!"#$%&$ !" ! !"#$ & ! !"#$%&'()* ,-".

$-/
!"#$%&#$' '$) *+#,-./,/-0 ! !"#$%$&' )&*"%
!"#$%&'( !*+,%&,
-.,%/( $*( 0$12
Election (negatively chaigeu) in shells anu subshells aiounu nucleus
Nucleus composing of piotons (positively chaigeu) anu neutions
!"#$%&'( * piotons anu neutions
+&"$&,- .+/ * 0nit of chaige equal to the electiical chaige tiansfeiieu by a steauy
cuiient of 1 Ampeie in 1 Seconu
0$%,%'1234 +5236% .!" 7 Electiic chaige caiiieu by a pioton oi equivalently the
absolute value of the electiic chaige caiiieu by a election (as election is negatively
chaigeu)
! # $%&'($)&*+),$'
-$.


Paiticle Relative Nass Absolute
Nass (Kg)
Relative Chaige Absolute
Chaige (C)
Pioton 1 1.67x1u
-27
+1 +1.6ux1u
-19
Neution 1 1.67x1u
-27
u u
Election Negligible 9.11x1u
-S1
-1 -1.6ux1u
-19
Z
A
X

/ # 0122 3456!7894:;!<3 9456!7
= # /><5?: 9456!7 @9456!7 <A B7<><32C

8(&1&9% 7 an atom with the same numbei of piotons (Atomic numbei) but a uiffeient
numbei of neutions (mass numbei).
Each uiffeient type of nucleus is known as a !"#$:;%
34(&%5%& 6*"#7(
<9%#:=:# +5236% * Chaige of a specific paiticle uiviueu by its mass

!"#$%"( &=
1
1
H has a chaige of +1.6ux1u
19
C anu mass of 1.67x1u
-27
Kg hence its specific
chaige = 9.S8x1u
7
CKg
-1

89./"2(.$"' 81#&(,
Cuiient theoiies suggest that theie aie only foui types of inteiaction in the univeise
between paiticles:
o >32?:14 * This foice acts between 2$$ paiticles in the univeise anu has an
infinite iange (howevei ieuuces in stiength accoiuing the inveise squaie law).
At an atomic scale it has negligible influence, as it is the weakest funuamental
foice in the univeise. uiavitation is ,%;:21%; -4 15% 632?:1&' (unuiscoveieu)
o 0$%#13&,26'%1:# @&3#% * This foice acts between 2'4 #5236%; 9231:#$%(A It can
eithei be iepulsive (same chaige) oi attiactive (uiffeient chaiges). The
electiomagnetic foice is iesponsible foi keeping molecules togethei. The
electiomagnetic foice is ,%;:21%; -4 ?:31"2$ 95&1&'(
o B%2C 8'1%32#1:&' * This foice acts on all known feimions oi iathei all paiticle
with a V integei spin (quaiks, leptons anu baiyons but not bosons- elemental
bosons anu baiyons). The weak inteiaction acts ovei a veiy shoit iange
(ioughly an atto-metei 1x1u
-18
). 0vei this iange it is many times stiongei than
giavitation (ioughly 1u
SS
). The weak inteiaction is iesponsible foi
electiomagnetic uecay. The weak inteiaction is ,%;:21%; -4 B 2'; D E&(&'(
(elemental paiticles)
o <13&'6 8'1%32#1:&' * This foice is obseivable in two aieas. 0n the smallei scale
the stiong inteiaction is iesponsible foi holuing quaiks togethei in hauions, on
the laigei scale it binus piotons anu neutions togethei insiue the atomic
nucleolus (when talkeu about in teims of binuing piotons anu neutions
togethei it is iefeiieu to as the stiong nucleai foice oi the iesiuual stiong foice).
The stiong foice -:';:'6 F"23C( 1&6%15%3 :( ,%;:21%; -4 6$"&'(, while the
,%;:21&3 3%(9&'(:-$% =&3 -:';:'6 93&1&'( 2'; '%"13&'( 1&6%15%3 :( 15%
G:&' &3 G: H%(&'
3$#1.7 :9&'("# 81#&( !"#$%&'() +,-./0 1.-2#3
0veicomes the electiostatic iepulsion
between
Keeps the nucleus stable
Attiactive between 4-u.4fm (Femto-
Netie = 1x1u
-1S
m) anu iepulsive below
u.Sfm (otheiwise the nucleus woulu
collapse anu be point like)
Keep all nucleons togethei not just
piotons
The meuiatois of the nucleai foice aie
Pions oi Pi Nesons ( !
0
)
Also calleu the iesiuual stiong foice (as the stiong nucleai is ielateu to the stiong foice),
the stiong nucleai foice is iesponsible foi keeping nucleons togethei while the stiong
foice is iesponsible foi keeping quaiks togethei (meuiatoi - uluons)
;"/%1"&$%<( /(&"+
0'4*" =(&"+
Release alpha paiticles (positively chaigeu helium ions)
2
4
!
2+

Reuuces mass numbei of a nucleus by 4 anu atomic numbei by 2 hence:
Z
A
X !
2
4
!
2+
+
Z"2
A"4
X

>($" =(&"+
2 types of Beta Rauiation: !
+
anu !
!

4
5
6#2(7 !8.$%,-./3
Pioton uecays into a neution emitting an election neutiino anu a position:
p !n +v
e
+e
+

4
9
6#2(7
Neution uecays into a pioton emitting an election anu an election anti-neutiino:
n ! p+Ve +e
"

9<>!D 617 16<E! !;!:>7<3 3!4>7?3< ?3F?:1>!F >G1> ?> ?2 >G! 13>?HB17>?:;! :<43>!7B17>I >G! !;!:>7<3
F<!2 3<> A<;;<J >G?2 74;! 13F ?32>!1F >G! B<2?>7<3 ?2 2G<J3 6K 1 :G13L! <A :G17L!
?"22" ;"/%"$%1.
When alpha oi beta uecay occuis the nucleus is usually left in an exciteu state it
subsequently ieleases a high eneigy photon (gamma paiticle) to ieuuce this eneigy
Photon
!
- no mass anu no chaige
@'(&$#12"7.($%& A"<(, B !*1$1.,
The speeu of the wave is given by: c = f !
Fiequency by:
c
!
= f
Photons aie emitteu when:
o Fast moving election
stoppeu
o Election "jumps" fiom
highei quantum level
(shell) in an atom to a
lowei one
The eneigy of a election can be
given by:
E = hf

9<>!D JG!7! G # M;13:NO2 :<32>13> &%&PQ$'
HP*

/2 c = f ! >G?2 :13 1;2< :13 6! 2G<J3 12D
E =
hc
!

