Calculus Sequence

Sequence Series Convergence of series Power series
Calculus
Infinite sequences and series
Nguyen Van Hoi
University of Information Technology
July 25, 2022
Nguyen Van Hoi University of Information Technology 1 / 58

Overview
1 Sequence
Definition
Limit of sequences
Limit laws
Monotonic and bounded sequences
2 Series
Infinite series
Geometric series
Test for divergence
Properties of series
3 Convergence of series
Testing with integral
Comparison test
The Ratio test
4 Power series
Radius of convergence, interval of convergence
Definition
A sequence can be thought of as a list of numbers written in a definite order:
a1 , a2 , a3 , ..., an , ...
a1 is called the first term; a2 is the second term; and in general, an is the nth term.
We will deal with infinite sequences and so each term an will have a successor an+1 .
Notation: The sequence {a1 , a2 , a3 , ...} is also denoted by
{an } or {a}∞
n=1 .

Sequences can be defined by giving a formula or by writing out its terms:

n ∞ n 1 2 3 n
{ }n=1 , an = , { , , , ..., , ...}
n+1 1+n 2 3 4 n+1
(1a)
n
(−1) (n + 1) ∞ n
(−1) (n + 1) 3 4 n
(−1) (n + 1)
{ }n=2 , an = , n ≥ 2, { , − , ..., , ...}
3n 3n 3 27 3n
(1b)
nπ ∞ n 1 2 3 n
{cos }n=0 , an = , n ≥ 0, { , , , ..., , ...}
6 1+n 2 3 4 n+1
(1c)
Remark: Notice that n doesn’t have to start at 1.

A sequence can be pictured either by plotting its terms on a number line or by plotting
its graph.
It seems from the graphs that an converges to 1 as n tends to infinity.

Limit of sequences
Definition
We say that the limit of a sequence {an } is equal to L if we can take the values of an
as close to L as we like by taking n sufficiently large. We write
lim an = L or an → L as n → ∞.
n→∞
If the limit exists we say that the sequence is convergent, otherwise it is divergent
i.e.,
lim an = ∞
n→∞
if an becomes large as n becomes large. We say that {an } diverges to ∞.

The figures below illustrate the graphs of sequences that converge to L
It looks like the points belong to the graph of a function f (x) that converges to L since
x tends to infinity.

Theorem
If limx→∞ f (x) = L and f (n) = an , then limn→∞ an = L.

Theorem
If limx→∞ f (x) = L and f (n) = an , then limn→∞ an = L.
1
As an example, let f (x) = xr with r > 0. Then,
1
lim =0 with r > 0.
n→∞ nr
Limit laws
Let {an } and {bn } be two convergent sequences and α, β be two constants, one obtains
that
lim (αan + βbn ) =α lim an + β lim bn (2a)

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
lim (an bn ) = lim an lim bn (2b)
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
an limn→∞ an
lim = if lim bn ̸= 0 (2c)
n→∞ bn limn→∞ bn n→∞
lim anp =( lim an )p if an > 0 and p > 0 (2d)

n→∞ n→∞

Theorem
If an ≤ bn ≤ cn , ∀n ≥ n0 and
limn→∞ an = limn→∞ cn = L, then
lim bn = L.
n→∞
Example: as −|an | ≤ an ≤ |an |,

Theorem
If an ≤ bn ≤ cn , ∀n ≥ n0 and
limn→∞ an = limn→∞ cn = L, then
lim bn = L.
n→∞
Example: as −|an | ≤ an ≤ |an |,
if lim |an | = 0, then lim an = 0.

n→∞ n→∞

an = r n is convergent if −1 < r ≤ 1 and otherwise it is divergent. Moreover,

(
0 if − 1 < r < 1
lim r n =
n→∞ 1 if r = 1

Examples
n
Find limn→∞ .
n+1
Solution: use the same approaches as in
finding the limit of functions
n 1
lim = lim
n→∞ n + 1 n→∞ 1 + n1
limn→∞ 1
= 1
limn→∞ 1 + limn→∞ n
=1.
1
We used limn→∞ = 0 with r > 0.
nr

