Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Prof. Chris Mi
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Michigan - Dearborn 4901 Evergreen Road, Dearborn, MI 48128 USA email: chrismi@umich.edu Tel: (313) 583-6434 Fax: (313)583-6336
Overview
Introduce HEV fundamentals, design, control, modeling, and special topics. Cover vehicle dynamics, energy sources, electric propulsion systems, regenerative braking, parallel and series HEV design, and practical design considerations.
Outline
Part 1: Introduction to Hybrid Electric Vehicles Part 2: HEV Fundamentals Part 3: HEV Modeling and Simulation Part 4: Energy Storage for HEV Applications Part 5: Series HEV Design and Modeling Part 6: Parallel HEV Design and Modeling Part 7: A Look into the Current Hybrids Part 8: Look at some novel topologies
Electric bus
Nissan Altra EV
TH!NK Neighbor
ZEV certified Meets new U.S./Canadian federal standards for low speed vehicles Seats 2 or 4 4 wheel independent suspension Top Speed: 25 mph/Range: 30 miles Charges 110 AC in 6-hours
TH!NK City
ZEV certified (zero emission vehicle) Front-wheel Drive 2-Passenger Top Speed: 56 mph Range: 53 miles
Toyota E-Com
Toyota RAV4
Toyota RAV4 EV
GM ATV
Honda EV PLUS
Solectria Corporation
Toyota Prius 03
Toyota Prius 05
Toyota Highlander
10
Ford Escape
11
Mercury Mariner
12
13
Honda Insight
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15
HEV
What is HEV Types of HEV Why HEV Key Advantage of HEV Up to Date Sales and Predictions of HEV Environmental Impacts of HEV Interdisciplinary Nature of HEV
What is HEV
HEV Stands for Hybrid Electric Vehicle An HEV is a vehicle which involves multiple sources of propulsions
An EV is an electric vehicle, battery (or ultra capacitor, fly wheels) operated only. Sole propulsion by electric motor A fuel cell vehicle is a series hybrid vehicle A traditional vehicle has sole propulsion by ICE or diesel engine Energy source can be gas, natural gas, battery, ultra capacitor, fly wheel, solar panel, etc.
16
Types of HEV
According to the method the energy sources are arranged
Parallel HEV: multiple propulsion sources can be combined, or drive the vehicle alone with one of the energy sources Series HEV: sole propulsion by electric motor, but the electric energy comes from another on board energy source, such as ICE
Types of HEV
Continued
Simple HEV, such as diesel electric locomotive, energy consumption is not optimized; are only designed to improve performance (acceleration etc.) Complex HEV: can possess more than two electric motors, energy consumption and performance are optimized, multimode operation capability Heavy hybrids trucks, locomotives, diesel hybrids, etc.
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Types of HEV
According to the onboard energy sources
ICE hybrids Diesel hybrids Fuel cell hybrids Solar hybrids (race cars, for example) Natural gas hybrids Hybrid locomotive Heavy hybrids
Why HEV ?
