Solutions to Problems in Merzbacher,

Quantum Mechanics, Third Edition

Homer Reid
April 5, 2001
Chapter 7
Before starting on these problems I found it useful to review how the WKB
approximation works in the rst place. The Schr odinger equation is

2
2m
d
2
dx
2
(x) +V (x)(x) = E(x)
or
d
2
dx
2
(x) +k
2
(x)(x) = 0, k(x)
_
2m

2
[E V (x)].
We postulate for the functional form
(x) = Ae
iS(x)/
in which case the Schr odinger equation becomes
iS

(x) = [S

(x)]
2

2
k
2
(x). (1)
This equation cant be solved directly, but we obtain guidance from the obser-
vation that, for a constant potential, S(x) = kx, so that S

vanishes. For a
nonconstant but slowly varying potential we might imagine S

(x) will be small,

and we may take S

= 0 as the seed of a series of successive approximations

to the exact solution. To be specic, we will construct a series of functions
S
0
(x), S
1
(x), , where S
0
is the solution of (1) with 0 on the left hand side;
S
1
is a solution with S

0
on the left hand side; and so on. In other words, at
the nth step in the approximation sequence (by which point we have computed
S
n
(x)), we compute S

n
(x) and use that as the source term on the LHS of (1)
to calculate S
n+1
(x). Then we compute the second derivative of S
n+1
(x) and
use this as the source term for calculating S
n+2
, and so on ad innitum. In
1
Homer Reids Solutions to Merzbacher Problems: Chapter 7 2
symbols,
0 = [S

0
(x)]
2

2
k
2
(x) (2)
iS

0
= [S

1
(x)]
2

2
k
2
(x) (3)
iS

1
= [S

2
(x)]
2

2
k
2
(x) (4)

Equation (2) is clearly solved by taking
S

0
(x) = k(x) S
0
(x) = S
00

_
x

k(x

)dx

(5)
for any constant S
00
. Then S

0
(x) = k

(x), so (3) is
S

1
(x) =
_
k
2
(x) ik

(x).
With the two signs here, we appear to have four possible choices for S

1
. But
lets think a little about the signs in this equation. The sign under the
radical comes from the two choices of sign in (5). But if we chose, say, the plus
sign in that equation, so that S

0
> 0, we would also expect that S

1
> 0. Indeed,
if we choose the plus sign in (5) but the minus sign in (3), then S

0
and S

1
have
opposite sign, so S

1
diers from S

0
by an amount at least as large as S

0
, in
which case our approximation sequence S
0
, S
1
, has little hope of converging.
So we choose either both plus signs or both minus signs in (3), whence our two
choices are
S

1
= +
_
k
2
(x) +ik

(x) or S

1
=
_
k
2
(x) ik

(x). (6)
If V (x) is constant, k(x) is constant, and, as we observed before, the sequence
of approximations terminates at 0th order with S
0
being an exact solution. By
extension, if V (x) is not constant but changes little over one particle wavelength,
we have k

(x)/k
2
(x) 1, so we may expand the radicals in (6):
S

1
k(x)
_
1 +
ik

(x)
2k
2
(x)
_
or S

1
k(x)
_
1
ik

(x)
2k
2
(x)
_
or
S

1
k(x) +
ik

(x)
2k(x)
. (7)
Integrating,
S
1
(x) = S
1
(a)
_
x
a
k(u)du +
i
2
_
x
a
k

(u)
k(u)
dx

= S
1
(a)
_
x
a
k(u)du +
i
2
ln
k(x)
k(a)
where a is some point chosen such that the approximation (7) is valid in the
full range a < x

< x. We could go on to compute S

2
, S
3
, etc., but in practice
it seems the approximation is always terminated at S
1
.
Homer Reids Solutions to Merzbacher Problems: Chapter 7 3
The wavefunction at this order of approximation is
(x) = exp(iS
1
(x)/) =
_
e
iS1(a)/
__
e
i
R
x
a
k(u)du
__
e
ln k(x)/k(a)
_
1/2
= (a)

k(a)
k(x)
e
i
R
x
a
k(u)du
= (a)G

(x; a)
where
(8)
G

(x; a)

k(a)
k(x)
e
i
R
x
a
k(u)du
. (9)
We have written it this way to illustrate that the function G(x, a) is kind of like
a Greens function or propagator for the wavefunction, in the sense that, if you
know what is at some point a, you can just multiply it by G