Examples
n
Find limn→∞ .
n+1 n
Solution: use the same approaches as in Is the sequence an = √ con-
n + 10
finding the limit of functions vergent or divergent?
Solution:
n 1 n 1
lim = lim lim √ = lim q
n→∞ n + 1 n→∞ 1 + n1 n→∞ n + 10 n→∞ 1 10
n+ n2
limn→∞ 1
= 1 limn→∞ 1
limn→∞ 1 + limn→∞ n = q
=1. limn→∞ n1 + limn→∞ 10
n2
1 =∞.
We used limn→∞ = 0 with r > 0.
nr

lnn
Evaluate limn→∞ .
n
Solution:
lnx
Let f (x) = and note that
x
lnx (lnx)′
lim = lim
x→∞ x x→∞ x ′
1
x
= lim = 0,
x→∞ 1
lnn
and f (n) = . Hence,
n
lnn
lim = 0.
n→∞ n

lnn
Evaluate limn→∞ .
n
Solution:
lnx
Let f (x) = and note that
x
lnx (lnx)′
lim = lim
x→∞ x x→∞ x ′
1
x
= lim = 0,
x→∞ 1
Is the sequence an = (−1)n conver-
lnn
and f (n) = . Hence, gent or divergent?
n
Answer: The limit does not exist.
lnn Divergent.
lim = 0.
n→∞ n

Exercises
Exercises 3-8 on page 724 Jame Stewart.

Exercises 23-36 on page 724 Jame Stewart.

Monotonic and bounded sequences

Definition
A monotonic sequence {an } is a sequence that either is increasing if an < an+1 for
all n ≥ 1, or decreasing if an > an+1 for all n ≥ 1.
Note that an increasing sequence may be written as:
a1 < a2 < a3 < . . . < an < an+1 < ...
and a decreasing sequence may be written as:
a1 > a2 > a3 > . . . > an > an+1 > ...
1
Example: {n + 2} is creasing while is decreasing because
n
1 1
> .
n n+1
Definition
A sequence is bounded above if there is a number M such that
an ≤ M, for all n ≥ 1.
It is bounded below if there is a number M such that
an ≥ M, for all n ≥ 1.
If it is bounded above and below, then is a bounded sequence.

Example: The sequence an = n is bounded below but not above.
n
The sequence an = is bounded because 0 ≤ an ≤ 1 for all n.
n+1

Lemma
▶ If {an } is convergent, then it is bounded.
▶ If {an } is increasing sequence and bounded above, then it is convergent.
▶ Likewise, a decreasing sequence that is bounded below is convergent.

Example
Investigate the sequence {an } defined by
1
a1 = 2, an+1 = (an + 6) ∀n ≥ 1.
2
Solution: We begin by computing the first several terms:
1 1
a1 = 2 a2 = (2 + 6) = 4 a3 = (4 + 6) = 5
2 2
a4 = 5.5 a5 = 5.75 a6 = 5.875
It seems that an converges to 6. Now, let’s confirm this conclusion.

Example
Investigate the sequence {an } defined by
1
a1 = 2, an+1 = (an + 6) ∀n ≥ 1.
2
Let’s confirm this conclusion.
▶ Check an ≤ 6 for all n ≥ 1.
▶ Verify an is increasing and hence it has a limit, L.
▶ Show
1
lim an+1 = ( lim an + 6).
n→∞ 2 n→∞
Hence,
1
L = (L + 6).
2

Exercises
Exercises: 72-78 and 79-82 on page 725 Jame Stewart.

Overview
1 Sequence
2 Series
Infinite series
Geometric series
Test for divergence
4 Power series

Infinite series
Let sn denote the nth partial sum of a sequence an
n
X
sn = ai = a1 + a2 + ... + an .
1
This sequence may have its own limit, denoted, s (i.e., limn→∞ sn = s). We write
∞
X
ai = a1 + a2 + a3 + ... + an + ... = s,
1
P
where the first expression is called a infinite series (or just a series) (shorten, ai ), and
s is called the sum of the series; say the series is convergent.
Otherwise, if sn has no limit, the series is divergent.

