EMBANKMENT DAMS

TYPES OF EARTHEN EMBANKMENT DAMS

1. Homogeneous dam with toe drain
2. Homogeneous dam with horizontal blanket
3. Homogeneous dam with chimney drain and horizontal blanket
4. Zoned dam with central vertical core and toe drain
5. Zoned dam with central vertical core, chimney filter and horizontal
blanket
6. Zoned dam with inclined core, chimney filter and horizontal blanket
TYPES OF ROCKFILL EMBANKMENT DAMS
1. Central vertical clay core
2. Inclined clay core with drains
3. Decked with asphalt or concrete membrane on upstream face with drains
CAUSES OF FAILURE OF EARTH DAMS
1. Hydraulic failures
2. Seepage failures, and
3. Structural failures
HYDRAULIC FAILURES
SEEPAGE FAILURES
S
T
R
U
C
T
U
R
A
L

F
A
I
L
U
R
E
S
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SIZE OF AN EARTH DAM
(A) FREE BOARD
Wave height by Moliter equation
Free board = 1.5 h
w
(km/hr) velocity Wind (km); Fetch (m);
km 32 for F 032 . 0
km 32 for F 271 . 0 763 . 0 032 . 0
4 / 1
V F h
VF h
F VF h
w
w
w
> =
< + =
US BUREAU OF RECLAMATION (USBR) Recommendations
Spillway height dam height Min. free board above MWL
Uncontrolled Any height 2-3 m
Controlled < 60 m 2.5 m above top of gate
Controlled > 60 m 3.0 m above top of gate
(a) Free Board
Saville method (IS 10635: 1993)
Normal free board = Free board above the FRL
Minimum free board = Free board above the MWL
Procedure for Computation of Normal Free Board
(1) Effective Fetch
Draw a line AB with A on dam axis and B on FRL so as to cover the maximum
reservoir water spread area within 45
0
on either side of line AB
Draw 7 radials at 6
0
interval on each side of AB
Effective Fetch

