Webs,
Struct. Eng., 68(4).
[ 31] Lindner, J. 1990. Lateral-Torsional Buckling of Beams with Trapezoidally Corrugated Webs,
Proceedings of the 4th International Colloquium on Stability of Steel Structures, Budapest,
Hungary.
[ 32] American Instituteof Steel Construction. 1993. LoadandResistanceFactor DesignSpecica-
tionfor Structural Steel Buildings, AISC, Chicago.
[ 33] Marsh, C. 1985. PhotoelasticStudy of Postbuckled Shear Webs, CanadianJ. Civ. Eng., 12(2).
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
[ 34] Narayanan, R. andDer Avanessian, N.G.V. 1983. Strengthof WebsContainingCut-Outs, IABSE
ProceedingsP-64/83.
[ 35] Narayanan, R. and Der Avanessian, N.G.V. 1983. Equilibrium Solution for Predicting the
Strength of Webswith Rectangular Holes, Proc. ICE, Part 2.
[ 36] Porter, D.M., Rockey, K.C., and Evans, H.R. 1975. The Collapse Behavior of Plate Girders
Loaded in Shear, Struct. Eng., 53(8), 313-325.
[ 37] Roberts, T.M. 1981. Slender PlateGirdersSubjected to EdgeLoading, Proc. Inst. Civil Eng.,
Part 2, 71.
[ 38] Rockey, K.C. and Skaloud, M. 1972. TheUltimateLoad Behavior of PlateGirdersLoaded in
Shear, Struct. Eng., 50(1).
[ 39] Schilling, C.G. and Frost, R.W. 1964. Behavior of Hybrid Beams Subjected to Static Loads,
ASCE, J. Struct. Div., 90(ST3), 55-88.
[ 40] Von Karman, T., Sechler, E.F., and Donnell, L.H. 1932. TheStrength of Thin Platesin Com-
pression, Trans. ASME, 54(2).
[ 41] Wagner, H. 1931. Flat Sheet Metal Girder with VeryThin Metal Web, NACATech. Memo. Nos.
604, 605, 606.
[ 42] Yen, B.T. and Mueller, J.A. 1966. FatigueTestsof Large-SizeWelded PlateGirders, Weld. Res.
Counc. Bull., No. 118, November.
c 1999by CRCPressLLC