A lasei beam consists of photons of the same fiequency hence it can be shown that:
E = nhf
!"#$%&'(, "./ 0.$%B!"#$%&'(,
When a paiticle anu its coiiesponuing anti-paiticle meet they annihilate anu aie
conveiteu completely into eneigy (founu by E=mc
2
)
It is also possible foi a photon of a high enough eneigy to spontaneously change to a
paiticle anu its anti-paiticle counteipait; this is known as Paii piouuction
Eneigy of a paiticle is usually measuie in Nev (millions of election volts) anu is uefineu
as the eneigy iequiieu to acceleiate an election thiough the potential uiffeience of 1
volt. 1 Nev = 1.6ux1u
-1S
}
I'1:79231:#$%(J
o Same iest mass as coiiesponuing paiticle
o Same iest eneigy as coiiesponuing paiticles
o 0pposite chaige (if the coiiesponuing paiticle has chaige)

9<>!D /3>?B17>?:;!2 17! 4241;;K F!3<>!F J?>G 1 ;?3! 16<E! @V
e
is an election anti-neutiino) with the
exception of the position (anti-election), which is uenoteu by e
+


Rest Eneigy (eneigy when stationaiy) of a paiticle can be founu by E = mc
2
, wheie m
is the mass of the paiticle when stationaiy anu c is the speeu of light
!"%# 4#1/9&$%1.
This occuis when a photon with a high enough eneigy changes into a paiticle anu its
coiiesponuing anti-paiticle

As one photon tuins into 2 paiticles, using E=mc
2
,
the photon must have at least the iest eneigy of the
2 paiticles that it tuins into, hence:
E
0
= mc
2

/2 ( B17>?:;!2 17! B7<F4:!F
2E
0
= 2(mc
2
)

RG!7!A<7 >G! !3!7LK <A >G! BG<><3 542> 6!D
G2:3 G3&;"#1:&' K:2632, .'&1 @%4',2'
;:2632,/
E
!
= 2E
0

12
E = hf

hf = 2E
0


0..%*%'"$%1.
This occuis when a paiticle anu its coiiesponuing anti-paiticle meet anu conveit
themselves to eneigy in the foim of 2 photons as seen in uiagiam.
As 2 photons aie piouuceu using the
equations above it can be shown:
2E
!
= 2E
0

S!3:!D
E = mc
2

hf = E
0

!"#$%&'( -.$(#"&$%1.
@'(&$#12"7.($%& 81#&(
0ccuis only between chaigeu paiticles:
o 0pposite chaiges attiact
o Same chaiges iepel
The H%;:21&3( of the foice aie viitual photons; they aie calleu so as we cannot uiiectly
uetect them as if we uiu we woulu stop the foice fiom occuiiing.
A("C :9&'("# 81#&(
Responsible foi Beta uecay (both types)
Weak inteiaction only occuis with leptons anu hauions, this explains why neutiinos aie
so ieluctant to ieact with anything
The H%;:21&3( of this foice aie bosons of which theie aie S types: W
+
W
-
anu Z, The W
bosons aie each otheis iespective anti-paiticle (opposite chaiges) while the Z boson is
its own anu subsequently has no chaige (Z bosons aie not coveieu in the specification).
B E&(&'(J
o Non-zeio iest mass
o Shoit iange; Bosons aie ielatively massive anu consequently aie high in eneigy
which means they have a shoit lifetime which leaus to them only being able to
act ovei small uistances (typically 1u
-17
m)

I'':5:$21:&' K:2632, .'&1 @%4',2'
;:2632,/
8(+.2". =%"7#"2,
Paiticle inteiactions anu uecays can be iepiesenteu visually by the means of a Feynman
uiagiam (names aftei Richaiu P. Feynman)
The inteiaction is iepiesenteu on the uiagiam as followeu:
o Following fiom the bottom to the top of the uiagiam
shows the inteiaction'suecay's change with time
o The othei axis (left to iight) shows the paiticles position
in space at any given time

R?5!
TB1:!

:#',-./9:#',-%/. ;/,#-(2,%./

Note: Neuiatoi (W Boson) is eithei
positively oi negatively chaigeu uepenuing
upon on the chaige change of the paiticles
involveu
<-.,./9=/,%9:#',-%/. ;/,#-(2,%./








>#,( <)'$ 6#2(7



Note: the W
+
boson uecays into a
+
anu a
Election Neutiino

>#,( ?%/'$ 6#2(7



Note: the W
-
boson uecays into a
-
anu a
Election Anti-Neutiino
@)#2,-./ !A .- B3 C(8,'-#
This occuis when a pioton iich nucleus tuins a pioton into a neution by captuiing an
election fiom the K oi L shell (1
st
anu 2
nu
shell iespectively)
This piocess can also occui when a pioton anu an election colliue howevei if the
election has sufficient eneigy a uiffeient inteiaction will occui wheie a W
-
Boson is
exchangeu fiom the election to the pioton










































e
6'",,%5%&"$%1. 15 !"#$%&'(,
We can classify all types of paiticles accoiuing to theii spin: (spin is a chaiacteiistic
piopeity of elemental paiticles; just as chaige is):
o @%3,:&'(
! Bave half-integei spin, i.e. a multiple of
1
2

! Can be a elementaiy oi composite paiticle (composite paiticles aie
maue up of a numbei of elementaiy paiticles)
! All known feimions aie Biiac feimions, that is foi eveiy paiticle theie is
a uistinct anti-paiticle (a paiticle with ceitain opposite piopeities such
as chaige)
! Feimions aie the basic "builuing blocks" of mattei - they make up
piotons anu neutions anu incluue elections which togethei is the
composition of atoms
! 12 types of feimions (ignoiing anti-paiticles), 6 quaiks anu six leptons
o E&(&'(
! Bave integei spin
! The funuamental foices of natuie (electiomagnetism, stiong anu weak
inteiaction anu giavitation) aie calleu gauge bosons
! Can be a elementaiy oi composite paiticle (composite paiticles aie
maue up of a numbei of elementaiy paiticles)

Nattei anu Anti-Nattei
U2 51F! 4B <AD
P V417N2 A<75
>G! G1F7<3
L7<4BD
/ V417NH/3>?H
V417N M1?7
A<752 >G!
G1F7<3 L7<4BD
RG!7! 17! & W!B><32I P 3!L1>?E!;K
:G17L!F ;!B><32 !1:G J?>G >G!?7 <J3
122<:?1>!F 43:G17L!F 9!4>7?3<
Quaiks
X;122!F 12 Y!75?<32 H Z U3>!L!7
TB?3
[G!3 :<56?3!F A<75 S1F7<32D

Leptons
X;122!F 12 1 Y!75?<3 H Z
U3>!L!7 TB?3
Nesons
X;122!F 12 6<2<32 H ?3>!L!7 2B?3
Baiyons
X;122!F 12 A!75?<32 H Z ?3>!L!7
2B?3
U3:;4F! B7<><32I 3!4>7<32 13F >G!?7
13>?B17>?:;!2
U3:;4F!2 >G! \1<3 13F >G! M?<3
@0!F?1><7 <A >G! 2>7<3L 34:;!17 A<7:!C
@'(2(.$"#+ !"#$%&'(,
0$%,%'1234 9231:#$%( * aie funuamental paiticles that have no inteinal stiuctuie, they
aie the "builuing blocks" of eveiything, just as we think of elements as "builuing blocks"
of molecules
Elementaiy paiticles can be sepaiateu into eithei bosons oi mesons (uepenuing upon
theii spin) as we saw above mesons have half integei spin while bosons have whole
integei spin
We can theii foi split the elementaiy paiticles uepenuent upon if they aie bosons oi
mesons:
o @%3,:&'( * L <%92321% 149%( &= 0$%,%'12$ @%3,:&'J
! Quaiks (6 types anu 6 coiiesponuing anti-paiticles)
! Leptons (6 types anu 6 coiiesponuing anti-paiticles)
o E&(&'( * M 149% &= 0$%,%'12$ E&(&'J
! Theie aie 6 elemental bosons anu they aie just iefeiieu to as bosons
! The funuamental foices of natuie (electiomagnetism, stiong anu weak
inteiaction anu giavitation) aie meuiateu by a special gioup of
elemental bosons iefeiieu to as gauge bosons
1#-D%./$