=
o
o
cos
cos X
Fe
(2) Compute wind velocity on water
Read wind velocity on land from IS 875 for 50 year return period for the region
Wind velocity on water =
v
wind velocity on land
Fe
v
1 1.1
2 1.16
4 1.24
6 1.27
8 1.30
>10 1.31
(3) Compute wave height
(m) (s); (m/s); (m); (m);
56 . 1
length wave
45 . 0
period wave and
0026 . 0
2
0.25
2
0.47
2 2
L T V Fe h
T L
V
gF
V
gT
T
V
gF
V
gh
w
e
e w
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
Design wave height, h
d
= 1.67 h
w
(4) Compute wave run up on smooth surface
Type of Pitching Roughness coefficient
Cement concrete surface 1.0
Flexible brick pitching 0.8
Hand place riprap
Laid flat 0.75
Laid with projection 0.60
Dumped riprap 0.50
Run up on rough surface = Run up on smooth surface roughness coefficient
If corrected R < h
d
; adopt R = h
d
Wave run up on the rough surface
(5) Wind set up computation
D
F
S Wind
62000
V
up set
2
=
S (m); V (km/h); F(km); Average depth of along fetch length, D(m)
Free board = R+S
If free board < 2 m; adopt 2m
Top of dam = FRL+Normal free board
Minimum Free Board at MWL
Calculate effective fetch at MWL
Consider to 2/3 wind velocity on land for computation of h
w
Take h
d
= 1.27 h
w
Minimum free board => 1.5 m
(B) TOP WIDTH
A > 3 m
A =H/3+3 for low dams 15-20 m height (USBR)
) ( ); (
3 6 . 3
Code Japanese
H 3.6 A
m 150 for H USBR
3 / 1
1/3
m H m A
H A =
=
s
( ) unit SI Use 1.5 H 1.65 A
m 30 For H
2 . 0 H 0.55 A
m 30 For H
1/3
1/2
+ =
>
+ =
<
H
(C) Upstream and D/s Slopes (Terzaghis Side slopes)
Types of material U/s (H:V) D/s (H:V)
Homogeneous well graded 2.5:1 2:1
Homogeneous coarse silt 3:1 2.5:1
Homogeneous silt clay
(a) H < 15 m 2.5:1 2:1
(b) H > 15 m 3:1 2.5:1
Sand or sand and gravel with a central clay core 3:1 2.5:1
Sand or sand and gravel with a RC diagragm 2.5:1 2:1
SEEPAGE CONTROL MEASURES IN EMBANKMENT DAM
AND FOUNDATION
Basic requirements for the design of an earth or rockfill dam is to ensure safety
against internal erosion, piping and excessive pore pressure in the dam.
The seepage of reservoir water through the body of the dam or at the
interfaces of the dam with the foundation or abutment creates two main
problems, apart from causing excessive water loss and thereby reducing
usable storage of reservoir:
1. Seepage force causing excessive water loss
2. Piping
SEEPAGE CONTROL AND DRAINAGE FEATURES - ADOPTED FOR
THE EMBANKMENT DAM
Impervious core
Inclined/vertical filter with horizontal filter
Network of inner longitudinal drain and cross drains
Horizontal filter
Transition zones/transition filters
Intermediate filters
Rock toe
Toe drain
Relief wells
Upstream Impervious Blanket
Section of homogenous dam showing seepage control features
Section of zoned dam showing seepage control features
Inclined/Vertical Filter
Inclined or vertical filter abutting downstream face of either impervious core or
downstream transition zone is provided to collect seepage emerging out of
core/transition zone and thereby keeping the downstream shell relatively dry.
Horizontal Filter
It collects the seepage from the inclined/vertical filter or from the body of the dam,
in the absence of inclined/vertical filter, and carries it to toe drain.
The horizontal filter may extend from 25 to 100% of the distance from d/s toe to
the centre line of the dam.
Graded filter be provided.
Inner Longitudinal and Inner Cross Drains
When the filter material is not available in the required quantity at reasonable cost,
a network of inner longitudinal and inner cross drains is preferred to
inclined/vertical filters and horizontal filters.
Transition Zones and Transition Filters
Transition zones/filters in earth and rockfill dams in the upstream and
downstream shells are necessary, when the specified gradation criterion is not
satisfied between two adjacent zones. They help to minimize failure by internal
piping, cracking, etc, that may develop in the core or by migration of fines from
the core material.
The filter material used for drainage system shall satisfy the following criteria:
a) Filter materials shall be more pervious than the base materials;
b) Filter materials shall be of such gradation that particles of base material do
not totally migrate through to clog the voids in filter material; and
c) Filter material should help in formation of natural graded layers in the zone
of base soil adjacent to the filter by readjustment of particles.
Horizontal Filters at Intermediate Levels
Horizontal filter layers at intermediate levels are sometimes provided in
upstream and downstream shells, to reduce pore pressures during
construction and sudden drawdown condition and also after prolonged
rainfall.
These filter layers should not be connected with inclined or vertical filters. A
minimum space of 2.0 m or more, should be kept between the face of
inclined/vertical filter and downstream intermediate filter
Horizontal intermediate filters
Rock Toe
The principal function of the rock toe is to provide drainage. It also protects the
lower part of the downstream slope of an earth dam from tail water erosion.
The top level of the rock toe/pitching should be kept above the maximum tail
water level (TWL). In the reach where the ground level at the dam toe is above
the maximum tail water level, only conventional pitching should be adopted.
The top of such pitching should be kept 1.0 m above the top of horizontal filter,
or stripped level, whichever is higher.
Details of rock toe/pitching protection and toe drains are illustrated for various
combination of Tail Water Level (TWL) and stripped Ground Level (SGL).
1. Rock toe when TWL is higher than SGL
2. Pitching when TWL is higher than SGL
3. Rock toe + pitching when TWL is higher than rock toe
4. Pitching when SGL is above TWL
5. Pitching and lined toe drain
Height of rock toe is generally 30 to 40% of the reservoir head and gradation
of material should satisfy the filter criteria.
Toe Drain
Toe drain is provided at the downstream toe of the earth/rockfill dam to collect
seepage from the horizontal filter or inner cross drains, through the foundation as
well as the rain water falling on the face of the dam.
Closed toe drain
TWL
Relief Wells
To reduce the sub-stratum
uplift pressure d/s of the dam
to avoid boiling of sand and
piping
Generally spacing of well is
15 m c/c.
The well screen consists of
GI pipe of 10-15 cm dia.
Slotted with 5 mm to 50 mm
opening and covering about
10% circumference area of
the pipe.
Filter should meet the filter
criteria discussed earlier.
D
85
filter > hole diameter
A typical relief well
(all dimensions are in mm)
Positive Cut-off Trench
The positive cutoff trench consists of an impervious fill placed in a trench formed
by open excavation into an impervious stratum. Grouting of the contact zone of
the fill and the underlying strata constitutes an integral part of the positive cut-off.
Concrete Diaphragm
A single diaphragm or a double diaphragm may also be used for seepage
control.
Complete Partial
Grout Curtain
Grouted cutoffs are produced by injection, within the zone assigned to the
cutoff, of the voids of the sediments with cement, clay, chemicals, or a
combination of these materials.
Reduce permeability
Approximate range of grain sizes that can be normally be grouted by different
types of grout material and mixture.
Types of grout Dia. of the material (mm) that can be grouted
Cement 0.5 - 1.4
Clay, cement, bentonite 0.3 0.5
Clay-chemical, bentonite chemical 0.2 - 0.4
Chemical 0.1 0.2
Blanket grouting is done to a depth of 5-10 m through holes at spacing 3-5 m
Curtain grouting is done to higher depth
Sheet Pile Cutoffs
Used in silty, sandy and fine gravel foundation, difficult to drive pile in boulders
Grout curtain
UPSTREAM IMPERVIOUS BLANKET
Upstream impervious blanket is provided when a positive cut-off is too expensive.
Thickness 0.6 to 3 m. Effective control of exit gradients can generally be achieved
by a blanket length of about 5 times the head, combined with relief wells and
drainage trenches.
(A) Completely impervious blanket
f
d
f
Z
x
H
k Q =
Without blanket
f
d
f
Z
x L
H
k pQ
+
=
With blanket
Substituting first Eq. into the second yield
d
x
p
p
L

