Sequences Series Module

MH1101: Chapter 4 –
Sequences and Series
Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 1 / 112

Contents
1 Limits of Sequences
2 Finding Limits of Sequences
3 Monotonic Sequences
4 Series

4.1 Limit of Sequences
Goal: Understand the definition of a sequence and its limit, and find
the limit using the first principle.

Definition 1 (Sequence)
A sequence can be regarded as a list of numbers written in a definite

order:
a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , an , an+1 , . . . .
The number
a1 is called the first term,
a2 is the second term, and
an is the nth term.

Each term an must have a successor an+1 .
Notation:
{an } or {an }∞
n=1 .
The first term of a sequence does not necessarily have index 1, i.e. n
doesn’t have to start with 1.
It can start with any integer.
{an }∞ ∞
n=0 or {an }n=2 .

Example 4.1
Some sequences can be defined by giving a formula for an .
∞
n n
(a) , an = .
n + 1 n=1 n+1

1 2 3 4 n
, , , ,..., ,... .
2 3 4 5 n+1

n nπ o∞ nπ
(b) cos , an = cos
6 n=0 6
( √ )
3 1 nπ
1, , , 0, . . . , cos , . . . , .
2 2 6

n√ o∞ √
(c) n−3 , an = n − 3
n=3
n √ √ √ o
0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , n − 3, . . . .

∞
n
A sequence such as can be visualised either by plotting
n+1 n=1
its term on number line

or by plotting its graph as in the following figure

n
From the pictures, it seems that the terms in the sequence are
n+1
approaching 1. We indicate this by writing
n
lim = 1.
n→∞ n + 1

In general, the notation
lim an = L
n→∞
means that terms of the sequence {an } approach L as n gets larger

and larger.

Definition 2 (Limit of a Sequence (Informal))
A sequence {an } has the limit L (a real number) and we write
lim an = L or an → L as n → ∞
n→∞
if we can make the terms an as close to L as we like by taking n

sufficiently large.
limn→∞ an exists ⇐⇒ {an } converges (or is convergent).

limn→∞ an does not exists ⇐⇒ {an } diverges (or is divergent).

Figures below show the graphs of two sequences that have the limit L.

lim an = L.
n→∞
We want an to be as close as possible to L:
whenever n is sufficiently large:
Together:

Definition 3 (Limit of a Sequence (Formal))
A sequence {an } has the limit L (a real number), and we write
lim an = L or an → L as n → ∞
n→∞
if for every ε > 0 there is a corresponding integer N such that
n > N =⇒ |an − L| < ε.

We can visualise limn→∞ an = L as follows:

Example 4.2

1
Using the formal definition of limit, show that the sequence
n
1
converges to 0, i.e. lim = 0.
n→∞ n
Solution. Let ε > 0. We want to find a corresponding integer N

such that
1
n > N =⇒ − 0 < ε.
n

Work backwards to find N:
Insist on having
1
− 0 < ε
n
1
⇐⇒ <ε
n
1
⇐⇒ n > (1)
ε

1
Choose N = (here dxe denotes the smallest integer larger or
ε
equal to x).
Then it follows from (1) that

1 1
n>N = =⇒ n > (since dxe ≥ x for all x)
ε ε

1
=⇒ − 0 < ε,
(2)
n
as required.

NOTE: In fact, any integer larger than 1/ε can be chosen as N in
the above solution.

1 1
For example, we could choose N = 2 · , or N = 10 · etc.
ε ε

Example 4.3
Using the formal definition of limit, show that the sequence {an },
n+4 n+4
where an = , converges to 1, i.e lim = 1.
n+1 n→∞ n+1

Solution.
n+4
lim = 1.
n→∞ n+1

Definition 4 (Subsequence)
Given a sequence {an }∞

n=1 , a subsequence is a sequence of the form
an1 , an2 , an3 , . . . ,
where
1 ≤ n1 < n2 < n3 < · · · .

Examples:
{a1 , a3 , a5 , . . .} is a subsequence of {an }∞
n=1 . This is called the
odd subsequence since it consists of all the odd terms.
{a2 , a4 , a6 , . . .} is another subsequence of {an }∞

n=1 . This is called
the even subsequence since it consists of all the even terms.