Naue up of 6 leptons anu 6 quaiks (anu theii coiiesponuing antipaiticle)
!"#$%&'

Leptons aie funuamental paiticles with no inteinal stiuctuie
They aie not effecteu by the stiong inteiaction
Bave half integei spin
The leptons iespective antipaiticles aie the 2'1:$%91&'( which aie iuentical expect foi
the fact they caiiy the &99&(:1% %$%#13:#2$ #5236% anu &99&(:1% $%91&' '",-%3
Theie aie 6 leptons in total, the thiee chaigeu leptons aie calleu %$%#13&'7$:C% $%91&'(
while the neutial leptons aie calleu '%"13:'&(
The leptons anu some chaiacteiistic piopeities:

G231:#$% <4,-&$ +5236%
.8' 1%3,( &=
%$%,%'12$
#5236%/
H2((
.8' 1%3,(
&= 15%
%$%#13&'/
N%91&'
!",-%3
N%91&'
0$%#13&'
!",-%3
N%91&'
H"&'
!",-%3
N%91&'
O2"
!",-%3
Election e -1 1 +1 +1 u u
Election
Neutiino
V
e

u Neai
Zeio
+1 +1 u u
Nuon

-1 2u7 +1 u +1 u
Nuon
Neutiino
V

u Neai
Zeio
+1 u +1 u
Tau ! -1 SSuu +1 u u +1
Tau
Neutiino
V
!

u Neai
Zeio
+1 u u +1
9<>!D /;; 3!4>7?3<2 G1E! 3< :G17L!I 13F 1;; <>G!7 ;!B><32 G1E! :G17L! <A H$ @7!;1>?E! >< !C
Although a table of lepton numbei will be given in the exam iemembei that all leptons
have a lepton numbei of +1 anu all anti-leptons have a lepton numbei of -1, the election
anu the election neutiino have an election lepton numbei of +1 while theii anti-paiticle
countei-paits have an election numbei of -1 (this also applies in the same way the muon
anu tau lepton numbei)

)*+,-'

The builuing blocks of all hauions (composite paiticles - ones maue out of a combination
of funuamental)
Bave half-integei spin
Quaiks can nevei be founu by themselves uue to coloui confinement (baseu upon
anothei chaiacteiistic piopeity: coloui)
The quaiks anu some chaiacteiistic piopeities:

!2,% <4,-&$ I'1:7
G231:#$%
+5236%
.8' 1%3,( &=
%$%,%'12$
#5236%/
H2((
.H%PQ#
L
/
E234&'
!",-%3
<132'6%'%((
0p u
u +
2
3

1.S-S.S
+
1
3

u
Bown
d
d !
1
3

S.4-6.u
+
1
3

u
Chaim c
c +
2
3

116u-
1S4u
+
1
3

u
Stiange s
s !
1
3

7u-1Su
+
1
3
-1 (+1 foi s )
Top t
t +
2
3

1691uu-
17SSSu
+
1
3

u
Bottom
b
b !
1
3

41Su-
4S7u
+
1
3

u

All of the associateu anti-quaiks have opposite chaige, baiyon numbei anu stiangeness
0p anu uown quaiks have the lowest masses anu the othei quaiks iapiuly change into
up anu uown quaiks
Note: only up uown anu stiange quaik chaiacteiistics neeueu foi exam
>.$./$

Neuiatoi paiticles (ones that aie exchange paiticles foi the funuamental foices of
natuie) aie calleu gauge bosons
The bosons anu some chaiacteiistic piopeities:

G231:#$% <4,-&$ I'1:7
G231:#$%
+5236%
.8' 1%3,( &=
%$%,%'12$
#5236%/
8'1%32#1:&'
H%;:21%;
0R:(1%'#%
Photon
!
Self u Electiomagnetic
(viitual Photon)
Confiimeu
W Boson
W
!

+
1
3

-1 ( W
+
+1) Weak
Inteiaction
Confiimeu
Z Boson Z Self u Weak
Inteiactions
Confiimeu
Biggs
Boson
H
0

Self u None 0nconfiimeu
uluon
g
Self u Stiong
Inteiaction
Confiimeu
uiaviton G Self u uiavitation 0nconfiimeu
9<>!D ]3;K 6<2<3 >< G1E! 13 13>?B17>?:;! ?2 >G! [ 6<2<3

61241,%$( !"#$%&'(,

Composite paiticles aie paiticles that aie maue out of othei elemental paiticles bounu
togethei, piotons anu neutions aie composite paiticles as aie atoms anu even molecules
E(&-./$
Bauions aie stiong-inteiacting composite paiticles
Bauions aie eithei:
o Composite feimions (half integei spin), these aie calleu baiyons
o Composite bosons (integei spin), these aie calleu mesons
All known hauions aie composeu of quaiks anu antiquaiks
.+,/%&' 01",23%&'4
Baiyons have half integei spin
They aie maue up of thiee quaiks (helu togethei by the stiong foice)
Anti-Baiyons aie maue up of the anti-paiticle paitneis of the iespective quaiks in the
noimal baiyon
As eveiy quaik has a baiyon numbei of +
1
3
, any baiyon has a baiyon numbei of +1 (as
a baiyon is maue up of S quaiks). Likewise an anti-quaik has a baiyon numbei of !
1
3
,
theiefoi an anti-baiyon has a baiyon numbei of -1 (as maue up of S anti-quaiks)
I G3&1&' * has 2 up quaiks anu a uown quaik shown by uud
I !%"13&' * has 2 uown quaiks anu an up quaik udd
I' I'1:-G3&1&' * has 2 anti-up quaiks anu one anti-uown quaik udd
The pioton is the only stable baiyon, even a A7!! neution (outsiue an nucleus) uecays
into a pioton ieleasing an election anu an election anti-neutiino as in !
!