18
19
Battery pack takes space and weight of the vehicle which otherwise is available to the customer
20
Reduce emissions
Minimize the emissions when ICE is optimized in operation Stop the ICE when its not needed Reduced size of ICE means less emissions
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22
Market Leader
23
24
25
26
City FE Gain
66% 43% 100% 80% 10~15%
Hwy FE Gain
24% 23% 34% 24% 10~15%
Note
EPA Cycle EPA MPG Compared w/ Corolla EPA MPG Cycle unknown
FE Gain
20% 50% 36% 34% 35%
Emissions
PM 85%; NOX 50%; CO2 17% PM 93%; NOX 54%; CO 60%
Note
Japan Cycle, advertised FedEx Cycle, Dyno Field test Field test CILCC Cycle, simulation
27
Automotive Electronics
Emerging Technology
Regenerative Braking
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State-of-the-Art-HEV
Toyota Prius
Engine: Motor: 1.5 L 4-cylinders DOHC 76 HP / 82 lb-ft DC Brushless 500 V 50 kW / 400 Nm
Generator 28 kW PM
EPA MPG
Inverter Inverter Battery 202 V NiMH 6.5 Ah 21 kW
(Panasonic)
City Highway
Note Corolla Echo
EM 50 kW PM
Reduction Gearing
Front Wheels
29
Toyota Sienna
Engine: APG: Brake: 2.4 L 4-cylinders DOHC 131 HP / lb-ft 1.5 kW 100V Electronic controlled AWD BL 1015 MPG
Engine 4-cyl. Gas Planetary Gear set Metal-Belt CVT Reduction Gearing Front Wheels
HEV 45 18.6
Gain
Generator 13 kW PM EM 3.5 kW PM
Reduction Gearing
Rear Wheels
Note Sienna Engine: 2.4L 133 ~ 160 HP 242 lb-ft Trans: 5-Speed AT
Honda Civic
Engine: Motor: 1.34L 85 HP (63 kW) /119 Nm PM DC Brushless 10 kW / 62 Nm Assist 12.6 kW / 108 Nm Regen EPA MPG City Highway
Front Wheels
12V Starter
Inverter
AT BL 29 38
CVT HEV 48 47
Gain (%) 66 24
EM 10 kW PM
CVT or 5Speed MT
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Honda Accord
Engine: 3.0 L VTEC V6 240 hp / 217 lb-ft w/ Variable Cylinder Management (VCM) system Trans: Motor: New 5_Speed AT DC Brushless 12 kW / 74 Nm Assist
Integrated Motor Assist (IMA)
14 kW / 123 Nm Regen
12V Starter
Inverter
AT BL 21 30
AT HEV 30 37
Gain (%) 43 23
Engine V6 Gas
E Machine 12 kW PM
New 5Speed AT
Front Wheels
Generator 13 kW PM
Inverter Inverter
BL 1015 MPG
Front Wheels
HEV 23km/l
Gain
Reduction Gearing
31
Generator 28 kW PM
Inverter Inverter
EPA MPG
Battery 330 V NiMH
(Sanyo)
3.0 L BL 1 20 25
AT HEV 36 31
Gain (%) 80 24
City Highway
Reduction Gearing
Front Wheels
Note BL1
http://www.fordvehicles.com/suvs/escapehybrid/features/specs/
GM Hybrid Vehicles
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Generator
Inverter Inverter
HC CO
Engine Diesel
EM
Reduction Gearing
Front Wheels
Suburban Coach
EV DriveTM
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Engine:
4.3 L 4-cylinders Diesel 170 HP / 420 lb-ft * Over the FedEx cycle, a modified FTP cycle PM DC 340 V 44 kW / 420 Nm
Motor:
Inverter
BL MPG PM
HEV
NOx CO2
HIMR ---- Hybrid Inverter Controlled Motor & Retarder System The HIMR system has already been installed in more than 100 vehicles (trucks and buses) operated mainly in major cities and state parks. http://www.hino.co.jp/e/info/news/ne_20040421.html
Note BL Engines 199 kW / 797 Nm, 177 kW / 716 Nm 165 kW / 657 Nm, 162 kW / 574 Nm 154 kW / 588 Nm, 132 kW / 490 Nm
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Motor:
Ultracap:
Inverter
Reduction Gearing
Rear Wheels
* Cycle unknown
http://www.sae.org/automag/globalvehicles/12-2002
Hybrid Architecture
35
Architectures of HEV
Series hybrid
Fuel tank IC engine Generator
Parallel hybrid
Fuel tank IC engine
Transmission
Transmission
Battery
Power converter
Electric motor
Battery
Power converter
Electric motor
Transmission
Transmission
Battery
Power converter
Electric motor
Battery
Power converter
Electric motor
(d)
Series Architecture
Fuel tank
Torqu e Speed Tractive Effort Vehicle speed
Engine
Generator
Rectifier
Motor controller
Traction motor
Mech. Trans.