Theorem 1 (Subsequence Test)
If a sequence {an } converges to L, then every subsequence of {an }
converges to L.

There exist two subsequences of
{an } that converge to different =⇒ {an } diverges.
limits
There exists one subsequence of

=⇒ {an } diverges.
{an } that diverges

Example 4.4
Use the Subsequence Test to show that the sequence {(−1)n } is
divergent.

Example 4.5
Consider the sequence {an }∞
n=1 where an is defined by

m if n = 2m for some m
an =
0 otherwise.
Verify that this sequence is divergent.

Definition 5 (Divergence to ∞)
Given a sequence {an }, we write
lim an = ∞
n→∞
to mean that for every positive number M there is an integer N such

that
if n > N then an > M.
We say that {an } diverges to ∞.

Example 4.6
Suppose an are positive and limn→∞ an = 0. Use the definition to
show that
1
lim = ∞.
n→∞ an

Fix a positive number M. We want to find an integer N such that
1
n > N =⇒ > M.
an

Use the fact that
lim an = 0.
n→∞
For any ε > 0, there exists positive integer N such that
n > N =⇒ |an − 0| < ε. (∗)

1
Trick: Set ε = .
M
By (*), there exists positive integer N > 0:
1
n>N =⇒ |an − 0| < . (∗∗)
M

1
|an − 0| <
M
1
⇐⇒ an < recall that an are positive
M
1
⇐⇒ >M
an

From (**):
1
n>N =⇒ > M. (∗∗)
an
1
Hence, lim = ∞.
n→∞ an

NOTE: The converse of the above result is also true:
If bn → ∞ then 1/bn → 0.
Summary:
Suppose an > 0.
1
an → 0 =⇒ →∞
an
1
an → ∞ =⇒ → 0.
an

Example 4.7
Find the limit n
lim √ .
n→∞ 10 + n

4.2 Finding Limits of Sequences
Goal: Find the limit of a sequence using
Limit Laws
the Squeeze Theorem
functions defining sequences
the continuity of a function of convergent sequences.

Limit Laws for Sequences.
Suppose {an } and {bn } are convergent sequences (this assump-

tion is important), and c is a constant. Then
(a) lim (an + bn ) = lim an + lim bn
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
(b) lim (an − bn ) = lim an − lim bn
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
(c) lim c · an = c · lim an
n→∞ n→∞
(d) lim an bn = lim an · lim bn
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
an limn→∞ an
(e) lim = , provided limn→∞ bn 6= 0.
n→∞ bn limn→∞ bn
p
(f) lim (an )p = lim an , provided p > 0 and an > 0.
n→∞ n→∞

Example 4.8
n
Find lim .
n→∞ n + 1

Example 4.9
Find the limit
3n + 20
lim √ .
n→∞ n2 + n + cos nπ

Theorem 2 (Sequence defined by a Function)
If limx→∞ f (x) = L and f (n) = an when n is an integer, then
lim an = L.
n→∞

Theorem 3 (Squeeze Theorem for Sequences)
If an ≤ bn ≤ cn for n ≥ N, and limn→∞ an = limn→∞ cn = L, then
lim bn = L.
n→∞

Visualizing Squeeze theorem:

Theorem 4 (Continuous Function for Convergent Sequences)
If lim an = L and f is a continuous function at L, then
n→∞
lim f (an ) = f ( lim an ) = f (L).

n→∞ n→∞

Example 4.10
If lim |an | = 0 then lim an = 0.
n→∞ n→∞

Example 4.11
Find lim sin(π/n).
n→∞

Example 4.12
n!
Determine whether the limit of the sequence {an }, where an = n ,
n
exists.

NOTE: The result says that nn “grows faster ” than n!.

Example 4.13
Limit of a geometric sequence:


 0 if −1<r <1
1 if r =1

lim r n =
n→∞ 
 ∞ (divergent) if r >1
 divergent if r ≤ −1.

r =1
lim r n = lim 1n = lim 1 = 1.