(x; a) to nd
out what is at x. But this doesnt seem quite right: Schr odingers equation
is a second-order dierential equation, but (8) seems to be saying that we need
only one initial conditionthe value of at x = ato nd the value of at
other points. To clarify this subtle point, lets investigate the equations leading
up to (8). If the approximation (7) makes sense, then there are two solutions
of Schr odingers equation at x = a, one whose phase increases with increasing
x (positive derivative), and one whose phase decreases. Equation (8) seems to
be saying that we can use either G
+
or G

to get to (x) from (a); but the

requirement the d/dx be continuous at x = a means that only one or the
other will do. Indeed, in using (8) to continue from a to x we must choose
the appropriate propagatoreither G
+
or G

, according to the derivative of

at x = a; otherwise the overall wave function will have a discontinuity in its
rst derivative at x = a. So to use (8) to obtain values for at a point x, we
need to know both and

at a nearby point x = a, as should be the case for

a second-order dierential equation.
If we want to de-emphasize this nature of the solution with the propagator
we may write
(x) = C

1
k(x)
e
i
R
x
a
k(u)du
(10)
where C = (a)
_
k(a). In regions where V (x) > E, k(x) is imaginary, so its
useful to dene
(x) = ik(x) =
_
2m

2
[V (x) E] (11)
and
(x) = C

1
(x)
e

R
x
a
(u)du
. (12)
Homer Reids Solutions to Merzbacher Problems: Chapter 7 4
If we have a region of space in which the WKB approximation is valid,
knowing the value of (and its derivative) at one point within the region is
equivalent to knowing it everywhere, because we can use the propagator (9)
to get from that one point to every other point within the region. The WKB
method, however, gives us no way of determining the value of at that one
starting point. Furthermore, even if we know at one point within a region of
validity, we cant use (8) to determine in other, nonadjacent regions, because
we cant carry the propagator across regions of invalidity. So basically what we
need is a way of nding one starting value for (x) in every region of validity
of the WKB approximation.
How do we nd such points? Well, one sure-re way to get starting points
in regions of validity is to identify regions of invalidity, of which there will be
at least one adjacent to each region of validity, and then get values of at the
boundaries of the regions of invaliditywhich will also count as values in the
regions of validity. So we need to identify the regions of invalidity of the WKB
approximation and do a more accurate solution of the Schr odinger equation
there.
The WKB approximation breaks down when k

/k
2
1 ceases to hold, which
is true when k 0 but k

= 0, which happens near a classical turning point of

the motioni.e., a point x
0
at which V (x
0
) = E. But near such a point we may
expand V (x) E in a Taylor series around the point x
0
; if we keep only the
rst (linear in x) term in the series, we arrive at a Schr odinger equation which
we can solve exactly in the vicinity of x
0
. To do this, suppose the point x
0
is a
classical turning point of the motion, so that V (x
0
) = E. In the neighborhood
of x
0
we may expand V (x):
V (x) = E + (x x
0
)V

(x
0
) + (13)
Then the Schr odinger equation becomes
d
2
dx
2
(x)
2m

2
V

(x
0
)(x x
0
)(x) = 0. (14)
The useful substitution here is
u(x) = (x x
0
)
_
2m

2
V

(x
0
)
_
1/3
so
x(u) =
u

+x
0
.
If we dene
(u) = (x(u))
then
d
du
=
d
dx
dx
du
=
1

(x(u))
d
2

du
2
=
1

(x(u))
Homer Reids Solutions to Merzbacher Problems: Chapter 7 5
so (14) becomes

2
d
2
du
2
(u)
3
(x x
0
)(u) = 0
or
d
2
du
2
(u) u(u) = 0.
The solution to this dierential equation is
(u) =
1
Ai(u) +
2
Bi(u) (15)
so the solution to the Schr odinger equation (14) is
(x) =
1
Ai
_
(x x
0
)
_
+
2
Bi
_
(x x
0
)
_
.
For (x x
0
) 1 we have the asymptotic expression
(x)
1/2
[(x x
0
)]
1/4
_

