Cal2 Chapter1 Handout 2023

CHAPTER 1: SEQUENCES AND
SERIES
Lecturer: Nguyen Minh Quan, PhD

quannm@hcmiu.edu.vn
Nguyen Minh Quan (IU-VNU.HCM) Chapter 1: Sequences and series HCMC, 2023 1 / 78
CONTENTS
1 Sequences
2 Series
3 Series of nonnegative terms
Integral Tests. p-series
Comparison tests
4 Alternating series. Absolute convergence
5 Ratio and Root Tests
6 Power series
7 Taylor series, Maclaurin Series, and applications
Introduction
Why do we need to study sequences and series?
Series are used in signal processing applications. Many functions

are defined as sums of series. The theory of infinite series is a
third branch of calculus, in addition to differential and integral
calculus.
Main textbook: J. Stewart, Calculus, 8th Edition, Cengage

Learning, 2016. (Chapters: 11-16)
Reference for this Chapter: Chapter 11 of the textbook by J.

Stewart, 8th Edition (2016).
Sequences. Definition
Definition
A sequence can be thought of as a list of numbers written in a
definite order:
a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , . . . , an , . . .
The sequence a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . is also denoted by {an } or {an }∞
n=1 .
The number a1 is called the first term, a2 is the second term, and
in general an is the nth term. The integer n is called the index of an
and indicates where an occurs in the list.
Sequences. Descriptions
Common methods for descriptions of the sequence

There are three common descriptions: using the preceding notation,
using the defining formula, and writing out the terms of the sequence.
Note A sequence may begin with n = 0 or with some other integer

values of n.
Sequences. Figure
A sequence can be pictured either by: Plotting its terms on a number
line (upper figure) or plotting its (lower figure). For example, for the
n
sequence { n+1 }∞n=1 :
Sequences. Examples
Example
Find a formula for the general term an of the sequence
3 4 5 6 7
{ ,− , ,− , ,...}
5 25 125 625 3125
n+2
Answer: an = (−1)(n+1)
5n
Example (The Fibonacci sequence)

The Fibonacci sequence does not have a simple definition. It is
defined recursively by the conditions
f1 = 1, f2 = 1, fn = fn−1 + fn−2
Sequences. Limit
Definition
A sequence {an } has the limit L, and we write
lim an = L or an → L as n → ∞
n→∞
if for every ϵ > 0 there exists an integer N such that if n > N then
|an − L| < ϵ.
If limn→∞ an exists, the sequence converges (or is convergent).

Otherwise, it diverges (or is divergent).
Sequences. Convergence
Theorem
If limx→∞ f (x) = L and define an = f (n) when n is an integer, then
limn→∞ an = L.
Example
x n
1. We have limx→∞ = 1. Therefore, limn→∞ = 1.
x +1 n+1
ln x ln n
2. By L’Hopital’s rule, limx→∞ = 0. Therefore, limn→∞ = 0.
x n
Sequences. Divergence
Example
Show that the sequence an = (−1)n is divergent.
Solution Write out the terms of the sequence:
{−1, 1, −1, 1, −1, 1, −1, . . . }
The terms oscillate between 1 and −1 infinitely often. Thus, an does

not approach any number and limn→∞ (−1)n does not exist. That is,
the sequence {(−1)n } is divergent.
Sequences. Properties
Definition
The sequence {an } diverges to infinity if for every positive number
M there is an integer N such that for all n larger than N, an > M. If
this condition holds we write
lim an = ∞ or an → ∞.
n→∞
Theorem
If limn→∞ an = L and the function f is continuous at L, then
lim f (an ) = f (L).

n→∞
In particular, if an → L then |an | → |L|.
Sequences. Properties
Properties
Suppose {an } and {bn } are convergent sequences and c is a
constant. Then,
lim (an ± bn ) = lim an ± lim bn

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
lim (can ) = c lim an
n→∞ n→∞
lim (an · bn ) = lim an × lim bn
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
an limn→∞ an
lim = if lim bn ̸= 0
n→∞ bn lim b n→∞
α
n→∞ nα
lim an = lim an if α > 0 and an > 0.
n→∞ n→∞
Example
2n2 −16n+5
Find limn→∞ 4n2 +3n−1
. (Answer: 1/2)
Sequences. Squeeze theorem
Theorem
If
an ≤ bn ≤ cn for n ≥ N
and
lim an = lim cn = L,
n→∞ n→∞
then
lim bn = L.
n→∞
Corollary
(a) If |an | ≤ bn and bn → 0, then an → 0.
(b) an → 0 if and only if |an | → 0.
Sequences. Squeeze theorem
Example
For what values of r is the sequence {r n } convergent?
Hint: •r = 1: Convergent (obviously); •0 < r < 1: Convergent