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
=⇒ converges.
r = −1
lim r n = lim (−1)n

n→∞ n→∞
=⇒ diverges.

Case 1: −1 < r < 1.
r = 0 =⇒ limn→∞ r n = 0.
0 < r < 1.
Apply Theorem 2 (Sequence defined by a Function) to the

exponential function f (x) = r x .

Thus,
lim r n = lim r x = 0.
n→∞ x→∞

−1 < r < 0.
−|r |n < r n < |r |n .
By the preceding paragraph,
lim |r |n = 0.
n→∞
By Squeeze, we deduce that
lim r n = 0.
n→∞

Case 2: r > 1.
Apply Theorem 2 (Sequence defined by a Function) to the

exponential function f (x) = r x . Since r > 1, we have
Thus,
lim r n = lim r x = ∞.
n→∞ x→∞

Case 3: r < −1.
The even subsequence is
|r |2 , |r |4 , |r |6 , . . . .
|r | > 1 =⇒ the subsequence diverges to ∞.
By the Subsequence Test (Theorem 1), the sequence r n is divergent.

Example 4.14
Calculate limn→∞ an , where
n + ln n
an = .
n2

Example 4.15
Calculate lim e 3n/(n+1) .
n→∞

Example 4.16
Find the limit
lim (sin2 3n)3n+1 7−n .
n→∞

4.3 Monotonic Sequences
Goal: Use the Monotonic Sequence Theorem to find the limit of a
sequence defined recursively.

Definition 6 (Monotonic Sequences)
A sequence {an }∞
n=1 is called increasing if
an ≤ an+1 for all n ≥ 1.
It is called decreasing if
an ≥ an+1 for all n ≥ 1.
A sequence is monotonic if it is increasing or decreasing.

Example 4.17
n
Show that the sequence {an }∞
n=1 , where an = , is decreasing.
n2 +1
Solution. Need to show that an > an+1 for all n ≥ 1.

Definition 7 (Boundedness)
A sequence {an }∞
n=1 is bounded above if there is a number M such
that
an ≤ M for all n ≥ 1.
It is bounded below if there is a number m such that
m ≤ an for all n ≥ 1.
If it is bounded above and below, then {an } is called a bounded

sequence.

An important result about bounded sequence is the following
theorem, whose proof is omitted.
Theorem 5 (Monotonic Sequence Theorem)

Every bounded, monotonic sequence is convergent.

Example 4.18
Show that the following sequence is bounded and increasing:
r
√ √ √
q q
a0 = 0, a1 = 2, a2 = 2 + 2, a3 = 2 + 2 + 2, . . . .
Hence, prove that limn→∞ an exists and compute its value.

Step 1: Show that {an } is bounded above by 2.

Step 2: Show that {an } is increasing.

Step 3: Find the limit.
By Monotonic Sequence Theorem,
lim an = L
n→∞
for some real number L.

This implies
lim an+1 = lim an = L.
n→∞ n→∞

Idea: Apply limit to the recurrence:
√
lim an+1 = lim 2 + an .
n→∞ n→∞
q
lim an+1 = 2 + lim an
n→∞ n→∞
√
L= 2+L

L2 − L − 2 = 0
(L − 2)(L + 1) = 0,
whence
L = 2, or L = −1.
The case L = −1 is not possible (since L ≥ 0).
We conclude that L = 2.

4.4 Series
Goal: Understand the meaning and basic properties of a convergent
series.

If we add the terms of an infinite sequence {an }∞
n=1 , we get an
expression of the form
a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an + · · · ,
which is called an infinite series (or just series), and is denoted by

∞
X X
an or an .
n=1

QUESTION:
We know how to sum finitely many terms.
But what do we mean by a sum of infinitely many terms?

ANSWER. For example, the series
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ··· + n + ···
does not seem to converge because if we start adding the terms we

get cumulative sums:
1, 1 + 2 = 3, 1 + 2 + 3 = 6, 1 + 2+ 3 + 4 = 10, 1 + 2+ 3 + 4 +5 = 15, . . .
which becomes very large (going to ∞) as n increases.

The idea of using cumulative sums (formally called partial sums)
seems to make sense when speaking about whether a series has a sum.