1
2
e

2
3
|(xx0)|
3/2
+
2
e
+
2
3
|(xx0)|
3/2
_
(16)
and for (x x
0
) 1 we have
(x)
1/2
|(x x
0
)|
1/4
_

1
cos
_
2
3
|(x x
0
)|
3/2

4
_

2
sin
_
2
3
|(x x
0
)|
3/2

4
__
. (17)
To simplify these, we need to consider two possible kinds of turning point.
Case 1: V

(x
0
) > 0.
In this case the potential is increasing through the turning point at x
0
, which
means that V (x) < E for x < x
0
, and V (x) > E for x > x
0
. Hence the region
to the left of the turning point is the classically accessible region, while the right
of the turning point is classically forbidden. Since V

(x
0
) > 0, > 0, so for
x < x
0
(??) holds. For points close to the turning point on the left side,
k(x) =
_
2m

2
[E V (x)]
_
2m

2
V

_
1/2
(x
0
x)
1/2
=
3/2
(x
0
x)
1/2
so
|(x x
0
)|
1/4
=
_

k(x)
(18)
and
_
x0
x
k(u)du =
3/2
_
x0
x
(x
0
x)
1/2
du =
2
3

3/2
(x
0
x)
3/2
=
2
3
|(x x
0
)|
3/2
. (19)
On the other hand, for points close to the turning point on the left side we
have x > x
0
, so (x x
0
) > 0. In this region,
Homer Reids Solutions to Merzbacher Problems: Chapter 7 6
(x) =
_
2m

2
_
V (x) E

_
2m

2
V

(x
0
)(x x
0
)
_
1/2
=
3/2
(x x
0
)
1/2
(20)
so, for x near x
0
,
_
x
x0
(u)du =
3/2
_
x
x0
(u x
0
)
1/2
du =
2
3

3/2
(x x
0
)
3/2
(21)
and also
|(x x
0
)|
1/4
=
_

(x)
. (22)
Using (18) and (19) in (17), and (21) and (22) in (16), the solutions to the
Schr odinger equation on either side of a classical turning point x
0
at which
V

(x
0
) > 0 are
(x) =

1
k(x)
_
2
1
cos
_
_
x0
x
k(u)du

4
_

2
sin
_
_
x0
x
k(u)du

4
__
, x < x
0
(23)
(x) =

1
(x)
_

1
e
R
x
x
0
(u)du
+
2
e

R
x
x
0
(u)du
_
, x < x
0
(24)
(we redened the constants slightly in going to this equation).
Case 2: V

(x
0
) < 0.
In this case the potential is decreasing through the turning point, so the
classically accessible region is to the right of the turning point, and the forbidden
region to the left. Since V

(x
0
) < 0, < 0. That means that the regions of
applicability of (16) and (17) are on opposite sides of the turning points as they
were in the previous case. The solutions to the Schr odinger equation on either
side of the turning point are
(x) =

1
(x)
_

1
e
R
x
0
x
(u)du
+
2
e

R
x
x
0
(u)du
_
, x < x
0
(25)
(x) =

1
k(x)
_
2
1
cos
_
_
x
x0
k(u)du

4
_

2
sin
_
_
x
x0
k(u)du

4
__
, x > x
0
(26)
(27)
So, to apply the WKB approximation to a given potential V (x), the rst
step is to identify the classical turning points of the motion, and to divide space
Homer Reids Solutions to Merzbacher Problems: Chapter 7 7
up into regions bounded by turning points, within which regions the WKB
approximation (7) is valid. Then, for each turning point, we write down (23)
and (24) (or (25) and (26)) at nearby points on either side of the turning point,
and then use (10) to evolve the wavefunction from those points to other points
within the separate regions.
We should probably quantify the meaning of nearby in that last sentence.
Suppose x
0
is a classical turning point of the motion, and we are looking for
points x
0
at which to make the hando from approximations (16) and
(17) to the WKB approximation These points must satisfy several conditions.
First, the approximate Schr odinger equation (14) is only valid as long as we can
neglect the quadratic and higher-order terms in the expansion (13), so we must
have
|V