DC DC
Speed
Battery
Battery charger
36
37
Parallel Architecture
Fuel tank
Two energy converters Engine and motor mechanically coupled Different configurations possible
Mechanical. coupling
Engine
38
39
Complex transmission
40
Final Drive
Output shaft
Advantage: Compact, Simple Structure, Optimized Engine performance Disadvantage: Two Motors, No engine direct mode, double energy conversion
Solid Shaft
Hollow Shaft
Engine
41
42
Toyota, Shell and JR Tokai Bus Launch Worlds First Trial of GTL-Fueled Diesel Hybrid Bus August 10, 2005
A group of partners in Japan have launched the first trial of a diesel-hybrid bus fueled with synthetic Gas-to-Liquids (GTL) diesel. The bus, which will operate for two months, will carry visitors to the 2005 World Exposition at Aichi, as well as commuters in Seto City and Kasugai City.
Source: http://www.greencarcongress.com/hybrids/
43
Honda
Honda forecasts surge in U.S. hybrid sales: AutoBeat Daily reported Monday that Honda Motor Co. expects the new hybrid version of its core Accord sedan to push its hybrid vehicle sales above 45,000 in the U.S. next year. Honda expects to sell about 20,000 hybrid Accords and a combined 25,000 more of its hybrid Insight and Civic cars in the U.S. next year. The company is aiming the hybrid Accord, which debuts in December, at customers who are affluent, middle-aged and well educated. Priced at about $30,000, the car will be about $3,500 costlier but more powerful and fuel efficient than a conventional high-end Accord. Honda says the hybrid Accord will be rated at 30 mpg in the city and 37 mpg on the highway vs. 21/31 mpg for a conventional model with V-6 engine. Matt Roush, The Great
Lakes IT Report, October 12, 2004
44
GM
GM to build Malibu 'mild hybrid' in Kansas City: Speaking of hybrids, AutoTech Daily reported that General Motors Corp. says it will build the previously announced Chevrolet Malibu with an integrated starter-alternator at its Fairfax plant in Kansas City starting in 2007. The facility currently makes the traditionally powered Malibu and Malibu Maxx. The Malilbu's mild-hybrid system operates at speeds of less than 6 mph. Under those conditions, an electrohydraulic starter- alternator takes over for the Malibu's 2.4liter four-cylinder engine. It also will power accessories when the vehicle is stopped in traffic. The system is expected to yield a 10 to 15 percent gain in fuel efficiency vs. a standard Malibu. Matt Roush,
The Great Lakes IT Report, October 12, 2004
45
Toyota Initiatives
Toyota is going to build more hybrid models in Japan Build Camry HEV in the US Plan to build a HEV plant in China
46
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Reference Books
Chan, Chau, Modern Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Technology, Oxford, 2001 Husain, Electrical and Hybrid Vehicles Design Fundamentals, CRC Press, 2003 Larminie, Lowry, Electric Vehicle Technology Explained, Wiley, 2003 Miller, Propulsion Systems for Hybrid Vehicles, IEE, 2004 Brant, Building Your Own Electric Vehicle, McGraw-Hill, 1994 Wakefied, Ernest H, The History of the Electric Automobile: Battery-only Powered Cars, SAE 1994 Wakefied, Ernest H, The History of the Electric Automobile, Hybrid Electric Vehicles, SAE 1998
Useful Websites
http://www.greencarcongress.com/hybrids/ http://www.hevprogress.com/ http://www.autofacts.com http://www.toyota.com http://www.honda.com
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Summary
EV/HEVs have been in existence since the last century
Issues concerning cost and driving range have limited the use of EVs More stringent fuel economy requirements and environmental concerns have pushed the development and acceptance of HEVs