=
1
(B) Blanket for finite permeability (Bennets solution)
Total discharge q
f
at distance x from upstream blanket
dx
Z
h
k q dq q q
x
b
b
o
f
x
b
o
f f
}
+ =
}
+ =
0 0
dx
Z
h
k dq
b
b b
=
Discharge through blanket of thickness Z
b
in elemental distance dx at distance x
x
h a
dx
h d
Z Z k
k
h a
Z
h
Z k
k
dx
h d
Z
h
k
dx
h d
Z k
dx
dq
Z
dx
dh
k q foundation the for
Z
h
k
dx
dq
dx
dq
As
dx
Z
h
k
dx
d
dx
dq
dx
dq
b f f
b
b f f
b
b
b f f
f
f f f
b
b
f
fo
b
x
b
fo f
2
2
2
2 2
2
2
2
2
0
a where

0
=
= = =
= =
=
=
=
(

}
+ =
Bennets basic differential equation for a blanket of
finite permeability and constant thickness
o
ax
0
h h ; 0 t
e h h
blanket of length Infinite
= =
=
x A
( x=0 at downstream of blanket)
b
b f f
r
ax
r
f
r
f f f f
k
Z Z k
a
x
ah e ah
x
h
dx
dh
As
Z
x
h
k Z
dx
dh
k q
= =
= = =
= =
1

i.e, blanket, infinite the as
discharge same the passes which , x is impervious completly equivalent of length Let the
0
r
Discharge Reduction (1-p)
Without blanket
With blanket
f
d
f
Z
x
H
k Q =
f
r d
f
Z
x x
H
k pQ
+
=
r d
d
x x
x
p
+
=
( )
( )
( )
( ) 1 e
1 e
dx
dh
as
e e h
dx
dh
constant h e e h h
blanket of length Finite
2ax
2ax
ax - ax
n
n
ax - ax
n
+