(obviously); • − 1 < r < 0: Convergent by the Corollary of the
Squeeze Theorem; •r ≤ −1: Divergent (see slide #10 for a similar
solution); •r > 1: Divergent.
Answer: −1 < r ≤ 1.
Example
Discuss the convergence of the sequence
n!
an = , where n! = 1 · 2 · 3 · · · n.
nn
1
Hint: 0 < an ≤ .
n
Sequences. Bounded sequences
Definition
A sequence {an } is called:
• increasing, if an < an+1 for all n, that is, a1 < a2 < a3 < · · · ;
• decreasing, if an > an+1 for all n, that is, a1 > a2 > a3 > · · · ;
• monotonic, if it is either increasing or decreasing.
Definition
• A sequence {an } is bounded above if there is a number M such
that an ≤ M, for all n. (M is an upper bound.)
• {an } is bounded below if there is a number m such that
an ≥ m for all n. (m is a lower bound.)
• If it is bounded above and below, then {an } is bounded.
Remark {an } is bounded if and only if there is a constant K such

that |an | ≤ K for every n.
Sequences. Bounded and monotonic → Conv.
Theorem
• If {an } is increasing and an ≤ M for all n, then {an } converges
and limn→∞ an ≤ M.
• If {an } is decreasing and an ≥ m for all n, then {an } converges
and limn→∞ an ≥ m.
Thus, every bounded and monotonic sequence is convergent.
Series. Definition
Definition
Given a sequence of numbers {an }, an expression of the form
a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an + · · ·
is called an infinite series (or just a series) and the numbers

a1 , a2 , ... are called the terms of the series. The number an is the
nth term or the general term of the series.
For the series ∞ i=1 ai is called the n th

P Pn
n=1 an above, the sum sn =
partial sum of the series. These partial sums form a new sequence
{sn }.
Q: Limit of {sn }?
Series. Convergence/Divergence
Definition
If the sequence {sn } is convergent
P∞ and limn→∞ sn = s exists as a real
number, then the series n=1 an is called convergent and we write:
∞
X
a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an + · · · = s or an = s.
n=1
The number s is called the sum of the series. If the sequence of

partial sums of the series does not converge, we say that the series
diverges.
Thus, the sum of a series is the limit of the sequence of partial sums:
X∞ Xn
an = lim ai .
n→∞
n=1 i=1
Series. Convergence/Divergence
Example
Show that the series ∞
X 1
n=1
n(n + 1)
is convergent, and find its sum.
1
Hint: sn = 1 − . Its sum is S = 1.
n+1
Example
Show
P∞ that the harmonic series
1 1 1 1 1
n=1 n = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + · · · + n
+ · · · is divergent.
n
Hint: By induction, show that s2n ≥ 1 + .
2
Series. Note for the beginning index
Note
Infinite series may begin with any index. For example,
∞ ∞
X 1 X 1
, .
n=2
n ln n n=9
(n − 8)2
When it does not necessary to specify the starting point, we

write simply X
an .
Any letter i, j, k, p, m, n, · · · can be used for the index. Thus we
may write ai , aj , ak , ap , am , an , · · ·
Series. Consequence for an
Theorem
P∞
If the series n=1 an is convergent, then an → 0.
P If limn→∞ an does not exist or if limn→∞ an ̸= 0, then

It follows that
the series an diverges.
Example
Determine whether the series
∞ ∞
X 2n − 1 X n2 + 1
and ln( )
n=1
3n + 1 n=0
2n2 + 1
are convergent or divergent.
Answer: Divergent.
Series. Geometric series
Example
Geometric series are series of the form
∞
X
a + ar + ar 2 + ar 3 + · · · + ar n + · · · = ar n , a ̸= 0,
n=0
in which a and r are fixed numbers. The constant r is called the

common ratio r .
(a) If |r | < 1, then ∞ n a

P
n=0 ar is convergent, with sum 1−r
.
(b) If |r | ≥ 1, and a ̸= 0, then ∞ n
P
n=0 ar is divergent.
In other words, the sum of a convergent geometric series is