Examples
P
Let an = n, evaluate an .
Solution:
The partial sum of the sequence sn is
n(n + 1)
sn = .
2
It becomes very large as n increases. There-
fore, sn does not have a limit and hence the
series is divergent.

Examples
1
an = n is convergent or diver-
2
gent?
P
Let an = n, evaluate an .
Solution: Answer:
The partial sum of the sequence sn is n
X 1 1
n(n + 1) sn = n
= 1 − n.
sn = . 2 2
1
2
These partial sums become closer
It becomes very large as n increases. There- and closer to 1 as n becomes larger
fore, sn does not have a limit and hence the and larger. Then,
series is divergent.
X 1
= 1.
2n

Note: a series does not change if we suppress a finite number of terms i.e.,
∞
X ∞
X
ai = a1 + a2 + ... + an + ai .
1 n+1

Geometric series
The geometric series

∞
X
ar n−1 = a + ar + ar 2 + ar 3 + ..., a ̸= 0.
1
is convergent if |r | < 1. Furthermore,

∞
X a
ar n−1 = .
1−r
1
If |r | ≥ 1, the geometric series is divergent.

Examples
Example 1: Find the sum of the geometric series

10 20 40
5− + − + ...
3 9 27
Response We have a = 5, r = −2/3. Since |r | < 1, it follows from ?, the series is
convergent with the sum
10 20 40 5
5− + − + ... = = 3.
3 9 27 1 − (− 32 )

P 2n 1−n
Example 2: Is the series 2 3 convergent?
Response: We rewrite that the nth term of the series in the form
4n 4 n−1
22n 31−n = = 4 .
3n−1 3
Therefore the series is a geometric series with a = 4 and r = 4/3 > 1 so it is divergent.
Exercises: 17-26 on page 735 Jame Stewart.

Test for divergence
Theorem P
If the series an is convergent, then limn→∞ an = 0. Conversely, if limn→∞ an does
not exist or if limn→∞ an ̸= 0, then the series is divergent.
Proof.
Since sn = a1 + a2 + a3 + ... + an , then
an = sn − sn−1 .
Passing the limit

lim an = lim sn − lim sn−1 = 0.
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

P∞ n2
Example Show that the series i 5n2 +4
diverges?
Answer:
n2 1 1
lim an = lim 2
= lim 4
= ̸= 0.
n→∞ n→∞ 5n + 4 n→∞ 5 + 2 5
n
So the series is divergent.

If ∞ ∞
P P
1 an and 1 bn are convergent series and α, β are constants, then the following
series are convergent and
∞
X ∞
X ∞
X
(αan + βbn ) = α an + β bn .
1 1 1
P∞ 3 1
Example: Find the sum of the series 1 + n .
n(n + 1) 2
P∞ 1
Solution. The series 1 is a geometric series with a = 1/2 and r = 1/2, so
2n
∞ 1
X 1 a 2
= = 1
= 1.
2n 1−r 1 − 2
1
∞ ∞ ∞
X 3 1 X 1 X 1
+ n =3 + = 3 ∗ 1 + 1 = 4.
n(n + 1) 2 n(n + 1) 2n
1 1 1

Exercises
Exercises: 27-42 on page 735 Jame Stewart.

Overview
1 Sequence
2 Series
Comparison test
The Ratio test
4 Power series

We start with the investigation of the series

∞
X 1 1 1
= 1 + 2 + 2 + ...
i2 2 3
1
There’s no simple formula for the sum of the

first terms, sn .
However, the table of approximate values
suggests that sn tends to 1.64 as n → ∞.

∞ Z ∞
X 1 1
2
= the sum of the areas of the rectangles ≤ 1 + dx = 1 + 1.
i 1 x2
1
Thus sn are bounded. Note sn are increasing (because all the terms are positive).
Therefore the partial sums converge and so the series is convergent with s < 2.