Definition 8 (Series)
P∞
Given a series n=1 an , let sn denote its nth partial sum:
n
X
sn = a 1 + a 2 + · · · + a n = ai .
i=1
(i) If the sequence

P {sn } converges to a real number S, then the
series an is called convergent and we write
∞
X
an = S.
n=1
The number S is called the sum of the series.

(ii) If the sequence {sn } diverges, then the series ∞
P
n=1 an is called
divergent.
In short, the sum of a series is the limit of the sequence of its
partial sums:
∞
X n
X
an = lim sn = lim ai .
n→∞ n→∞
n=1
|i=1
{z }
partial sum

Example 4.19
What is wrong with the following calculations?
0 = 0 + 0 + 0 + ···
= (1 − 1) + (1 − 1) + (1 − 1) + · · ·
= 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + ···
= 1 + (−1 + 1) + (−1 + 1) + · · ·
= 1 + 0 + 0 + ···
= 1.

Example 4.20
An important example of a series is the geometric series
∞
X
a + ar + ar 2 + ar 3 + · · · + ar n−1 + · · · = ar n−1
n=1
where a is a nonzero constant and r is the common ratio.

Find the partial sum sn of the geometric series.

There are two cases: r = 1 and r 6= 1.
r =1

r 6= 1

Theorem 6 (Geometric Series)
The geometric series
∞
X
ar n−1 = a + ar + ar 2 + · · ·
n=1
is convergent if |r | < 1 and its sum is

∞
X a
ar n−1 = , |r | < 1.
n=1
1−r
is divergent if |r | ≥ 1.

PROOF.
a(1 − r n )
From the last example, the partial sum is sn = if r 6= 1.
1−r
∞
X
ar n−1 = lim sn
n→∞
n=1
a(1 − r n )
= lim
n→∞ 1−r
a(1 − limn→∞ r n )
= (by Limit Laws) (***)
1−r

Case 1: |r | < 1.
|r | < 1 =⇒ lim r n = 0 (Example 4.13).

n→∞
Then ∞
X a
(∗ ∗ ∗) =⇒ ar n−1 = .
n=1
1−r

Case 2: |r | ≥ 1.
r = 1.
sn = na → ∞,
so the series diverges.
|r | > 1.
|r | > 1 =⇒ lim r n diverges (Example 4.13).

n→∞
Then ∞
X
(∗ ∗ ∗) =⇒ ar n−1 diverges
n=1

Example 4.21
Is the series ∞
X
22n 31−n
n=1
convergent or divergent?
Idea: Write it in the form of a geometric series.

Example 4.22
Find the sum of the series
∞
X
x n, where |x| < 1.
n=0
Idea: Write it in the form of a geometric series.

Example 4.23 (Telescoping sums)
Show that the series ∞
X 1
n=1
n(n + 1)
is convergent, and find its sum.

Solution.
The ith term of the series can be written as (partial fraction
decomposition)
1 1 1
= − .
i(i + 1) i i +1

Thus, the partial sum is
n
X 1
sn =
i=1
i(i + 1)
n
X 1 1
= −
i=1
i i +1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= 1− + − + − + ··· + −
2 2 3 3 4 n n+1
1
= 1− .
n+1

Therefore,
1
lim sn = lim 1 − = 1 − 0 = 1.
n→∞ n→∞ n
Hence, the given series converges, and the sum is

∞
X 1
= 1.
n=1
n(n + 1)

Example 4.24
Show that the harmonic series
∞
X 1 1 1 1
=1+ + + + ···
n=1
n 2 3 4
is divergent.
Solution. We will show that the sequence of partial sums {sn }

diverges to ∞.

Calculate a lower bound for sn , where n is a power of 2.
That is, calculate a lower bound for
s2 , s22 , s23 , s24 , . . . , s2n , . . .