first term
1 − common ratio
Series. Geometric series
Example
You drop a ball from H meters above a flat surface. Each time the
ball hits the surface after falling a distance h, it rebounds a distance
rh, where r is positive but less than 1. Find the total distance the
ball travels up and down.
H rH 1+r
Answer: + =H .
1−r 1−r 1−r
Series. The role of the tail
Remark We can add a finite number of terms to a series or delete

a finite number of terms without altering the series’ convergence or
divergence, although in the case of convergence this will usually
change the sum.
That is, a finite number of terms doesn’t affect the convergence or

divergence of a series.
The convergence of a series depends only on the tail of the series.
In other words,
P∞ P∞
n=1 an converges if and only if n=k an converges for any
k > 1.
Series. Properties
Theorem
P P P
If an and bn are convergent
P series, then
P so are the series can
(where c is a constant), (an + bn ), and (an − bn ), and
P P
(i) can = c an ;
P P P
(ii) (an + bn ) = an + bn ;
P P P
(iii) (an − bn ) = an − bn .
Example
Find ∞
X 1 1
( n+ )
n=1
2 n(n + 1)
Answer: 2
Series. Remainder
Let us consider a convergent series
s = a1 + a2 + · · · + an + · · ·
The difference between the sum of the series and its nth partial
sum is called the remainder after n terms or the nth
remainder and is denoted by Rn :
Rn = s − sn = an+1 + an+2 + · · ·
Since sn → s, |rn | = |s − sn | → 0 as n → ∞. Thus it is always

to possible to compute an approximation to the sum of a
convergent series by taking a sufficiently large number of its first
terms.
Series of Nonnegative terms
1. Does the series converge? What is its sum?
2. How to control the errors involved in using the partial sums to
approximate the sum of the series?
Next, we study nonnegative series, whose all terms are nonnegative.
Theorem
A series of nonnegative terms converges if and only if its partial sums
Sn are bounded from above.
Example
P∞ 1
Test the series n=1 √ n for convergence or divergence.
n2
1 1
Hint: √ n
≤ n . Convergent.
n2 2
Series of Nonnegative terms. Integral test.
Theorem (the Integral test)

Let {an } be a sequence of positive terms. Suppose that an = f (n),
where f is a continuous, positive, nonincreasingPfunction of x for all
∞
x ≥ N (N a positive
R ∞integer). Then the series n=N an and the
improper integral N f (x)dx both converge or both diverge.
In other words,
R∞
(i) If N f (x)dx is convergent, then ∞
P
n=N an is convergent;
R∞
(ii) If N f (x)dx is divergent, then ∞
P
n=N an is divergent.
Series of Nonnegative terms. Integral test.
Example
Test the series ∞
X 1
n=2
n ln n
for convergence
R∞ or divergence.
Hint: 2 x ln1 x dx is divergent.
Example
Test the series ∞
X 1
n=1
n2 +1
for convergence
R∞ or divergence.
Hint: 1 x 2dx+1 = π4 is convergent.
p -Series and Harmonic Series
A series of the form

∞
X 1 1 1 1
p
= p + p + p + ···
n=1
n 1 2 3
is a p -series, where p is a positive constant. For p = 1, the series

∞
X 1 1 1 1
= + + + ···
n=1
n 1 2 3
is the harmonic series.
Theorem (p -series)
P∞ 1
The series n=1 np converges if p > 1 and diverges if p ≤ 1.
∞
X 1
p
< ∞ ⇐⇒ p > 1.
n=1
n
P1
Remark The harmonic series n
(the case p = 1 of the p-series)
is on the borderline between convergence and divergence, although it
diverges.
Series of Nonnegative terms. Comparison test
We consider some comparison tests. Their idea is to compare a given
series with one that is known to be convergent or divergent.
Theorem (The Comparison Test)

P P
Let an and bn be series with nonnegative terms such that
an ≤ bn for all n ≥ N.
P P
(a) If bn is convergent, then an is also convergent.
P P
(b) If an is divergent, then bn is also divergent.
The Comparison Test states that for series with nonnegative terms,
(i) Convergence of larger series forces convergence of smaller series;
(ii) Divergence of smaller series forces divergence of larger series.
Example
Test the given series for convergence or divergence:
∞
X ln n
.
n=1
n
ln n
Hint: Compare with the p − series for p = 1 by using n
≥ n1 .
Divergent.
Theorem (The Limit Comparison Test)