(x
0
)| |V

(x
0
)|

(x
0
)
V

(x
0
)

. (28)
But at the same time, must be suciently greater than 1 to justify the
approximation (16) (or suciently less than -1 to justify (17)); the condition
here is

2m

2
V

(x
0
)

1/3
1

2m

2
V

(x
0
)

1/3
. (29)
Finally, the points x must be suciently far away from the turning points that
the approximation (7) is valid for the derivative of the phase of the wavefunction;
the condition for this to be the case was

(x)
k
2
(x)

1
1
2
_

2
2m
_

(x )
[E V (x )]
3/2

1. (30)
If there are no points x
0
satisfying all three conditions, the WKB approxi-
mation cannot be used.
To apply all of this to the problem of bound states in a potential well,
consider a potential like that shown in Figure 1, with two classical turning points
at x = a and x = b. Although there are no discontinuities in the potential
here, the problem may be analyzed in a manner similar to that used in the
consideration of one-dimensional piecewise constant potentials, as in Chapter
6: we divide space into a number of distinct regions, obtain solutions of the
Schr odinger equation in each region, and then match values and derivatives at
the region boundaries.
To divide space into distinct regions in this case, we begin by identifying
narrow regions around the turning points a and b in which the linear approx-
imation (13) is valid. In the narrow region around x = a, we may use (25)
and (26); around x = b we may use (23) and (24). Let the narrow such region
around a be a
1
< x < a+
1
, and that around b be b
2
< x < b +
2
. Then
space divides naturally into ve regions: (a) x < a
In this region we are far enough to the left of the turning point that the WKB
approximation is valid, and the wavefunction takes the form (10). However, we
Homer Reids Solutions to Merzbacher Problems: Chapter 7 8
P
S
f
r
a
g
r
e
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
s
a b
E
V (x)
Figure 1: A potential V (x) with two classical turning points for an energy E.
Homer Reids Solutions to Merzbacher Problems: Chapter 7 9
must throw out the term that grows exponentially as x , so we are left
with
(x) = A

1
(x)
e

R
(a)
x
(u)du
, x < a . (31)
(b) a < x < a +
In this region we are close enough to the turning point that (13) is valid, so
(25) and (26) may be used.
(x) =

1
(x)
_

1
e

R
a
x
(u)du
+
2
e
+
R
a
x
(u)du
_
, x < (a ). (32)
From (31) and (32) we see that continuity of both the value and rst derivative of
(x) at x = a requires taking
1
= A,
2
= 0. With this choice of constants,
we achive continuity not only of the value and rst derivative of but also of
all higher derivatives, as must be the case since there is no discontinuity in the
potential.
But now that we know the value of at x = a , we also know it at
x = a + , because of course the solution of the Schr odinger equation in the
narrow strip around a (to which (32) is an asymptotic approximation for x < a)
is valid throughout the strip; the same solution thats valid at x = a is valid
at x = a +. With
1
= A and
2
= 0, (26) becomes
(x) = 2A

1
k(x)
cos
_
_
x
a
k(u)du

4
_
= A

1
k(x)
_
e
+i(
R
x
a
k(u)du/4)
+e
i(
R
x
a
k(u)du/4)
_
, x = (a +)
(33)
(c) a + < x < b
In this region the WKB approximation (7) is valid, so we may use (8) to nd
the wavefunction at any point within the region. Using the expression (33) for
the wavefunction at x = a+, integrating from a+ to x in the propagator (9),
and using G
+
and G

, respectively, to propagate the rst and second terms in

Homer Reids Solutions to Merzbacher Problems: Chapter 7 10
(33), we obtain for the wavefunction at a point x in this region
(x) = A