)*+,-' +&5 ."$+ 6"7+/
In the exam may be expecteu to iepiesent !
!
oi !
+
with iegaiu to quaik change apposeu to baiyon change
As stateu befoie !
!
is a neution uecaying into a pioton
with the emission of an election anu a anti-election
neutiino, in this uecay a uown quaik is tuining into an
up quaik which changes the quaik composition fiom
uuu (a neution) to uuu (a pioton). This change in
quaik composition can be iepiesenteu in the Feynman
uiagiam to the iight






!
+
uecay is a pioton uecaying into a neution
emitting a position anu an election neutiino. In
this uecay an up quaik changes into a uown
quaik. This changes the quaik composition fiom
uuu (a pioton) to uuu (a neution). This change
in quaik composition can be iepiesenteu in the
Feynman uiagiam to the left


8935"&7" 1%, :;,""<)*+,- =%5">
The fiist eviuence foi the thiee quaik mouel (thiee quaiks being combineu to make a
noimal composite feimion) was in the Stanfoiu lineai acceleiatoi
The elections colliue at high speeu with piotons, the iesults showeu that the elections
weie scatteieu by thiee scatteiing centies in each atom
.+,/%& ?7$"$ 083@;$1%>5 A+/4
The family of baiyons with V spin composeu of the up, uown anu stiange quaiks can be
iepiesenteu in a 0ctet:
The !
0
anu !paiticles uiffei only in
eneigy












="'%&' 0B%'%&'4

Nesons have integei spin anu aie theiefoi bosons
Theie aie maue up of moie than one elemental paiticles anu aie theiefoi composite
bosons
Nesons aie maue up of one
quaik anu one anti-quaik

The family of mesons with
spin=u can be iepiesenteu in a
nonet seen to the iight

The K seiies of mesons aie
known as the Kaons

The ! of seiies aie known as
the Pions

Notice that theie S unchaigeu
mesons ( K
0
, K
0
, !
0
)

Foi the exam the pion anu
kaon composition is neeueu to
be known




ds us
du
uu, dd, ss ud
su sd
61.,(#<"$%1. ;9'(,
All paiticles obey ceitain conseivation iules when they inteiact.
61.,(#<"$%1. 15 @.(#7+
As in all changes in science, not juts paiticle inteiactions anu uecays, the amount of
eneigy iemains fixeu in a system
This also applies to the "iest eneigy" of a paiticle (eneigy may be seen to have been lost
howevei this "lost" eneigy may have been conveiteu into mass following the iule
E = mc
2

No exceptions have been founu foi this law
61.,(#<"$%1. 15 6*"#7(
In any inteiaction oi uecay the total of the chaiges of the paiticles befoie the inteiaction
oi uecay is the same as the total of the chaiges of the paiticles afteiwaius
No exceptions have been founu to this law
61.,(#<"$%1., 15 D(4$1. :92E(#
In any change, the total lepton numbei foi each lepton bianch befoie the change is equal
to the total lepton numbei foi that bianch aftei the change
All leptons have lepton numbei +1
All anti-leptons have lepton numbei -1
Conseivation of the bianch of lepton also applies:
o Lepton election, muon anu tau numbei is always conseiveu
o This can be useful to finu out which type of neutiinos aie emitteu uuiing ceitain
uecays
61.,(#<"$%1. 15 3$#".7(.(,,
In any (13&'6 :'1%32#1:&' stiangeness is always conseiveu
The total of all the stiangeness of the paiticles befoie the change is equal to the total
stiangeness of the paiticles aftei the change
It is not conseiveu howevei when the weak inteiaction is involveu
61.,(#<"$%1. 15 >"#+1. :92E(#
In any change the baiyon numbei befoie the change is equal to the lepton numbei aftei
the change
All baiyons have baiyon numbei +1
All anti-baiyons have baiyon numbei -1
All mesons oi leptons have baiyon numbei u
This can be also thought of thiough quaik change as each quaik has baiyon numbei
+1S





F9".$92 !*(.12(."
@'(&$#12"7.($%& A"<(,
The electiic anu magnetic fielus aie peipenuiculai both to each othei anu the uiiection
of piopagation of the paiticle
Theie is no neeu foi a meuium foi an electiomagnetic wave to tiavel thiough
B2?%$%'615 * Befineu as the uistance between 2 aujacent points in phase in a wave
G%3:&; * The peiiou of a wave is uefineu as the time taken foi one whole wave to pass a
point thiough space:

P =
1
f

B2?% <9%%; * Speeu of the waves is equal to uistance tiavelleu by wave in one cycle
uiviueu by time taken foi one cycle
C =
!
1
f
Theiefoi c = f !

G*( !*1$1('(&$#%& @55(&$
The photoelectiic effect is a type of quantum phenomena that shows that light can
behave as a paiticle as well as a wave (the photoelectiic effect can only be explaineu
with iegaius to light acting as paiticles oi "Quanta" of eneigy)


Expeiiments showeu that when a light was shineu on
a metal elections coulu be emitteu fiom the suiface of
metal howevei the emission of these elections weie
uepenuent of seveial factois:
o Photoelectiic emission of elections fiom a
metal suiface uoes not take place if the
fiequency of the inciuent electiomagnetic
iauiation is below a ceitain value known as
the 153%(5&$; =3%F"%'#4S the thiesholu
fiequency is uepenuent on the type of metal
useu
9<>!D 12 c = f !
the wavelength of that inciuent light has to below a maximum
value

o The numbei of elections emitteu pei seconu is piopoitional to the intensity of
the electiomagnetic iauiation that is that the fiequency of that electiomagnetic
iauiation is above the thiesholu fiequency as uiscusseu befoie
o Photoelectiic emission occuis instantaneously pioviueu the fiequency of the
inciuent electiomagnetic iauiation is above the thiesholu fiequency
@H4'"."$%1. 15 $*( !*1$1('(&$#%& @55(&$ I G*( !*1$1. J1/(' 15 D%7*$
If electiomagnetic iauiation is to be assumeu to be composeu of packets of eneigy;
photons oi "quanta" of eneigy, then the eneigy of each photon can be founu using the
following foimula:
E = hf

9<>!D JG!7! G # M;13:NO2 :<32>13> &%&PQ$'
HP*
13F A ?2 >G! A7!^4!3:K <A >G! !;!:>7<51L3!>?:
71F?1>?<3
When light is inciuent on a metal suiface, an election at the suiface absoibs a (:'6$%
photon fiom the inciuent light anu theiefoi gains eneigy equal to GAI as calculateu using
the foimula above
An election can leave the metal suiface if the eneigy gaineu by the single photon exceeus
the T&3C ="'#1:&'S ! , of the metal. This is the minimum eneigy neeueu foi an election
to escape fiom the metal's suiface
Bence it can be seen hat the maximum kinetic eneigy of an emitteu election follows:
E
k(Max)
= hf !!