P P
Suppose that an and bn are series with nonnegative terms.
If
an
=K lim
n→∞ bn
where K is a finite number and K > 0, then either both series

converge or both diverge.
In words,
if the limit
P of theP ratio of an to bn exists and is positive, then the
series an and bn are simultaneously convergent or
divergent.
Example
Test the given series for convergence or divergence
∞ √
X 2n2 − 5 n + 1
.
n=1
7n4 − 3n3 + 9n − 1
2
Hint: One can use the Limit Comparison Test with bn = .
7n2
Example
P∞ 1 + sin n
Test the series n=1 for convergence or divergence.
n2
1 + sin n 2
Hint: 2
≤ 2.
n n
Alternating series
Definition
An alternating series is a series whose terms are alternately positive
and negative.
Two examples for alternating series:

∞
1 1 1 (−1)n X (−1)n
1 − + − + ··· + + ··· =
2 3 4 n n=1
n
∞
1 1 (−1)n+1 X (−1)n+1
−1 + − 2 + · · · + + · · · =
2 2 2n n=0
2n
Alternating Series Test
Form for alternating series: an = (−1)n+1 bn or an = (−1)n bn ,
where bn is a positive number. In fact, bn = |an |.
Theorem (Alternating Series Test)

If the alternating series
∞
X
(−1)n+1 cn = c1 − c2 + c3 − c4 + · · · + (−1)n+1 cn + · · ·
n=1
satisfies
(i) 0 < cn+1 ≤ cn for all n and
(ii) limn→∞ cn = 0,
then the series is convergent. Furthermore, the sum S of the series
satisfies 0 < S < c1 .
Alternating Series Test
Example
Show that the alternating harmonic series
∞
1 1 1 (−1)n+1 X (−1)n+1
1 − + − + ··· + + ··· =
2 3 4 n n=1
n
is convergent.
Solution: The alternating series
∞
1 1 1 (−1)n+1 X (−1)n+1
1 − + − + ··· + + ··· =
2 3 4 n n=1
n
satisfies
1
i) 0 < cn+1 < cn because n+1 < n1 ;
ii) cn = n1 → 0.
Thus, it is convergent by the Alternating Series Test.
Absolute convergence
Definition
P P
an is absolutely convergent if |an | is convergent.
P P
an is conditionally convergent if it is convergent but |an |
is divergent.
Theorem
If a series is absolutely convergent, then it is convergent.
Example Determine whether the series

∞ √ √ √ √
X sin nπ3 3 3 3 3
2
= + 2
+ 0 − 2
− 2
+ 0 + ···
n=1
n 2 2 · 2 2 · 4 2 · 5
is convergent or divergent.
Answer: Convergent.
Absolute convergence. Examples
Example When p > 0, the sequence n1p is a decreasing sequence

with limit zero. Therefore the alternating p -series

∞
X (−1)n+1 1 1 1
=1− + − + ··· , p>0
n=1
np 2p 3p 4p
converges.
• For p > 1, the series converges absolutely.
• For 0 < p ≤ 1, the series converges but not absolutely
(conditionally convergent).
The Ratio Test
Theorem (The Ratio Test)

P
Let an be a series and suppose that
an+1
lim = ρ.
n→∞ an
Then
(a) the series absolutely converges if ρ < 1,
(b) the series diverges if ρ > 1,
(c) the series may converge or it may diverge if ρ = 1.
In case (c) the test provides no information.
The Ratio Test. Examples
Example
Prove that the following series is convergent:
∞
X 1
.
n=0
n!
Solution We compute the limit ρ. Let an = 1/n!. Then
an+1 1/(n + 1)! 1

= =
an 1/n! n+1
an+1 1
ρ = lim = lim = 0 < 1.
n→∞ an n→∞ n + 1
Thus the series us convergent by the Ratio Test.

The Root Test
Theorem (The Root Test)
P
Let an be a series and suppose that
p
lim n |an | = ρ.
n→∞
Then
(i) the series absolutely converges if ρ < 1,
(ii) the series diverges if ρ > 1,
(iii) the test is not conclusive if ρ = 1.
2n+3 n
P∞
Example Determine whether n=1 3n+2
converges.
Note If ρ = 1 in the Ratio Test, don’t try the Root Test because ρ
will again be 1.
Conclusion remarks: Guidelines for Testing a Series
for Convergence or Divergence
1. Does the nth term approaches 0? If not, the series diverges.
2. Is the series one of the special types- geometric, p-series,