Architectures of HEVs include parallel, series, and complex configurations Various HEVs have been developed and made available to the general public. Diesel vehicles are competing with HEVs, but diesel HEVs may be a better choice HEVs are likely to dominate the auto industry for the next 10 years to come
50
Questions
51
Outline
Vehicle Resistance Traction and Slip Model Vehicle Dynamics Transmission Vehicle Performance Fuel Economy and Improvements Braking Performance Power Management Vehicle Control
3
hw Trf Ft
O MV g sin
hg Trr
MV g
W
f
cos
La
MVg
Lb L
W
r
Fg = mg sin
H
MV g cos
O MV g sin
hg
MVg
Rolling Resistance
On hard road surfaces
Caused by hysteresis of tire material Deflection of the carcass while the tire is rolling The hysteresis causes asymmetric distribution of ground reaction The pressure in the leading half is larger than the trailing half of the contact surface Results in ground force shifting forward
P F
Moving direction
r rd
z a P
6
Rolling Resistance
On soft road surfaces
Caused by the deformation of the ground surface The ground reaction force almost completely shifts to the leading half
F P
Moving direction
z Px
Pz
7
Rolling Resistance
The rolling resistance force is given by
sgn[V ]mg (C 0 + C1V 2 ) if Fr = FTR Fg if sgn( F F )(C mg ) if TR g 0 V 0 V = 0 and V = 0 and FTR Fg C 0 mg FTR Fg > C 0 mg
C0 = 0.01 V C1 = C 0 100
High pressure
Low pressure
Moving direction
10
11
Van body
0.5...0.7
Ponton body Wed ge-shap ed body ; headlamp s and bump ers are integrated into the body , covered underbody , op timized cooling air flow.
0.4...0.55 0.3...0.4
0.2...0.25
0.23
0.15...0.20
12
For traction : =
V V V
for Braking : =
V V V
13
p
Lateral
15~20
50 Slip
100 %
14
Kmm
dV = FTR Fr dt
where Km is the rotational inertia coefficient to compensate for the apparent increase in the vehicles mass due to the onboard rotating mass. Typically, 1.08< Km < 1.1
16
Propulsion Power
Torque at the vehicle wheels is obtained from the power relation P=T=FtV
where
is the angular velocity in rads/sec, Ft is in N T is the tractive torque in N-m,
In Steady State
C D AF ]V 2
18
Lim FT Lim FT +
V 0 V 0
Maximum Gradeability
The maximum grade that a vehicle will be able to overcome with the maximum force available from the propulsion unit is an important design criterion as well as performance measure.
20
10
Maximum Gradeability
Continued The vehicle is expected to move forward very slowly when climbing a steep slope, and hence, the following assumptions for maximum gradeability are made:
The vehicle moves very slowly v 0 FAD, Fr are negligible The vehicle is not accelerating, i.e. dv/dt = 0 FTR is the maximum tractive force delivered by motor at or near zero speed
21
Maximum Gradeability
With the assumptions, at near stall conditions
F = 0
FT Fg = 0 FT = mg sin
max % grade = 100 tan
cg mgsin
FT
max % grade =
mg
FT
(mg)2-FT2
_______________
11
23
12
At t>0
F = m dt
dV
FT Fa Fr Fg = m
dV dt
C D AF ]V 2 = m
dV dt
25
V(t)
V (t ) =
K1 tanh( K1 K 2 t ) K2
t
26
13
VT = lim v(t ) =
t
K1 K2
Distance Traversed:
s (t ) = v(t ) dt =
1 ln[cosh K 2VT t ) K2
27
tf =
K2 1 tanh 1 ( Vf ) K1 K 2 K1
Tractive power: The instantaneous tractive power delivered by the propulsion unit is PT(t) = FT v(t).
PT (t ) = FT VT tanh( K 1 K 2 t )
28
14
PT =
1 tf
P (t )dt =
T
FT VT tf
1 K1 K 2
ln[cosh( K 1 K 2 t )]
Energy required during an interval of the vehicle can be obtained from the integration of the instantaneous power equation as
eT = PT (t )dt = t f PT = FT VT
0
tf
1 K1 K 2
ln[cosh( K 1 K 2 t )]
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Example 1
An electric vehicle has the following parameter values: m=692kg, CD = 0.2, AF = 2m2, C0 = 0.009, C1 = 1.75*10-6 s2/m2, = 1.18 kg/m3, g = 9.81 m/s2 The vehicle is going to accelerate with constant tractive force. Maximum force that can be provided by the vehicle drive line is 1500N.