Emission can take place at a suiface at zeio potential as long as the election emitteu has
some kinetic eneigy: E
k(Max)
> 0
The B&3C @"'#1:&' of a metal is ielateu to the O53%(5&$; =3%F"%'#4J
f
min
=
!
h

9<>!D JG!7! G # M;13:NO2 :<32>13> &%&PQ$'
HP*


An election may have eneigy less than the maximum kinetic eneigy of pieuicteu by the
foimula as the election may not be iemoveu fiom the suiface of the metal it may be
within the metal theiefoi in oiuei foi the election to escape the metal it has to move
thiough the metal, uoing woik anu theiefoi losing eneigy in the piocess theiefoi the
eneigy it has on leaving the suiface of the metal will not be equal to the eneigy it
absoibeu fiom the photon (iemembei that &'% photon hits &'% election giving it all the
eneigy it hau)

G*( !*1$1('(&$#%& @55(&$ ;(4#(,(.$(/ 1. " ?#"4*
If the maximum kinetic eneigies of the emitteu elections at uiffeient fiequencies aie
known the woik function anu thiesholu fiequency of that metal can be calculateu by
means of a giaphical methou:

9<>!D _71BG2 1Q!2 17! 3<> >< 2:1;!
The veitical axis iepiesents the eneigy of the election that has been emitteu
o A positive eneigy iepiesents the kinetic eneigy of the election emitteu
o A negative eneigy iepiesents how much eneigy the election (that absoibs a 1
photon) is lacking fiom being able to escape the metal (we'ie not talking about
bonus heie as a metal's outei elections aie unbounu anyway)
The hoiizontal axis iepiesents the fiequency of the light stiiking the metal
We can use the giaph to finu seveial things:
o The x-inteicept of the giaph iepiesents the thiesholu fiequency of the metal,
this makes sense as an emitteu election will have zeio kinetic eneigy if it has
just absoibeu a photon of the thiesholu fiequency
o The y inteicept iepiesents the negative value of the woik function of that
mateiial; this again makes sense as if theie aie no photons hitting the metal
(this is the same as light of uBz) the election woulu have gaineu no eneigy anu
theiefoi woulu neeu a ceitain amount of eneigy to be emitteu - this is the woik
function
o Looking at the giaph the giauient iepiesents the change in eneigy uiviueu by
the change in fiequency, that is if the fiequency incieaseu by 1 Bz that eneigy
woulu also inciease by the giauients values:
`2?3L >G! !^41>?<3D
E = hf

a!17713L?3L >< A?3F GD
h =
E
f

/2
E
f
7!B7!2!3>2 >G! L71F?!3> <A >G! L71BG ?> :13 6! 2!!3 >G1> >G! L71F?!3> <A >G! L71BG 7!B7!2!3>2 G
b M;13NO2 X<32>13>c

61''%,%1., 15 @'(&$#1., K%$* 0$12,
G*( @'(&$#1. L1'$
The election volt is a unit of eneigy, anu is useu especially in atomic anu nucleai physics
wheie the eneigies that aie sueu aie veiy small
O5% %$%#13&' ?&$1 - is uefineu as the amount of eneigy gaineu by an election as it is
acceleiateu thiough a potential uiffeience of 1 volt
1eV =1.6 !10
"19
J

9<>! G<J >G! !;!:>7<3 E<;> ?2 :;<2!;K 7!;1>!F >< >G! !;!5!3>17K :G17L!

@H&%$"$%1. "./ -1.%,"$%1.
If a vapoiiseu sample of an element has an electiic cuiient passeu thiough it some of the
elections of the atoms of that element may absoib some eneigy as a iesult of a collision
with the electiic cuiient passing thiough the vapoui
When elections aie in theii lowest-eneigy states, an atoms is saiu to be in its 63&"';
(121%
0R#:121:&' is when an atomic election gains eneigy anu as a iesults moves to a highei
quantum state (electionic oibit)
8&':(21:&' is when an atomic election gains so much eneigy that it can bieak fiee of the
atom anu become totally uissociateu fiom the atom
8&'( aie chaigeu atom, they can be foimeu when elections aie iemoveu oi auueu
A negative ion is foimeu wheie theie aie moie elections that piotons
A positive ion is foimeu when theie aie moie piotons than elections
D%.( 34(&$#"
When an electiic cuiient (stieam of elections) is passeu thiough a vapoui of an element,
the elections colliue with the atoms of the vapoui anu light is given off (note: othei ways
of exciting the vapoui also exist such as light anu heat)
The light emitteu can be sepaiateu into inuiviuual lines of uiffeiing wavelengths by using
a uiffiaction giating (the angle a ceitain wavelength of light gets uiffiacteu uepenus
upon on its wavelength anu follows the foimula dsin! = n" anu is useu in unit 2)
This piouuces a $:'% (9%#132
The line spectia of hyuiogen is shown below:



The specific lines of the line spectia can be veiy useful in finuing out how the elections
exist aiounu the nucleus
We can use these spectia lines to look at the "stationaiy states' of the elections aiounu
the nucleus
The election quantum states anu theii coiiesponuing election eneigies foi the hyuiogen
atom can be seen below:
9<>!D >G! !^41>?<32 16<E! 17! 3!!F!F A<7 >G! !Q15I G<J!E!7 ?> 2G<J2 >G1> !;!:>7<32 ?3 >G! ;<J!2>
^413>45 2>1>! @3#$C G1E! >< L1?3 >G! 5<2> !3!7LK >< 6!:<5! A7!! <7 ?<3?2!F @>G! 3!L1>?E! !3!7LK <A
!1:G ^413>45 2>1>! :13 6! >G<4LG> <A 12 >G! !3!7LK 7!^4?7!F >< A7!! >G1> !;!:>7<3 A7<5 >G! 1><5 <7
>< ?<3?2!2 ?>C

As the elections in the atoms aie exciteu by the electiic cuiient they gain eneigy, this
consequently means they can occupy a highei "stationaiy state" oi quantum level,
This howevei uoes not last veiy long anu veiy soon the election goes back to the eneigy
level it was exciteu fiom, as it uiops uown it emits a photon with eneigy equal to the
eneigy it gaineu to get to a highei quantum state (shown in pictuie to the iight), this
emitteu photon is what we see on the line spectia

Theiefoie we can look at the uiffeient spectia lines to unueistanu moie about these
uiffeient quantum states piesent in a atom

!*1$1. @2%,,%1.
As stateu befoie when an election is exciteu to a highei quantum state it uoes not stay
theie long anu soon moves back uown emitting a photon with eneigy
equal the eneigy it gaineu to move up the highei state
We can theiefoi say the eneigy of the photon emitteu when an election
uiops fiom on eneigy level E2 to a lowei eneigy level E1 follows
E
Photon
= E
2
! E
1

9<>!D [G!7! d(Hd$ ?2 >G! B<2?>?E! !;!:>7<3 !3!7LK F?AA!7!3:! 6!>J!!3 >G! (
^413>45 2>1>!2



8'1#(,&(.&(
An atom in an exciteu state can ue-excite uiiectly oi inuiiectly to the giounu state
iegaiuless of how the excitation took place
An atom can absoib photons of ceitain eneigies anu emit photons of the same oi lessei
eneigy
Foi example a election coulu be exciteu up 2 quantum states by one photon but
consequently uiop to the state in-between emitting a photon anu then uiop again uown
to its giounu state again emitting anothei photon (both of these photons woulu have
eneigy less than the oiiginal photon anu theiefoi woulu have a longei wavelength - this
can be linkeu to the emission of longei wavelength visible light when ceitain substances
aie exciteu by 0ltia-violet light)
This oveiall piocess explains why ceitain substances fluoiesce oi glow with visible light
when they absoib 0.v light
1)'.-#$2#/, F'G#
A fluoiescent tube emits visible light when exciteu by the means of an electiic cuiient
Insiue the tube is meicuiy vapoui at low piessuie
The insiue of the tube is coateu with a fluoiescent compounu typically phosphoi
A veiy simplifieu explanation of how the tubes woik:
o When the light tuins on the electioue heats up anu
emits elections
o Ionisation anu excitation of the meicuiy atoms
occuis as the elections emitteu colliue with the
meicuiy's atomic elections
o The meicuiy atoms emit 0ltiaviolet photon as well
as visible photons anu photons of much less eneigy
when they ue-excite
o The ultiaviolet photons aie absoibeu by the inteinal
phosphoi coating causing excitation of theii atomic
elections
o The atomic elections then ue-excite emitting visible
photons