telescoping, or alternating?
3. Can the series be compare to one of the special types?
4. Can the Integral Test, the Ratio Test, or the Root Test be
applied?
In some instances, more than one test is applicable.
Power series. Definition
Definition
A power series about x = 0 is a series of the form
∞
X
cn x n = c0 + c1 x + c2 x 2 + c3 x 3 + · · · + cn x n + · · ·
n=0
where x is a variable and the cn ’s are constants called the

coefficients of the series.
More generally, a series of the form

∞
X
cn (x − a)n = c0 + c1 (x − a) + · · · + cn (x − a)n + · · ·
n=0
is called a power series in (x − a) or a power series centered at

a or a power series about a.
Power series. Domain
For each fixed x, a power series becomes a series of constants

that we can test for convergence or divergence.
A power series may converge for some values of x and diverge

for other values of x. The sum of the series is a function
f (x) = c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a)2 + · · · + cn (x − a)n + · · ·
whose domain is the set of all x for which the series converges.
The domain contains a since the power series converges for

x = a.
Power series. Examples
Example The power series

∞
X
xn = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · · + xn + · · ·
n=0
converges when −1 < x < 1 and diverges when |x| ≥ 1.
Thus,
∞
X 1
xn = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · · + xn + · · · = , −1 < x < 1.
n=0
1−x
Example
For what values of x do the following power series converge?
P∞ n−1 x n 2 3
(a) n=1 (−1) n
= x − x2 + x3 − · · · ;
P∞ n+1 x 2n−1 x3 x5
(b) n=1 (−1) 2n−1
=x− 3
+ 5
− ···;
P∞ xn x2 x3
(c) n=0 n! =1+x + 2!
+ 3!
+ ···;
P∞
(d) n=0 n!x n = 1 + x + 2!x 2 + 3!x 3 + · · · .
Answer: (a) −1 < x ≤ 1 (b) −1 ≤ x ≤ 1

(c) −∞ < x < ∞ (d) {0}
Power series. Possibilities of Convergence
Theorem
For a given power series P
∞
n=0 cn (x − a)n
there are only three possibilities:
(i) The series converges only when x = a.
(ii) The series converges for all x.
(iii) There is a positive number R such that the series absolutely
converges if |x − a| < R and diverges if |x − a| > R.
In Case (i), set R = 0, and in Case (ii), set R = ∞. We call R the
radius of convergence of the power series.
The set of values x for which the power series ∞ n

P
n=0 cn (x − a)
converges is an interval centered at x = a. We call this interval the
interval of convergence of the power series.
Example
Determine the center, radius, and interval of convergence of
∞
X (2x + 5)n
2 + 1)3n
.
n=0
(n
Answer. a = −5/2, R = 3/2. The interval of convergence is

−4 ≤ x ≤ −1.
Important remark: If limn→∞ cn+1

p
cn
= ρ (or, limn→∞ n |cn | = ρ),
where 0 < ρ < 1, then the radius of convergence is R = 1/ρ.
How to Test a Power Series for Convergence?
1. If the interval of convergence is finite, test for convergence or

divergence at each of the two endpoints. Neither the Ratio Test
nor the Root Test helps at these points. Use a Comparison Test,
the Integral Test, or the alternating Series Test.
2. If the radius of convergence is R, the series diverges for

|x − a| > R.
′
R
Power series for f (x) and f (x)dx
cn (x − a)n has radius of
P
Theorem. If the power series
convergence R > 0, then the function f defined by
∞
X
2
f (x) = c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a) + · · · = cn (x − a)n
n=0
is differentiable on the interval (a − R, a + R) and
∞
X
′ 2
f (x) = c1 + 2c2 (x − a) + 3c3 (x − a) + · · · = ncn (x − a)n−1 ,
n=1
Z
c1
f (x)dx = C + c0 (x − a) + (x − a)2 + · · ·
2
These series have the same radius of convergence R.

′
R
Note for the theorem in slide #52

1. It follows from the first part of the previous Theorem in slide
#52 that
Every power series is infinitely termwise differentiable

inside its interval of convergence.
2. Although this Theorem says that the radius of convergence

remains the same when a power series is differentiated or
integrated, this does not mean that the interval of convergence
remains the same.
′
R
Example Find a power series representation for ln(1 − x) and its
radius of convergence.
Solution Since f (x) = f ′ (x)dx and dx
d 1
R
ln(1 − x) = − 1−x , we
have
Z Z
1
1 + x + x 2 + · · · dx

− ln(1 − x) = dx =
1−x
∞
x2 x3 X xn
=C +x + + + ··· = C + . |x| < 1
2 3 n=1
n
Setting x = 0 gives C = 0 and hence,