(a) find terminal velocity as a function of FT and plot it (b) if FT 500N, find VT, plot v(t), and calculate the time required to accelerate to 60mph (c) Calculate the instantaneous and average power corresponding to 0,98 VT.
30
15
Example 2
An electric vehicle has the following parameter values: m=800kg, CD = 0.2, AF = 2.2m2, C0 = 0.008, C1 = 1.6*10-6 s2/m2, density of air = 1.18 kg/m3, and acceleration due to gravity g = 9.81 m/s2 The vehicle is on level road. It accelerates from 0 to 65mph in 10 s such that its velocity profile is given by
(a) Calculate FTR(t) for 0 < t < 10 s (b) Calculate PTR(t) for 0 < t < 10 s (c) Calculate the energy loss due to non conservative forces Eloss. (d) Calculate eTR.
v(t ) = 0.29055t 2
0 t 10 s
31
ti
tf
cg
If an arbitrary velocity profile or acceleration profile is known, then the tractive force can be determined:
F = m dt
FT = m
dV
16
PT (t ) = FT (t )v(t ) = mV
eT = PT (t )dt
t1
t2
The total energy consists of kinetic and potential energy; as well as the energy needed to overcome the non-constructive forces including the rolling resistance and the aerodynamic drag force. These two are known as loss term.
33
Powertrain Rating
The powertrain of an EV provides force to:
Accelerate from zero speed to a certain speed within a required time limit Overcome wind force Overcome rolling resistance Overcome aerodynamic force Provide hill climbing force
34
17
Units
Mass
SI units, kg Imperial units, pound or lbm 1 kg = 2.2 lbm
Force (weight)
SI, Newton, 1 N = m * g = 9.8kg m/s2 Imperial, pound or lbf, 1 lbf = 32.2 lbm ft / second2 1 lbf = 4.455 N
Speed
SI, m/s, km/h Imperial, ft/s, or mile/hour 1 m/s = 3.281 ft/s, 1 mile/hour = 1.609344 km/h
35
Units
Power
SI units, Watts Imperial units, hp (motor) Watts (generator) 1 hp = 745.6999 W
Energy
kW.h Joule 1 kW.h = 3 600 000 joules 1 watt = 1 joule / second
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18
We really mean
Whats the mass? Whats your mass My mass is 70kg or 154 lbm
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19
Go to the moon !
39
20
Rating of Powertrain
Determine the average power needed to accelerate the vehicle from zero speed to 60mph
energy = mass*V*V / 2 = 3000lb/2.2*[60mph*1609/3600second] 2 / 2 = 490318 joules time = v / a v=at = [60mph*1609/3600] / [10mph/second*1609/3600] = [26.8 m/s] / [4.47m/s2] = 6 seconds Average power = force*distance/seconds = energy / time = 81.7 kW (peak power pmax=FV=180kW)
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21
Rating of Powertrain
The above assumed a constant acceleration. In real life, the acceleration near 60mph will be greatly reduced. Therefore, the actual power needed to accelerate the vehicle is much less than 90kW
Average power = Final power / 2 = 49 kW
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Rating of Motor
Assume the effective tire radius is R Torque at wheel is
Tw=FR Tmotor=Tw / rg Where rg is gear ratio
22
6.1 10 8 P 1 D l= C AB n
2
Where P is motor input power, in kW, P=Pmax / efficiency A is airgap current density B is airgap magnetic flux density C is a constant, between 0.5 and 0.9 n is motor speed in rpm D is inner diameter of stator or inner diameter of rotor L is effective length of stator/rotor
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Size of Motor
Note that the power required to cruise a vehicle on highway at 60mph is only 6% of the power needed to accelerate the vehicle from 0 to 60mph in 10 seconds. Since most motors can be designed to overload for a short time, a motor can be designed at much lower ratings. Example:
30kW rated power (13.8kW dragging at 60mph, 1/3 rated) 2 times overload for 60 seconds (60 kW) 3 times overload for 30 seconds (90 kW) 4 times overload for 20 seconds (120 kW) 5 times overload for 10 seconds (150 kW)
46
23
Efficiency
Note also that a motor can have efficiency (including controller) of over 90%, while an engine only has efficiency less than 30% An ICE does not have the overload capability as that of a motor. Thats why the rated power of ICE is usually much higher than required for highway cruising
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Power
Torque
Speed
48
24
P ower (kW)
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 1000 Base speed 2000 3000 Motor rpm 4000 5000 Power
Torque
49
50
T orque
25
1st gear
4 3 2 1 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 Vehicle speed, km/h 2nd gear 3rd gear 4th gear
51
52
26
(CVT)
Provide infinite gear ratios Virtually matching any engine speed with vehicle speed
53
kN
8
o (57.7%) 30
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 5 0 100 o 25 (46.6%)
o 20 (36.4%)
2nd gear
o
o 15 (26.8%) o 10 (17.6%)
o 5 (8.7%)
Fr
+ + FwFg
200
Speed, km/h
54
27
20o (36.4%)
5
15o (26.8%)
4
10o (17.6%)
3 2 1 0
50
Speed, km/ h
100
55
Driving Cycles
100
Speed, km/h
Urban driving
50
0 100
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
Speed, km/h
50
Highway driving 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
56
28
32
26
5 28 5
40 0
5 * 25
350
50
0 0 60 700 0 80
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Braking Performance
Energy wasted during braking in conventional vehicles Can be partially recovered in EV and HEV ABS performance can be improved in HEV/EV Traction control is easier to achieve in HEV/EV
58
29
Braking Example
Determine the energy expected when bringing a 3000lb vehicle to a halt from a speed of 60mph in 10 seconds Energy = * mass * V^2 = * 3000/2.2 * (26.8 m/s)^2 = 489709 joules = 0.136 kW h Using average speed of 30mph, the vehicle will travel 44 ft/second or 440 ft in 10 seconds, Assume an average drag force of 100 lbf, drag loss is =100*4.455*440/3.28=59762 joules=0.0166 kW.h Energy can be recovered is 0.136 - 0.0166 = 0.1194 Power (in 10 seconds) = 43kW
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The complete design is a complex issue involving numerous variables, constraints, considerations and judgment, which is beyond the scope of this course.
60
30
Vehicle design is an iterative process; several designers have to interact with each other to meet the design goals.
61
Summary
Vehicular forces include rolling resistance, gravitation, aerodynamic and traction force Traction and braking are achieved due to slip ratio on the wheel Vehicle dynamics can be derived from its kinetic motion Vehicle performance can be mathematically calculated with given traction force, or demanded traction force can be determined if a desired vehicle velocity profile is given HEV powertrain can be generally smaller due to the nature of electric motor used. The power splitting or combining is managed by vehicle control to maximize fuel economy and performance Rating of a powertrain can be determined using the vehicle data and design requirements
62
31
Solutions to Example 1
VT ( FTR ) = K1 = K1 = 53.2 1.45 10 3 FTR 0.0883 K2 K2 =
FTR gC0 m
2m
C0 AF + gC1
1 K1 K 2
tanh 1 (v f K 1 / K 2 )
PT (t ) = FT VT tanh( K1 K 2 t )
PT = FV 1 PT (t )dt = T T tf tf 1 K1 K 2 ln[cosh( K1 K 2 t )]
63
Solutions to Example 2
(a) From the force balance equation, the tractive force is: (b) The instantaneous power is
FTR FAD Froll = m FTR (t ) = m dv dt dv + C D AF v 2 + mg (C0 + C1v 2 ) dt 2 = 464.88t + .02192t 4 + 62.78 N .