Fluoiescent lamps aie much moie efficient than filament lamps uue to the fact they lose
much less eneigy in the foim of heat (a filament light bulb loses 9u% of the eneigy
supplieu to heat while fluoiescent only a few peicent)
Fluoiescent tubes use meicuiy vapoui at a low piessuie in oiuei to ensuie the elections
gain enough eneigy between collisions foi the collisions to iesult in the iequiieu
excitation of the meicuiy atoms (in oiuei to emit 0v light), as the elections move fiom
one siue to anothei they aie being acceleiateu theiefoi gaining eneigy
A"<( !"#$%&'( =9"'%$+
Light can behave as both paiticles anu waves:
o The wave light natuie is obseiveu thought uiffiaction
o The |paiticle like natuie is obseiveu thiough the photoelectiic effect
J"$$(# A"<(,
If light can behave as a wave, so can othei foims of mattei
Nattei paiticles have a wave-paiticle natuie
The wave-like behavioui of matei is chaiacteiiseu by its wavelength also known as the
K% E3&6$:% B2?%$%'615S which is ielateu to the momentum of the paiticle by the means
of the equation:
! =
h
p

9<>!D JG!7! ! is the Be Bioglie Wavelength of the paiticle, h is Plank's constant (6.67x1u
-S4
) anu
p is the momentum of the paiticle (momentum is founu by the equation: p = mv )
Paiticles that have the (2,% K% E3&6$:% T2?%$%'615 have the (2,% ,&,%'1",!

Paiticles uisplay behavioui of both paiticles anu waves, examples aie:
o Wave natuie is shown in such expeiiments such as uiffiaction giatings
o Paiticle natuie is shown in photoelectiic effect (atomic collisions)


@'(&$#%&%$+
69##(.$ "./ 6*"#7(
Electiic cuiient is uefineu as the iate at which electiically chaigeu paiticles pass a point
in a ciicuit
1 coulomb Pei seconu = 1 Ampeie
I =
!Q
!t

9<>!D [G!7! U ?2 :477!3>I V :G17L! 13F R >?5!

The coulomb is a measuie of chaige
In metallic conuuctois the chaiges paiticles anu fiee elections that tiavel fiom negative
to positive (cathoue to anoue)
Conventional cuiient howevei anu ciicuit uiagiams iegaiu cuiient as tiaveling foim
positive to negative
To make a cuiient flow a potential uiffeience must be piesent between 2 places in the
ciicuit
The magnituue of chaige of 1 election is 1.6x1u
-19
C
@.(#7+ "./ !1$(.$%"' =%55(#(.&(
G&1%'1:2$ K:==%3%'#% &3 ?&$126% is uefineu as the eneigy oi woik uone pei unit chaige
It is measuieu in volts, 1 volt is uefineu as 1 joule of eneigy tiansfeiieu to one coulomb
of chaigeu paiticles
V =
W
Q
oi
W = QV

9<>!D JG!7! E ?2 E<;>1L!I J ?2 >G! J<7N F<3! ?3 5<E?3L >G! :G17L!F B17>?:;!2 13F ^ ?2 >G! ><>1;
:G17L! <A >G! :G17L!F B17>?:;!2
The %,= of a souice of electiicity is uefineu as the electiical eneigy piouuceu pei unit
chaige passing thiough the souice. The unit of emf is the volt
@'(&$#%&"' !1K(# "./ 69##(.$
As Q= I!t (fiom uefinition of an amp) anu W = QV we can see that:
W = I!tV
Also because powei is the iate of eneigy tiansfei (woik uone pei unit time) oi
p =
!E
!t
(wheie E is eneigy) we can see that:
p =
I!tV
!t

p = IV

Also usingV = IR we can sub v into p = IV to give:
p = I
2
R

0sing R =
V
I
we can again sub into to p = IV give:
p =
V
2
R



;(,%,$".&(
U%(:(12'#% is a measuie of the uifficulty of passing a cuiient2 thiough a ceitain
mateiial, the laigei the iesistance the laigei the voltage neeueu to piouuce a specific
cuiient in that mateiial
!"#$#%&'(" !
!"#$%#&"%'( !"##$%&'($ !"#$%% !"#$"%&%'
!"##$%& !"##$%& !!!"#$! !"#$"%&'&(


V5,( $2T states that the pu acioss a metallic conuuctoi is piopoitional to the cuiient
thiough it pioviueu the physical conuitions uo not change (tempeiatuie etc.)
R =
V
I

V = IR


;(,%,$%<%$+
Two factois that effect the iesistance if a conuuctoi aie its length anu its cioss sectional
aiea
! =
RA
L

[G!7! a ?2 1 L?E!3 7!2?2>13:! E1;4!I / ?2 >G! :7<22 2!:>?<3 17!1 13F W ?2 >G! ;!3L>G <A >G! J?7!