∞
x2 x3 X xn
ln(1 − x) = −x − − − ··· = − , |x| < 1.
2 3 n=1
n
The radius of convergence is the same as for the original series:

R = 1.
′
R
Example
1
Find a power series representation for (1−x)2
and its radius of
convergence.
Solution Differentiating each side of the equation term by term
∞
1 2 3 n
X
= 1 + x + x + x + ··· + x + ··· = xn
1−x n=0
1
we get the power series for :
(1 − x)2
1
2
= 1 + 2x + 3x 2 + 4x 3 + · · · + (n + 1)x n + · · ·
(1 − x)
X∞ X∞
n−1
= nx = (n + 1)x n , −1 < x < 1.
n=1 n=0
The radius of convergenceChapter
Nguyen Minh Quan (IU-VNU.HCM)
is R1: = 1.
Sequences and series HCMC, 2023 55 / 78
′
R
Example Identify the function
∞
X x 2n+1 x3 x5
f (x) = (−1)n =x− + − · · · , −1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
n=0
2n + 1 3 5
Solution We differentiate the original series term by term and get

∞ ∞
X (2n + 1)x 2n X
f ′ (x) = (−1)n = (−1)n x 2n ,
n=0
2n + 1 n=0
1 1
= 2
= , −1 < x < 1,
1 − (−x ) 1 + x2
Z Z
′ 1
f (x) = f (x)dx = dx = tan−1 x + C .
1 + x2
The series for f is zero when x = 0, so C = 0. Hence
3 5
f (x) = x − x3 + x5 − · · · = tan−1 x, −1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
Taylor and Maclaurin Series
If f (x) = ∞ n
P
n=0 cn (x − a) for all x in the interval (a − R, a + R), we
say that the power series is a representation of f (x) on that interval
and f is expanded into the power series.
In this section we investigate general problems:

1. Which functions have power series representations?
2. How can we find such representations?
Moreover, we will show how to control the errors involved in using
the partial sums of the series to approximate the functions the series
represent.
Taylor Series and Maclaurin Series
Suppose that f is any function that can be represented by a power
series
f (x) = c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a)2 + c3 (x − a)3 + · · · ,
|x − a| < R.
Question: Can we determine cn via f (x)?
Theorem
If f has a power series representation at a, that is, if
∞
X
f (x) = cn (x − a)n
n=0
then its coefficients are given by the formula
f (n) (a)
cn = .
n!
Thus, if f has a power series expansion at a, then it must be of the
form.
f ′ (a) f ′′ (a)
f (x) = f (a) + (x − a) + (x − a)2 + · · ·
1! 2!
∞
X f (n) (a)
= (x − a)n
n=0
n!
This series is called the Taylor series of the function f at a (or

about a or centered at a).
For a = 0 the Taylor series is called the Maclaurin series:
∞
X f (n) (0) f ′ (0) f ′′ (0) 2
f (x) = x n = f (0) + x+ x + ···
n=0
n! 1! 2!
Thus, we have established the following result:
If a function f (x) can be expanded in to a series in power of
x − a, this series is uniquely determined and necessary coincides
with the Taylor series of this function at a.
Example Find the Maclaurin series of the function f (x) = e x and

its radius of convergence.
Answer:
∞
x
X f (n) (0) 1 1 1
e = xn = 1 + x + x2 + x3 · · · ; −∞<x <∞
n=0
n! 1! 2! 3!
P∞ f (n) (a)
Question: When is f (x) = n=0 n!
(x − a)n ?
Definition
Let f be a function with derivatives of order k for
k = 1, 2, . . . , N in some interval containing a as an interior
point. Then for any integer n from 0 through N, the Taylor
polynomial of order n generated by f at a is the polynomial
f ′′ (a)
Tn (x) = f (a) + f ′ (a)(x − a) + (x − a)2 +
2!
f (n) (a)
+ ··· + (x − a)n .
n!
f (x) = e x and its Taylor polynomials T1 (x), T2 (x), and T3 (x).
Example
Find the Taylor polynomials generated by f (x) = cos x at x = 0.
Solution The cosine and its derivatives are

f (x) = cos x, f ′ (x) = − sin x
f ′′ (x) = − cos x, f ′′ (x) = sin x
.. ..
. .
f (2n) (x) = (−1)n cos x, f (2n+1) (x) = (−1)n+1 sin x.
Therefore, f (2n) (0) = (−1)n , f (2n+1) (0) = 0.