The integral test
Suppose f is a continuous, positive, decreasing function on [1, +∞) and let an = f (n).
▶ If 1∞ f (x)dx is convergent, then so is ∞
R P
an .
R∞ P 1
▶ If 1 f (x)dx diverges, then so does ∞ 1 an .
Note:
▶ When applying the integral test, it is not necessary to start the series or the
integral at n = 1.
▶ The function f needs to be decreasing only for x larger than some number N.

Examples
∞
∞
X Lnn
X 1 .
. n
n2 + 1 1
1
1 f (x) = lnx
x is positive and continu-
f (x) = is continuous, positive, and de-
x 2 +1 ous for x > 1; and
creasing on [1, +∞), and
x(1/x) − lnx 1 − lnx
f ′ (x) =
Z ∞ Z t
1 1 2
= .
dx = lim dx x x2
x 2+1 t→∞ x 2+1
1 1
So f is decreasing when x > e.
= lim tan−1 x |t1
t→∞ Z ∞ Z t
π lnx lnx
= lim tan−1 t − dx = lim dx
t→∞ 4 1 x t→+∞ 1 x
π π π
= − = . ln2 x
2 4 4 = lim |t1
t→∞ 2

The p−series
Using the integral test, we conclude that: ∞

P 1
1 np is convergent if p > 1 and is divergent
if p ≤ 1.
Applications
The series
∞
X 1
n3
1
is convergent since p = 3 > 1. On the other hand, the series is divergent because p < 1
∞
X 1
1/3
.
1
n

Comparison test
P P
Suppose that an and bn are series with positive terms.
▶ If
P P
b is convergent and an ≤ bn , then a is also convergent.
P n P n
▶ If bn is divergent and an ≥ bn , then an is also divergent.
Note
▶ The second series is often chosen to be a p-series or a geometric series.
▶ We only need to compare the nth terms of the two series only for n ≥ N, where N
is some suitable integer.
Example 1:
5 5
2
≤ 2.
2n + 4n + 3 2n
P 5 P 5
As 2n 2 is convergent (thanks to the p-series), then 2n2 +4n+3
is convergent.
Example 2:
lnn 1
> n ≥ 3.
n n
P1 P lnn
Besides, n is divergent, so n is divergent.
The limit comparison test
P P
Suppose that an and bn are series with positive terms. If
an
lim =c
n→∞ bn
where c is a finite number and c > 0, then either both series converge or both diverge.
P 1
Example: Test the series for convergence or divergence?
2n − 1
1 1
Choose an = n and bn = n .
2 −1 2

The Ratio test
Theorem a
▶ If limn→∞ n+1 = L < 1, then the series ∞
P
1 an is absolutely convergent (i.e.,
P∞ an
1 |an | is convergent).
a a
▶ If limn→∞ n+1 = L > 1 or limn→∞ n+1 = ∞, then the series ∞
P
1 an is
an an
divergent.
a
▶ limn→∞ n+1 = 1, the Ratio Test is inconclusive; that is, no conclusion can be
an
drawn about the convergence or divergence of ∞
P
1 an .

n3
(−1)n n for absolute convergence.
P
Test the series
3
n3
Solution We use the Ratio test with an = (−1)n n ,
3
a
n+1 (n + 1)3 3n (n + 1)3 3n
= (−1)n+1 n+1 ∗ (−1)n 3 = ∗ 3
an 3 n 3n+1 n

1 n+1 3 1 1 3 1
= ( ) = (1 + ) → < 1 as n → ∞.
3 n 3 n 3
Thus, the given series is absolutely convergent and therefore convergent.

The root test
Theorem
√
▶ If limn→∞ n|an | = L < 1, the series
P
an is absolutely convergent.
√ √
▶ If limn→∞ n|an | = L > 1 or limn→∞ n|an | = ∞, the series
P
an is divergent.
√
▶ If limn→∞ n|an | = 1, the Root Test is inconclusive.

Exercises
Exercises: 3-8 page 744 and 9-26 745 Jame Stewart.

Exercises: 3-33 page 750 Jame Stewart.