9<>!D [G!3 >1N?3L >G! F?15!>!7 <A >G! J?7!I >1N! 2!E!71; 7!1F?3L 13F >1N! >G! 1E!71L! >< 7!F4:!
?31::471:?!2

1mm=1!10
"3
m
1mm
2
=1!10
"6
m
2


394(#&1./9&$%<%$+
A supeiconuuctive mateiial is one that has zeio iesistivity when its tempeiatuie uiops
below a ciitical value (also calleu tiansition tempeiatuie)
When a cuiient passes thiough a
supeiconuuctoi, theie is no potential uiffeience
acioss it as the iesistance is zeio
As iesistance is zeio theie is no eneigy loss
Supeiconuuctois aie useu to make high-powei
electiomagnets that geneiate veiy stiong
electiomagnetic fielus anu to ieuuce eneigy loss
in eneigy tiansfei thiough wiies
Supeiconuuctois aie only ieally useful if the
eneigy saveu is less than the eneigy iequiieu to maintain the supeiconuuctoi at oi
below the ciitical tempeiatuie
G(24(#"$9#( "./ ;(,%,$".&( %. 61./9&$1#, "./ G*(#2%,$1#,
8' ,%12$$:# #&';"#1&3( as the tempeiatuie incieases the metal's vibiating positive ions
gain eneigy anu theiefoi vibiate moie, the iesult of this is that the negative chaige
caiiieis (elections) colliue moie with these positive ions the moie they vibiate. As the
tempeiatuie incieases in a metallic conuuctoi so uoes the iesistance
A =
!d
2
4
= !r
2
8' 15%3,:(1&3( a small change in tempeiatuie iesults in a laige change in iesistance.
Theimistois have a '%621:?% 1%,9%321"3% #&%==:#:%'1 .!O+/ if the theimistoi is an
intiinsic semi-conuuctoi such as siliconW as the tempeiatuie of the theimistoi incieases
the iesistance uecieases. At highei tempeiatuies the ions of the semi-conuuctoi vibiate
moie anu moie, this woulu noimally cause the iesistance to iise howevei as the
theimalkinetic eneigy of the ions incieases it is enough to ielease moie anu moie
chaige caiiieis (elections). Although collisions aie moie fiequent the ielease of
conuuction elections is uominant effect theiefoi iesistance actually uecieases.
J(",9#%.7 ;(,%,$%<%$+ 15 " 61./9&$1#
H$%/0 ( I(-%(G)# -#$%$,.-
We can vaiy the iesistance of the vaiiable iesistoi to vaiy the cuiient anu voltage
ieaching the conuuctoi, we can use this to obtain an aveiage iesistance foi a set length of
the conuuctoi (using V = IR )
We can vaiy the length of the conuuctoi to give us uiffeient values foi iesistivity anu
calculate an aveiage (using
! =
RA
L
)
H$%/0 ( <.,#/,%() &%I%&#- !<.,#/,%.D#,#-3
We can uo the same as befoie using the potentiometei to vaiy the cuiient anu voltage
ieaching the conuuctoi anu also vaiy the length of the conuuctoi
Bowevei the benefit of using a potential uiviuei is we can set the voltage thoiough the
conuuctoi to zeio while with a vaiiable iesistoi we can just set it to the minimum
61241.(.$, 0./ 6*"#"&$(#%,$%&,
An V5,:# #&,9&'%'1 is one that obeys ohm's law; the giaph of voltage anu cuiient will
be a stiaight line as voltage is piopoitional to cuiient in an 0hmic conuuctoi
61221. 61241.(.$,

Both L.E.Bs anu uioues have theie aiiows following conventional cuiient; foiwaiu
biaseu the aiiow points fiom negative to positive teiminals
Theimistois have a '%621:?% 1%,9%321"3% #&%==:#:%'1 .!O+/ if the theimistoi is an
intiinsic semi-conuuctoi such as siliconW as the tempeiatuie of the theimistoi incieases
the iesistance uecieases.
The iesistance of a light uepenuent iesistoi uecieases with incieasing light intensity
The laigei line of the cell symbol iepiesents the positive teiminal with the shoitei siue
iepiesenting the negative enu
All symbols aie useu with iespect to conventional cuiient: positive to negative

6*"#"&$(#%,$%&, 15 " A%#( 1# ;(,%,$1# MN*2%& 61./9&$1#O
voltage always piopoitional to cuiient (theiefoi 0hmic Conuuctoi)











6*"#"&$(#%,$%&, 15 " 3(2%B61./9&$1# =%1/( M:1.BN*2%& 61./9&$1#O
<%,:7#&';"#1&3 ;:&;%( only alloweu cuiient to flow in one uiiection anu will only
allow the cuiient to flow above a ceitain voltage (typically u.6v oi u.7v)
The cuive piouuceu of voltage anu Cuiient of a (%,:7#&';"#1&3 ;:&;% will vaiy
uepenuing on which way the cuiient is sent thiough the uioue

@&3T23; E:2(%;
This is wheie the cuiient flowing is in the same uiiection as the uioue the uioue is
uesigneu to allow, shown in the top iight quauiant in the giaph to below (conventional
cuiient flow - positive to negative)
Between uv anu u.7v the uioue has a veiy high
iesistance anu subsequently veiy little cuiient flows
thiough the uioue
Between u.7v anu 1v the iesistance of the uioue
ieuuces massively anu a laige cuiient is now able to
flow, this is shown by a steep iise in the giaph

U%?%3(% E:2(%;
This is wheie the cuiient flowing is in the opposite
uiiection as the uioue the uioue is uesigneu to allow,
shown in the bottom left quauiant of the giaph above
(conventional cuiient flow - positive to negative)
When ieveise biaseu the uioue offeis high iesistance
hence veiy little cuiient flows
At the bieakuown voltage (typically Su-Suuv) the uioue's
iesistance ieuuces anu subsequently a laige cuiient can flow howevei the uioue is
usually uamageu peimanently if the bieakuown voltage point is ieacheu
6*"#"&$(#%,$%&, 15 " 8%'"2(.$ D"24 M:1.BN*2%& 61./9&$1#O
Initially obeys ohms law as voltagecuiient is a stiaight line showing piopoitionality
howevei becomes less anu less steep as cuiient
incieases
This occuis because as the cuiient incieases the eneigy
tiansfei to the filament incieases causing the filament to
heat up, this subsequently causes the iesistance to
incieases
As V = IR if the iesistance incieases moie anu moie
voltage is iequiieu to inciease the cuiient hence the
cuive become less steep
Filament bulbs moie likely to fail when fiist tuineu on as
the cuiient is gieatest initially (low iesistance which
incieases with temp) theiefoie the heating effect is laigest initially theiefoi filament
moie likely to melt initially
Bieakuown voltage
(Su-Suuv)
U%?%3(% E:2(%;
@&3T23; E:2(%;
Note: Axes of giaph aie out of piopoition (foi exam bieakuown
voltage is not neeueu to be shown)
6%#&9%$ ;9'(,
3(#%(, ;(,%,$1# 6%#&9%$,
In seiies the same cuiient flows thoiough all components uue to conseivation of chaige










We can theiefoi geneialise that in seiies ciicuits:
V
total
=V
1
+V
2
+V
3
+... +V
n

T466?3L ?3>< >G! !^41>?<3 V = IR @U ?2 1;2< :<32>13> F4! >< :<32!7E1>?<3 <A :G17L!C D
R
total
= R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3
+... + R
n

8' (%3:%(J <2,% +"33%'1 153&"65 2$$ #&,9&'%'1(S ;:==%3%'1 9&1%'1:2$ ;:==%3%'#% 2#3&((
:';:?:;"2$ #&,9&'%'1(
!"#"''(' ;(,%,$1# 6%#&9%$,
In paiallel ciicuits each component has the same potential uiffeience


















We can also geneialise foi iesistois in seiies:
I
total
= I
1
+ I
2
+ I
3
+... + I
n

T466?3L ?3>< >G! !^41>?<3
I =
V
R
@e ?2 1;2< :<32>13>CD
1
R
total
=
1
R
1
+
1
R
2
+
1
R
3
+... +
1
R
n


8' 9232$$%$J <2,% 9&1%'1:2$ ;:==%3%'#% 153&"65 15% X-32'#5%(YS ;:==%3%'1 #"33%'1 153&"65
%2#5 X-32'#5Y

R1 R2
vtotal
v1 v2 vS
U
RS
IS

R1
R2
v1
vtotal
vS
v2
Itotal
I1

I2

R1
P%#&**155Q, 6%#&9%$ D"K,
P%#&**155Q, 69##(.$ D"K

States that the algebiaic sum of cuiients flowing into a junction is equal to
zeio
Cuiient flowing into a junction is iegaiueu as positive while cuiient
tiavelling away is iegaiueu as negative
I
!
= 0

P%#&**155Q, L1'$"7( D"K

In any closeu loop the algebiaic sum of the !5A @!;!:>7<5<>?E!
A<7:!C is equal to algebiaic sum of the potential uiops (voltage uiops) in that loop. As the
voltage can by founu by the piouuct of Cuiient anu Resistance:
!
!
= V
!