Hence the Taylor polynomials of orders 2n and 2n + 1 are identical:
x2 x4 x6 x 2n
T2n (x) = T2n+1 (x) = 1 − + − + · · · + (−1)n .
2! 4! 6! (2n)!
Tn or Pn approaches f (x) as n is increasing
Clearly, f is the sum of its Taylor series at a if
f (x) = lim Tn (x), |x − a| < R.

n→∞
If we let
Rn (x) = f (x) − Tn (x)
then Rn (x) is called the remainder of the Taylor series and we
have
f (x) = Tn (x) + Rn (x).
Theorem
If f (x) = Tn (x) + Rn (x), where Tn (x) is the Taylor polynomial
of order n of f at a and
lim Rn (x) = 0 for |x − a| < R,

n→∞
then f is equal to the sum of its Taylor series on the interval

|x − a| < R.
Note that the value of Rn (x) is exactly equal to the error appearing
when the function f (x) is replaced by Taylor’s polynomial Tn (x).
Theorem
Let f (x) be an infinitely differentiable function on the open
interval I = (a − α, a + α) with α > 0. Assume there exists a
constant K ≥ 0 such that for all n,
f (n) (x) ≤ K for all x ∈ I .
Then f (x) is represented by its Taylor series in I :

∞
X f (n) (a)
f (x) = (x − a)n for all x ∈ I .
k=0
n!
Example Show that the following Maclaurin expressions are valid for
all x:
∞
X x 2n+1 x3 x5 x7
sin x = (−1)n =x− + − + ···
k=0
(2n + 1)! 3! 5! 7!
∞
X x 2n x2 x4 x6
cos x = (−1)n =1− + − + ···
k=0
(2n)! 2! 4! 6!
Solution For f (x) = sin x, we have

f (2n) (x) = (−1)n sin x, f (2n+1) (x) = (−1)n cos x.
Therefore, f (2n) (0) = 0 and f (2n+1) (0) = (−1)n . The nonzero Taylor
(−1)n
coefficients for sin x are c2n+1 = (2n+1)! .
Similarly, for f (x) = cos x,
f (2n) (x) = (−1)n cos x, f (2n+1) (x) = (−1)n+1 sin x.
Therefore, f (2n) (0) = (−1)n and f (2n+1) (0) = 0. The nonzero Taylor
(−1)n
coefficients for cos x are c2n = .
(2n)!
In both cases, |f (n) (x)| ≤ 1 for all x and n. Thus one can apply the
theorem in slide #67 with K = 1 and any α to conclude that the
Maclaurin series converges to f (x) for |x| < α.
Since α is arbitrary, the Maclaurin expansions hold for all x.
Example
Find the Taylor series of e x at x = a.
P∞ ea
Answer: k=0 n! (x − a)n , −∞ < x < ∞.
In particular, we have arrived at series for e x :
x x2 x3 xn
ex = 1 + + + + ··· + + · · · , −∞ < x < ∞,
1! 2! 3! n!
and for e,
1 1 1 1
e =1+ + + + ··· + + ··· , −∞ < x < ∞.
1! 2! 3! n!
Example
Find the Taylor series for ln x in powers of x = 2. Where does the
series converge to ln x?
Answer:
∞
X (−1)n−1
ln x = ln 2 + (x − 2)n , 0 < x ≤ 4.
n=1
n× 2n
Binomial Series
For any number α (integer or not) and nonnegative integer n, we

define the binomial coefficient

k k(k − 1)(k − 2) · · · (k − n + 1) k
= , = 1.
n n! 0
For example,
4
· 13 · (− 32 )

6 6·5·4 4/3 3 4
= = 20, = =− .
3 1·2·3 3 1·2·3 81
The traditional Binomial Theorem states that for any integer
number k > 0,

k k k k−1 k
(a + b) = a + a b+ ak−2 b 2 + · · ·
1 2

k
+ ab k−1 + b k .
k −1
Setting a = 1 and b = x, we obtain an expansion of f (x) = (1 + x)k :

k k k
(1 + x) = 1 + x+ x2 + · · ·
1 2

k
+ x k−1 + x k .
k −1
Now, for any real number k, consider the function f (x) = (1 + x)k
without assuming that k is a whole number. We have
f (n) (x) = k(k − 1) · · · (k − n + 1)(1 + x)k−n

f (n) (0) = k(k − 1) · · · (k − n + 1).
• If k is a nonnegative integer, then the series stops after k + 1