(c) The energy lost due to non-conservative forces (d) The kinetic energy of the vehicle is Therefore, the change in tractive energy is
10
10
= 15,180 J .
KE =
32
Outline
Vehicle Dynamics Modeling Basics Vehicle Performance Modeling Examples Modeling using Simplorer
3
Objectives
After completing this session, you will be able to
Write vehicle dynamic equations Setup simulation models using the dynamic equations Simulate vehicle performance for constant tractive force Simulate required tractive force for a desired vehicle velocity profile or gradeability Perform simulation using Ansoft Simplorer or related tool, using block diagrams
hw Trf Ft
O MV g sin
hg Trr
MV g
W
f
cos
La
MVg
Lb L
W
r
Kmm
dV = FTR Fr dt
where Km is the rotational inertia coefficient to compensate for the apparent increase in the vehicles mass due to the onboard rotating mass Typically, 1.08< Km < 1.1
6
To Get dv/dt
Kmm dV = FTR Fr dt
dV = ( FTR Fr ) /( K m m) dt
10
Outputs:
Vehicle velocity V Distance traversed s
FTR
Grade
V(t)
S(t)
11
Velocity (m/s)
20.00
0 0 100.00 189.00
Time (s)
12
Velocity (m/s)
50.00
0 0 100.00 189.00
Time (s)
13
Driving Cycles
100
Speed, km/h
Urban driving
50
0 100
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
Speed, km/h
50
Highway driving 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
14
15
Example 1
An electric vehicle has the following parameter values: m=692kg, CD = 0.2, AF = 2m2, C0 = 0.009, C1 = 1.75*10-6 s2/m2, = 1.18 kg/m3, g = 9.81 m/s2 The vehicle is going to accelerate with constant tractive force. Maximum force that can be provided by the vehicle drive line is 1500N.
(a) find terminal velocity as a function of FT and plot it (b) if FT 500N, find VT, plot v(t), and calculate the time required to accelerate to 60mph (c) Calculate the instantaneous and average power corresponding to 0,98 VT.
16
Solutions to Example 1
POW1
n x GAIN
pCDAF
C11
GAIN
_
SIGN1 MUL1
+
2DGraphSel1 52.00
FTR
CONST
FAD=0.5*p*CD*AF*V^2
mg
SINE GAIN
SUM3 grade
CONST
m_1
GAIN I
40.00
Velocity
FCT_SINE1 C1
GAIN
Fgxt=mg*sin(beta)
SUM2
INTG1
Shee...
I
C0
CONST
mg1
GAIN
MUL2
INTG2 Power
Energy
20.00
Froll=mg*(Co+C1*V^2)
SUM1 MUL3
0 0 100.00 189.00
CONST
N0018
Speed
GAIN
FTR
GAIN1
17
Example 2
An electric vehicle has the following parameter values: m = 800kg, CD = 0.2, AF = 2.2m2, C0 = 0.008, C1 = 1.6*10-6 s2/m2, density of air = 1.18 kg/m3, and acceleration due to gravity g = 9.81 m/s2 The vehicle is on level road. It accelerates from 0 to 65mph in 10 s such that its velocity profile is given by
v(t ) = 0.29055t 2
0 t 10 s
(a) Calculate FTR(t) for 0 < t < 10 s (b) Calculate PTR(t) for 0 < t < 10 s (c) Calculate the energy loss due to non conservative forces Eloss. (d) Calculate eTR.