9<>!D JG!7! ! is emf anu v is the voltage uiop
Caie shoulu be taken when summing the Emf as if cells aie connecteu the wiong way
iounu to othei cells theie emf woiks against othei cells anu theiefoi that's cells emf is
negative

@J8R@'(&$#121$%<( 81#&( "./ -.$(#."' ;(,%,$".&(

Inteinal iesistance of a souice of electiicity is its opposition to the flow of chaige
! =
W
Q

! is the symbol foi emf anu it is uefineu as the amount of eneigy the cell can pioviue pei
unit of chaige
Teiminal Pu is uefineu as the electiical eneigy pei unit chaige that can be ueliveieu to
the exteinal components
If theie is non-negligible inteinal iesistance of a cell then:
V
terminal
<!
"Lost Pu" is talkeu about as the potential uiffeience acioss the "inteinal iesistoi" hence
as
I =
V
I

I =
!
R+r


! = I(R+r)

9<>!D JG!7! ! ?2 >G! !5AI a ?2 >G! ><>1; !Q>!731; 7!2?2>13:! 13F 7 ?2 >G! ?3>!731; 7!2?2>13:!

0sing Kiichoff's Fiist law we can see:
oi
!1K(# "./ @J8
The powei supplieu to the exteinal components is equal to the powei pioviueu by the
cell minus the powei lost to inteinal iesistance
0sing p = I
2
R anu I =
!
R+r
:
P =
!
2
(R+r)
2
R
Although not neeueu in specification it can be seen that ,2R:,", 9&T%3 :(
132'(=%33%; 1& 15% X$&2;Y.%R1%3'2$ #&,9&'%'1(/ T5%' 15% $&2;Q%R1%3'2$ 3%(:(12'#%
:( %F"2$ 1& 15% :'1%3'2$ 3%(:(12'#%
6('', %. 3(#%(,
If the 2 cells aie connecteu the same way (positive to negative): !
t
=!
1
+!
2

If the 2 cells aie connecteu opposite way (positive to positive): !
t
=!
1
!!
2

6('', %. !"#"''('
Ciicuit with 3 iuentical cells in paiallel the cuiient thiough each cell: i =
I
n

"Lost pu" in each cell oi bianch using V = IR : v =
I
n
r
Bence each cell can pioviue: V =! !
I
n
r
Remembei voltage in paiallel to each bianch is equal
!1$(.$%"' =%<%/(#,R!1$(.$%12($(#,
2 oi moie iesistois in seiies with a souice of a fixeu
potential uiffeience (voltage in). This fixeu pu is
uiviueu between the 2 (oi moie) iesistois anu a wiie
can be placeu in between 2 of the teiminals of the
iesistois to cieate a paiallel bianch with vaiying
potential (uepenuing upon the teiminals that have
been connecteu)
The potential uiviuei has many uses:
o Supply a pu between u anu the souice pu
(voltage in) to a component
o Supply a vaiiable pu to a component
o Supple vaiiable pu uepenuing upon physical
conuitions
We can calculate the voltage out of a 2 iesistoi baseu
potential uiviuei as follows:
V
1
=V
in
R
1
R
1
+ R
2


9<>!D JG!7! e$ ?2 >G! E<;>1L! <4> ?A J! :<33!:>!F >G! f6713:Gg >< >G! >!75?31;2 <A >G! A?72> 7!2?2><7
?3 >G! B<>!3>?1; F?E?F!7

Notice that the equation is baseu upon the iatios of the paiallel section's iesistance
compaieu to the total iesistance of the potential uiviuei
Shoulu be noteu that this is not a peifect foimula as auuing a component to the ciicuit
will altei the total iesistance of the exteinal compounus anu thus the cuiient flowing
thiough the ciicuit at any given time

0'$(#."$%.7 69##(.$,
An I$1%3'21:'6 #"33%'1 is a cuiient that iepeateuly ieveises its uiiection
The =3%F"%'#4 of an alteinating
cuiient is the numbei of cycles it
completes pei seconu
The 9%2C P2$"% of an alteinating
cuiient is the maximum cuiient oi
voltage which is the same in eithei
uiiection (as maximum cuiient occuis
with maximum voltage)



S("$%.7 @55(&$ 15 ". 0'$(#."$%.7 69##(.$
If an alteinating cuiient of a low fiequency is applieu thiough a heating element the
heatei woulu giauually heat up then cool uown then heat up again then cool uown again
anu so on anu so on
The heating effect of the cuiient can be uesciibeu as the powei tiansfeiieu to the
heating element which can be founu using the following foimula:



9<>!D [G!7! B ?2 >G! B<J!7I U ?2 >G! :477!3> >G7<4LG >G! G!1>!7 13F a ?2 >G! 7!2?2>13:! <A >G!
G!1>!7
Notice though as we aie using an alteinating cuiient that:
o At peak cuiient the powei supplieu is equal to
I
0
2
R(wheie I
0
is the peak cuiient)
o At zeio cuiient the powei is zeio
Foi a sinusoiual cuiient the aveiage powei ovei a full cycle
is half the peak powei
The uiiect cuiient that woulu give the same powei as an
alteinating cuiient is known as the 3&&1 ,%2' (F"23%;
?2$"% of the cuiient
U&&1 ,%2' (F"23%; ?2$"% of an alteinating cuiient is the value of a uiiect cuiient that
woulu give the same heating effect as the alteinating cuiient in the same iesistoi
RG!7!A<7D
I
2
rms
R =
1
2
I
2
0
R
X13:!;;?3L aD
I
2
rms
=
1
2
I
2
0

T^417!H7<<>?3L !1:G 2?F!
I
rms
=
1
2
I
0

RG! 215! :13 6! 21?F A<7 E<;>1L! @>G?2 E17?!2 >G! 215! 12 :477!3>C
V
rms
=
1
2
V
0


Nains cuiient is alteinating anu opeiates at a RNS voltage of 2Suv anu a fiequency of
SuBz while countiies such as the 0SA opeiate at 12uv 6uBz

p = I
2
R
T,%.7 ". N,&%''1,&14(
An oscilloscope is a specifically maue election tube anu associateu contiol ciicuits
"#(&%/0 (/ J$2%)).$2.8#
A common oscilloscope can be seen to the below:












An oscilloscope's uisplay uiaws a giaph of voltage against time of a specific input's signal
0n the hoiizontal axis is time
0n the veitical axis is voltage


The Y-sensitivity is a setting the usei can altei in oiuei to change what each "squaie" of
uivision iepiesents veitically in teims of voltage; foi example if the y-sensitivity was set
to 4, this woulu mean eveiy uivision veitically woulu iepiesent 4 volts
The x-sensitivity oi "time base" is anothei setting the usei can change to altei what each
uivision hoiizontally iepiesents in teims of time, foi example a time base of 2 woulu
mean each uivision hoiizontally iepiesents 2 seconus