terms because the coefficients from n = k + 1 on are zero.
• If k is not a nonnegative integer, then the series is infinite and

f (n) (0)

k(k − 1)(k − 2) · · · (k − n + 1) k
= = .
n! n! n
Hence, the Maclaurin series of f (x) = (1 + x)k is
∞
X k k(k − 1) 2 k(k − 1)(k − 2) 3
x n = 1 + kx + x + x +
n 2! 3!
n=0
k(k − 1)(k − 2) · · · (k − n + 1) n
+ ··· + x + ···
n!
This series is called the binomial series.
The Ratio Test shows that this series has radius of convergence
R = 1. Furthermore, the binomial series converges to (1 + x)k for
|x| < 1.
Theorem (The Binomial Series)

If k is any real number and |x| < 1, then
∞
X
k k
(1 + x) = xn
n
n=0
∞
X k(k − 1) · · · (k − n + 1) n
= x
n=0
n!
Example
Find the Maclaurin series for
1
√ .
1+x
Answer: For −1 < x ≤ 1,

∞
1 X 1 × 3 × 5 × · · · × (2n − 1) n
√ =1+ (−1)n x .
1+x n=1
2n (n!)
Example
Find the Maclaurin series for sin−1 x.
x3
Answer: sin−1 x = x + 6
+ 3 5
40
x + ··· (−1 < x < 1).
Important Maclaurin Series
–END OF CHAPTER 1–

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CHAPTER 1: SEQUENCES AND

Lecturer: Nguyen Minh Quan, PhD

Why do we need to study sequences and series?

Series are used in signal processing applications. Many functions

Main textbook: J. Stewart, Calculus, 8th Edition, Cengage

Reference for this Chapter: Chapter 11 of the textbook by J.

Common methods for descriptions of the sequence

Note A sequence may begin with n = 0 or with some other integer

Example (The Fibonacci sequence)

If limn→∞ an exists, the sequence converges (or is convergent).

Solution Write out the terms of the sequence:

{−1, 1, −1, 1, −1, 1, −1, . . . }

The terms oscillate between 1 and −1 infinitely often. Thus, an does

lim f (an ) = f (L).

In particular, if an → L then |an | → |L|.

lim (an ± bn ) = lim an ± lim bn

Hint: •r = 1: Convergent (obviously); •0 < r < 1: Convergent

Remark {an } is bounded if and only if there is a constant K such

is called an infinite series (or just a series) and the numbers

For the series ∞ i=1 ai is called the n th

The number s is called the sum of the series. If the sequence of

When it does not necessary to specify the starting point, we

P If limn→∞ an does not exist or if limn→∞ an ̸= 0, then

are convergent or divergent.

in which a and r are fixed numbers. The constant r is called the

(a) If |r | < 1, then ∞ n a

In other words, the sum of a convergent geometric series is

Remark We can add a finite number of terms to a series or delete

That is, a finite number of terms doesn’t affect the convergence or

Since sn → s, |rn | = |s − sn | → 0 as n → ∞. Thus it is always

Theorem (the Integral test)

p -Series and Harmonic Series

A series of the form

is a p -series, where p is a positive constant. For p = 1, the series

is the harmonic series.

Theorem (The Comparison Test)

Theorem (The Limit Comparison Test)

where K is a finite number and K > 0, then either both series

Two examples for alternating series:

Theorem (Alternating Series Test)

Example Determine whether the series

Example When p > 0, the sequence n1p is a decreasing sequence

with limit zero. Therefore the alternating p -series

Theorem (The Ratio Test)

In case (c) the test provides no information.

Solution We compute the limit ρ. Let an = 1/n!. Then

an+1 1/(n + 1)! 1

Thus the series us convergent by the Ratio Test.

1. Does the nth term approaches 0? If not, the series diverges.

2. Is the series one of the special types- geometric, p-series,

3. Can the series be compare to one of the special types?

where x is a variable and the cn ’s are constants called the

More generally, a series of the form

is called a power series in (x − a) or a power series centered at

For each fixed x, a power series becomes a series of constants

A power series may converge for some values of x and diverge

f (x) = c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a)2 + · · · + cn (x − a)n + · · ·

The domain contains a since the power series converges for

Example The power series

converges when −1 < x < 1 and diverges when |x| ≥ 1.

Answer: (a) −1 < x ≤ 1 (b) −1 ≤ x ≤ 1

The set of values x for which the power series ∞ n

Answer. a = −5/2, R = 3/2. The interval of convergence is