1
k(x)
_
e
+i

R
(a+)
a
k(u)du+
R
x
(a+)
k(u)du/4

+e
i

R
(a+)
a
k(u)du+
R
x
(a+)
/4
_
= A

1
k(x)
_
e
+i(
R
x
a
k(u)du/4)
+e
i(
R
x
a
k(u)du/4)
_
= 2A

1
k(x)
cos
__
x
a
k(u)du

4
_
= 2A

1
k(x)
cos
_
_
b
a
k(u)du
_
b
x
k(u)du

4
_
, a + < x < b
(34)
Okay, I have now carried this analysis far enough to see for myself exactly
where the Bohr-Sommerfeld quantization condition
_
b
a
k(u)du =
_
n +
1
2
_
, n = 1, 2, (35)
comes from, which was my original goal, so I am now going to stop this exercise
and proceed directly to the problems.
Problem 7.1
Apply the WKB method to a particle that falls with acceleration g in a uniform
gravitational eld directed along the z axis and that is reected from a perfectly
elastic plane surface at z = 0. Compare with the rigorous solutions of this problem.
Well start with the exact solution to the problem. The requirement of
perfect elastic reection at z = 0 may be imposed by taking V (x) to jump
suddenly to innity at z = 0, i.e.
V (x) =
_
mgz, z > 0
, z 0.
For z > 0, the Schr odinger equation is
0 =
d
2
dx
2
(x) +
2m

2
[E mgz] (x)
=
d
2
dx
2
(x) +
2m
2
g

2
_
E
mg
z
_
(x)
=
d
2
dx
2
(x)
2m
2
g

2
[z z
0
] (x) (36)
Homer Reids Solutions to Merzbacher Problems: Chapter 7 11
where z
0
= E/mg. With the substitution
u = (z z
0
) =
_
2m
2
g

2
_
1/3
and taking (u) = (x(u)), we nd that (36) is just the Airy equation for (u),
d
2
du
2
(u) u(u) = 0
with solutions
(u) =
1
Ai(u) +
2
Bi(u).
Since we require a solution that remains nite as z , we must take
2
= 0.
The solution to (36) is then
(x) =
1
Ai
_
(z z
0
)
_
, (z > 0). (37)
For z < 0, I wasnt quite sure how to account for the innite potential
jump at z = 0, so instead I supposed the potential for z < 0 to be a constant,
V (z) = V
0
, where eventually Ill take V
0
. Then the Schr odinger equation
for z < 0 is
d
2
dz
2
(z)
2m

2
[V
0
E] (z) = 0
with solution
(z) = Ae
kz
, k =
_
2m

2
[V
0
E]. (38)
Matching values and derivatives of (37) and (38) at z = 0, we have

1
Ai(z
0
) = A

1
Ai

(z
0
) = kA
Dividing, we obtain
1

Ai(z
0
)
Ai

(z
0
)
=
1
k
Now taking V
0
, we also have k , so the RHS of this goes to zero;
thus the condition is that z
0
be a zero of the Airy function, which means the
energy eigenvalues E
n
are given by
_
2m
2
g

2
_
1/3
E
n
mg
= x
nm
E
n
=
_
mg
2

2
2
_
1/3
x
n
(39)
where x
n
is the nth root of the equation
Ai(x
n
) = 0.
Homer Reids Solutions to Merzbacher Problems: Chapter 7 12
So thats the exact solution. In the WKB approximation, the spectrum of
energy eigenvalues is determined by the condition (35). In this case the classical
turning points are at z = 0 and z = z
0
, so we have
_
n +
1
2
_
=
_
z0
0
k(z) dz
=
_
2m

2
_
z0
0
[E mgz]
1/2
dz
=
_
2m
2
g

2
_
z0
0
[z
0
z]
1/2
du
=
_
2m
2
g

2
3
(z
0
z)
3/2

z0
0
=
2
3
_
2m
2
g

2
_
E
mg
_
3/2
so the nth eigenvalue is given by
E
n
=
_
mg
2

2
2
_
1/3
_
3
2
_
n +
1
2
_

_
2/3
.