1.

4 Integers Modulo n
Definition 1.4.1. Let a and n > 0 be integers. The set of all integers which have the same remainder as a when divided by n is called thecongruence class of a modulo n, and is denoted by [a]n, where [a]n = { x in Z | x a (mod n) }.

The collection of all congruence classes modulo n is called the set of integers modulo n, denoted by Zn.

Proposition 1.4.2. Let n be a positive integer, and let a,b be any integers. Then the addition and multiplication of congruence classes given below are well-defined : [a]n + [b]n = [a+b]n and [a]n[b]n = [ab]n.

Definition 1.4.3. If [a]n belongs to Zn, and [a]n[b]n = [0]n for some nonzero congruence class [b]n, then [a]n is called a divisor of zero, modulo n. Definition 1.4.4. If [a]n belongs to Zn, and [a]n[b]n = [1]n, for some congruence class [b]n, then [b]n is called a multiplicative inverse of [a]nand is denoted by [a]n-1. In this case, we say that [a]n and [b]n are invertible elements of Zn, or units of Zn. Proposition 1.4.5. Let n be a positive integer. (a) The congruence class [a]n has a multiplicative inverse in Zn if and only if (a,n)=1. (b) A nonzero element of Zn either has a multiplicative inverse or is a divisor of zero.

Corollary 1.4.6. The following conditions on the modulus n > 0 are equivalent : (1) The number n is prime. (2) Zn has no divisors of zero, except [0]n. (3) Every nonzero element of Zn has a multiplicative inverse.

Definition 1.4.7. Let n be a positive integer. The number of positive integers less than or equal to n which are relatively prime to n will be denoted by (n). This function is called Euler's phifunction, or the totient function.

Proposition 1.4.8. If the prime factorization of n is n = p1m1 p2m2 pnmn , then (n) = n(1-1/p1)(1-1/p2) (1-1/pk). Definition 1.4.9. The set of units of Zn, the congruence classes [a]n, such that (a,n)=1, will be denoted by Zn. Proposition 1.4.10. The set Zn of units of Zn is closed under multiplication. The following theorem shows that raising any congruence class in Zn to the power (n) yields the congruence class of 1. It is possible to give a purely number theoretic proof at this point, but in Example 3.2.12 there is a more elegant proof using elementary group theory.

Theorem 1.4.11. [Euler] If (a,n) = 1, then a

(n)

1 (mod n).

Corollary 1.4.12. [Fermat] If p is prime, then ap

a(mod p), for any integer a.