Overview
1 Sequence
2 Series
4 Power series
Taylor series
Application: computing integrals of a non-elementary antiderivative

Power series
A power series is a series of the form

∞
X
cn x n = c0 + c1 x + c2 x 2 + c3 x 3 + ... (3)
1
where x is a variable and the cn ’s are constants called the coefficients of the series.
For each fixed x, the series is a series of constants that we can test for convergence or
divergence. The sum of the series is a function
f (x) = c0 + c1 x + c2 x 2 + c3 x 3 + ... (4)
whose domain is the set of all x for which the series converges.

For instance, if we take cn = 1 for all n, the power series becomes the geometric series
∞
X
x n = 1 + x + x 2 + ... + x n + ...
0
which converges when −1 < x < 1 and diverges when |x| > 1.
More generally a series of the form
∞
X
cn (x − a)n = c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a)2 + ...
0
is called a power series in x − a or a power series centered at a or a power series

about a.

Overview
1 Sequence
2 Series
4 Power series
Taylor series

Theorem P∞
For a given power series 0 cn (x − a)n , there are only three possibilities
1. The series converges only when x = a.
2. The series converges for all x.
3. There is a positive number R > 0 such that the series converges if |x − a| < R
and diverges if |x − a| > R. The number R is called radius of convergence.
Note: By convention, the radius of convergence is R = 0 in the case 1 and R = ∞ in

the case 2.

Definition
The interval of convergence of a power series is the interval that consists of all values
of x for which the series converges.
▶ The inequality |x − a| < R can be rewritten as a − R < x < a + R. When x is an
endpoint of the interval, that is, x = a ± R, anything can happen: Thus in case
(iii) there are four possibilities for the interval of convergence:
(a − R, a + R), [a − R, a + R), (a − R, a + R], [a − R, a + R].
▶ In general, the Ratio Test (or sometimes the Root Test) should be used to
determine the radius of convergence. The Ratio and Root Tests always fail when
is an endpoint of the interval of convergence, so the endpoints must be checked
with some other test.


Find the radius of convergence and interval of convergence of the series

∞
X (−3)n x n
√ .
0
n+1
(−3)n x n
Solution: Let an = √
n+1
, then one has
√ r
n+1 (−3)n+1 x n+1
a n + 1 n + 1
= √ ∗ = − 3x
an (−3)n x n n+2

n+2
s
1 + (1/n)
=3 |x| → 3|x| as n → ∞.
1 + (2/n)
Therefore, the series converges if 3|x| < 1 and diverges if 3|x| > 1. Thus it converges
if |x| < 31 and diverges if |x| > 31 . So the radius of convergence is R = 31 .

Taylor series
We start by supposing that is any function f that can be represented by a power series
f (x) = c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a)2 + c3 (x − a)3 + c4 (x − a)4 .... |x − a| < R.
One gets
▶ f (a) = c0 ,
▶ f ′ (x) = c1 + 2c2 (x − a) + 3c3 (x − a)2 + 4c4 (x − a)3 ..., then f ′ (a) = c1 .
▶ f ′′ (x) = 2c2 + 2.3c3 (x − a) + 3.4c4 (x − a)2 + ..., then f ′′ (a) = 2c2 .
▶ f ′′′ (x) = 2.3c3 + 2.3.4c4 (x − a) + ..., then f ′′′ (a) = 2.3c3 .
In general, one gets
f (n) = n!cn

Theorem
If f has a power series representation (expansion) at a, that is, if
f (x) = c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a)2 + c3 (x − a)3 + c4 (x − a)4 + .... |x − a| < R.
then its coefficients are given by the formula
f (n)
cn = .
n!
The series is called the Taylor series of the function f at a (or about a or centered
at a). If a = 0, it is given the special name Maclaurin series.

Find the Maclaurin series of the function f (x) = e x and its radius of convergence.
Solution: Since f (n) (x) = e x , then f (n) (0) = 1 for all n ≥ 1. Therefore the Maclaurin
series for at 0 is
∞
x
X xn x x2 x3
x = =1+ + + + ...
n! 1! 2! 3!
0
xn
To find the radius of convergence we let an = n! . Then
n+1 x n+1 |x|

a n!
= ∗ = →0<1
an (n + 1)! x n n+1

so, by the Ratio Test, the series converges for all x with R = ∞.