1
s2 = 1 + .
2
1 1 1
s4 = 1 + + +
2 3 4

1 1 1
= 1+ + +
2 3 4

1 1 1
> 1+ + + ,
2 4 4
1 1 2
> 1+ + =1+ .
2 2 2

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
s8 = 1 + + + + + + +
2 4 5 6 7 8
3
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= 1+ + + + + + +
2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
> 1+ + + + + + +
2 4 4 8 8 8 8
1 1 1 3
= 1+ + + =1+ .
2 2 2 2

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
s16 = 1 + + + + + + + + + ··· +
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 16

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= 1+ + + + + + + + + ··· +
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 16

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
> 1+ + + + + ··· + + + ··· +
2 4 4 8 8 16 16
1 1 1 1 4
= 1+ + + + =1+ .
2 2 2 2 2

In general, we have
n
s2n > 1 + .
2

This shows that
s2n → ∞ as n → ∞.
By the Subsequence Test (Theorem 1), we deduce that sn diverges,

i.e the harmonic series diverges.

Theorem 7
P∞
If the series n=1 an is convergent, then limn→∞ an = 0.
Proof.

NOTE: The converse is NOT true!
∞
X 1
Counterexample: .
n=1
n

∞
X 1
an convergent =⇒ → 0.
n=1
an
Contrapositive:
∞
1 X
6→ 0 =⇒ an divergent
an n=1

Theorem 8 (The nth Term Test for Divergence)
If
Plim n→∞ an does not exist or if limn→∞ an 6= 0, then the series
∞
n=1 an is divergent.

Example 4.25
∞
X n2
Show that the series diverges.
n=1
5n2 + 4

NOTE:
P
limn→∞ an 6= 0 =⇒ an is divergent.
But limn→∞ anP= 0 tells us nothing about the convergence or

divergence of an .

Theorem 9
P P
If an and bn are convergent series, then
X
(i) can is convergent (where c is some constant) and is equal to
X X
can = c an .
X
(ii) (an + bn ) is convergent, and is equal to
X X X
(an + bn ) = an + bn .
X
(iii) (an − bn ) is convergent, and is equal to
X X X
(an − bn ) = an − bn .

Example 4.26
Find the sum of the series
∞
X 3 1
+ n .
n=1
n(n + 1) 2

NOTE: Adding a finite number of terms does not affect the
convergence or divergence of a series.
Example:
∞
1 2 3 X n
+ + +
2 9 28 n=4 n3 + 1
∞
X n
is convergent, because is convergent.
n=4
n3 +1

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MH1101: Chapter 4 –

Sequences and Series

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 1 / 112

2 Finding Limits of Sequences

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 2 / 112

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 3 / 112

A sequence can be regarded as a list of numbers written in a definite

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 4 / 112

It can start with any integer.

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 5 / 112

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 6 / 112

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 7 / 112

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 8 / 112

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 9 / 112

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 10 / 112

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 11 / 112

means that terms of the sequence {an } approach L as n gets larger

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 12 / 112

A sequence {an } has the limit L (a real number) and we write

if we can make the terms an as close to L as we like by taking n

limn→∞ an exists ⇐⇒ {an } converges (or is convergent).

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 13 / 112

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 14 / 112

We want an to be as close as possible to L:

whenever n is sufficiently large:

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 15 / 112

A sequence {an } has the limit L (a real number), and we write

if for every ε > 0 there is a corresponding integer N such that

n > N =⇒ |an − L| < ε.

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 16 / 112

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 17 / 112

Solution. Let ε > 0. We want to find a corresponding integer N

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 18 / 112

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 19 / 112

Then it follows from (1) that

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 20 / 112

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 21 / 112

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 22 / 112

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 23 / 112

Given a sequence {an }∞

an1 , an2 , an3 , . . . ,

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 26 / 112

{a2 , a4 , a6 , . . .} is another subsequence of {an }∞

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 27 / 112

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 28 / 112

There exists one subsequence of

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 29 / 112

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 30 / 112

Verify that this sequence is divergent.

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 31 / 112

to mean that for every positive number M there is an integer N such

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 32 / 112

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 33 / 112

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 34 / 112

For any ε > 0, there exists positive integer N such that

n > N =⇒ |an − 0| < ε. (∗)

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 35 / 112

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 36 / 112

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 37 / 112

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 38 / 112

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 39 / 112

Chapter 4 – Sequences and Series 40 / 112