=
=
+ =
= =
a
x
x
h
a
r
r
f
d
f
Z
x
H
k Q =
f
r d
f
Z
x x
H
k pQ
+
=
r d
d
x x
x
p
+
=
Discharge Reduction (1-p)
Without blanket
With blanket
( )
( )
( )
( ) 1 e
1 e
factor by reduces x length effective length, finite for Thus
length infinite as same
1

length finite for
1 e
1 e
2ax
2ax
r
2ax
2ax
+

=
+

=
a
x x as
a
x
r
r
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
f
a
c
t
o
r
x
This factor increase with increase of x, but rate of increase becomes
very slow after , therefore for design optimum value of 2 a x = 2 a x =
m 176 x optimum
0.008 a
cm/s 10
cm/s 10 5
5 . 1
20
5
3
=
=
=
=
=
=

b
f
b
f
k
k
m Z
m Z
DESIGN OF FILTER S (IS Code 9429-1999)
The filter material used for drainage system shall satisfy the following criteria:
Filter materials shall be more pervious than the base materials;
Filter materials shall be of such gradation that particles of base material
do not totally migrate through to clog the voids in filter material; and
Filter material should help in formation of natural graded layers in the
zone of base soil adjacent to the filter by readjustment of the particles
Determination of Gradation of base material
Category Percentage finer than 75 micron
1 > 85%
2 40-85%
3 15-39%
4 < 15%
Note: Wherever the base soil in categories 1, 2 and 3 contains particles larger than 4.75
mm, the percentage of particles passing 4.75 mm shall be adjusted to 100 percent.
(a) Minimum D
15
(f)
D
15
(f) > 5D
15
(b) > 0.1mm
(b) Maximum D
15
(f)
D
15
(f) 0.2mm
Base soil category Criteria
1 D
15
(f) 9D
85
(b)
0.2mm
2 D
15
(f) 0.7 mm
3 D
15
(f) (40-A)/25*(4D
85
(b)-0.7 mm)+0.7 mm
4 D
15
(f) 4D
85
(b)
A = is the percent passing the 75 micron sieve after regrading
(c) To minimize segregation, filters should have relatively uniform grading. D
90
(f) should be less than 20 mm- to minimize segregation. Limit of D
10
(f) and
D
90
(f) are given below
D
10
(f) (min) mm D
90
(f) max (mm)
< 0.5 20
0.5-1.0 25
1.0-2.0 30
2.0-5.0 40
5.0-10 50
10-50 60
DESIGN OF FILTER
IS Code 9429-1980
(i) D
15
of filter/D
85
of base < 5
(ii) 4 < D
15
of filter/D
15
of base < 20
(iii) D
50
of filter/D
50
of base < 25
(iv) Gradation curve of filter should be nearly parallel to the gradation curve of
base material
G = Gravel; W = well graded; P = Poorly graded; C = clay; S = Sand
M = silt; O = Organic; Pt = highly organic soil; H = high compressibility;
I = Medium Compressibility; L= low compressibility
SLOPE PROTECTION
(a) PROTECTION OF UPSTREAM SLOPE
Upstream protection is required against the wave action. The dumped rock
riprap Is preferred type of protection.
DUMPED STONE RIPRAP
Design of the dumped stone riprap is related to the criteria for the selection of
rock size and thickness of the rip rap layer directly to the design wave height.
(a) For embankment slopes 2:1 to 4:1 dumped riprap shall meet the following
criteria:
(b) Riprap shall be well graded from a maximum size at least 1.5 times the
average rock size to 2.5 cm spalls suitable to fill voids.
(c) Rip rap blanket shall extend to at least 2.4 m below the lowest low water.
(d) Filter shall be provided between the riprap and embankment to meet the
following criteria:
No filter is required if embankment material meets the above requirements for
the D
85
size.
Thickness of riprap layer should be at least 1.5 times the size of the average
(D
50
) rock of weight W
50
.
SOIL-CEMENT SLOPE PROTECTION
Provided if suitable rock for riprap is unavailable at the site.
Consisted of a series of approximately horizontal layers of soil-cement
compacted in stair-step fashion up the embankment slope. The layer is
usually 2 to 3 m wide, compacted 15 cm vertical thickness.
The most efficient construction 100 % of the soil should pass the 50 mm
sieve, at least 55% should pass the 4.75 mm sieve and between 5 and 35 %
should pass the 75 micron sieve.
The cement content varies from about 7 to 15 % by volume of soil-cement.
(b) PROTECTION OF DOWNSTREAM SLOPE
Needed against erosion by rain-water and sometimes by wind also. If d/s
slope is rock no protection required.
Turfing is provided.
Horizontal drain be provided at suitable interval and be joined with vertical
drain
Measured pore pressure in Alcova dam (USBR, Design of small dams)