Theorem
If f has derivatives of all orders, let’s define
n
X f (n)
Tn (x) = (x − a)n and Rn (x) = f (x) − Tn (x).
n!
0
If
lim Rn (x) = 0
n→∞
for |x − a| < R, then f is equal to the sum of its Taylor series on the interval
|x − a| < R.
Theorem
if |f (n+1) (x)| ≤ M for |x − a| ≤ d, then
M
|Rn (x)| ≤ |x − a|n+1 for |x − a| < d.
(n + 1)!



Taylor series enables us to integrate functions that we couldn’t previously handle.
Examples:
Z
2
e −x dx
Solution
∞
2
X (−x 2 )n x2 x4 x6
e −x = =1− + − + ...
n! 1! 2! 3!
0
x2 x4 x6
Z Z
2
e −x dx = −
+ − + ... dx
1! 2! 3!
x 3 x5 x7
=C + x − + − + ...
3 ∗ 1! 6! ∗ 2! 8 ∗ 3!
This series converges for all x because the original series converges for all x.
R1 2
Exercise Find 0 e −x dx correct to within an error of 0.0001.

Calculus Sequence

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Calculus Sequence

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Sequence Series Convergence of series Power series

Nguyen Van Hoi

University of Information Technology

July 25, 2022

Nguyen Van Hoi University of Information Technology 1 / 58

A sequence can be thought of as a list of numbers written in a definite order:

Nguyen Van Hoi University of Information Technology 3 / 58

Sequences can be defined by giving a formula or by writing out its terms:

Remark: Notice that n doesn’t have to start at 1.

Nguyen Van Hoi University of Information Technology 4 / 58

It seems from the graphs that an converges to 1 as n tends to infinity.

Nguyen Van Hoi University of Information Technology 5 / 58

if an becomes large as n becomes large. We say that {an } diverges to ∞.

Nguyen Van Hoi University of Information Technology 6 / 58

The figures below illustrate the graphs of sequences that converge to L

Nguyen Van Hoi University of Information Technology 7 / 58

Nguyen Van Hoi University of Information Technology 8 / 58

lim (αan + βbn ) =α lim an + β lim bn (2a)

lim anp =( lim an )p if an > 0 and p > 0 (2d)

Nguyen Van Hoi University of Information Technology 9 / 58

Example: as −|an | ≤ an ≤ |an |,

Nguyen Van Hoi University of Information Technology 10 / 58

Example: as −|an | ≤ an ≤ |an |,

if lim |an | = 0, then lim an = 0.

Nguyen Van Hoi University of Information Technology 10 / 58

an = r n is convergent if −1 < r ≤ 1 and otherwise it is divergent. Moreover,

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Nguyen Van Hoi University of Information Technology 13 / 58

Exercises 3-8 on page 724 Jame Stewart.

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Monotonic and bounded sequences

a1 < a2 < a3 < . . . < an < an+1 < ...

and a decreasing sequence may be written as:

a1 > a2 > a3 > . . . > an > an+1 > ...

It is bounded below if there is a number M such that

If it is bounded above and below, then is a bounded sequence.

Nguyen Van Hoi University of Information Technology 16 / 58

Nguyen Van Hoi University of Information Technology 17 / 58

Investigate the sequence {an } defined by

It seems that an converges to 6. Now, let’s confirm this conclusion.

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Nguyen Van Hoi University of Information Technology 19 / 58

Exercises: 72-78 and 79-82 on page 725 Jame Stewart.

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Nguyen Van Hoi University of Information Technology 23 / 58

Nguyen Van Hoi University of Information Technology 24 / 58

The geometric series

is convergent if |r | < 1. Furthermore,

If |r | ≥ 1, the geometric series is divergent.

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Example 1: Find the sum of the geometric series

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Test for divergence

Passing the limit

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