18
Solutions to Example 2
Speed
Tractive Force
Energy
19
Summary
Vehicle performance can be simulated using simulation tools such as Simplorer or Simulink, based on vehicle dynamic equations Vehicle performance can include
Simulating vehicle speed, acceleration, and gradeability for given traction force Simulating vehicle performance for a given velocity profile by controlling the traction force Determine the required traction effort for a given velocity profile (driving cycles), acceleration and gradeability requirement
20
10
Contents
z
Comparison of energy sources Onboard energy storage Energy converters Battery Fuel cell Ultra-capacitors Flywheels Other renewable energy sources
3
Energy refers to a source of energy, such as gasoline, hydrogen, natural gas, coal, etc. Renewable energy source refers to solar, wind, and geothermal, etc. Energy converter refers to converting energy from one form of energy source to another form, such as electric generator, gasoline/diesel engine, fuel cell, wind turbine, solar panel, etc. Energy storage refers to intermediate devices for temporary energy storing, such as battery, water tower, ultra-capacitor, and flywheel.
4
Why Battery
z
Batteries
- Popular choice of energy source for EV/HEVs - Desirable characteristics of batteries are:
High-peak power High specific energy at pulse power High charge acceptance Long calendar and cycle life There is no current battery that can deliver an acceptable combination of power, energy and life cycle for highvolume production vehicles
Battery Basics
z
Constructed of unit cells containing chemical energy that can be converted to electrical energy Cells can be grouped together and are called a battery module Battery modules can be grouped together in a parallel or serial combination to yield desired voltage/current output and are referred to as a battery pack.
eCharge Discharge
+ P Ion migration
electrolyte
Positive Electrode
- oxide or sulfide or some other compound that is capable of being reduced during cell discharge
Negative Electrode
- a metal or an alloy that is capable of being oxidized during cell discharge - Generates Electrons in the external circuit during discharge
Electrolyte
- medium that permits ionic conduction between positive and negative electrodes of a cell - must have high and selective conductivity for the ions that take part in electrode reactions - must be a non-conductor for electrons in order to avoid selfdischarge of batteries.
8
Separator
- Is an layer of electrically insulating material, which physically separates electrodes of opposite polarity - Separators must be permeable to the ions of the electrolyte and may also have the function of storing or immobilizing the electrolyte
Battery Types
z
Primary Battery
- Cannot be recharged. Designed for a single discharge
Secondary Battery
- Batteries that can be recharged by flowing current in the direction opposite of discharge Lead-acid (Pb-acid) Nickel-cadmium (NiCd) Nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH) Lithium-ion (Li-ion) Lithium-polymer (Li-poly) Sodium-sulfur Zinc-air (Zn-Air)
Batteries: In Depth
Battery Energy Density Energy Density (Wh/kg) Theoretical (Wh/kg) Practical
108 50 20-30 90 60 90 100 170 150-300 300
11
Lead-acid Nickel-cadmium Nickel-zinc Nickel-iron Zinc-chlorine Silver-zinc Lithium metal sulphide Sodium-sulfur Aluminum-air
500 770
First lead acid battery produced in 1859 In the early 1980s, over 100 million lead acid batteries produced per year Long Existence due to :
Relatively low cost Availability of raw materials (lead, sulfur) Ease of manufacture Favorable electrochemical characteristics
12
Cell Discharging
13
Cell Discharging
Positive Electrode Equation - PbO2+4H++SO42-+2e PbSO4+2H2O
z
Cell Charging
15
Cell Charging
z
Overall Equation
- 2PbSO4+2H2O Pb+PbO2+2H2SO4
16
Battery Parameters
z
Battery Capacity
- The amount of free charge generated by the active material at the negative electrode and consumed by the positive electrode - Capacity is measured in Ah (1Ah=3,600 C or Coulomb, where 1 C is the charge transferred in 1 sec by 1A current in the MKS unit of charge). - Theoretical capacity of a battery
QT = xnF x = number of moles of limiting reactant associated with complete discharge of battery n = number of electrons produced by the negative electrode discharge reaction L is the number of molecules or atoms in a mole (known as Avogadro constant) and e0 is the electron charge, F is the Faraday constant and F=Le0
17
Battery Parameters
z
Discharge Rate
- is the current at which a battery is discharged. The rate is expressed as Q/h rate, where Q is rated battery capacity and h is discharge time in hours
State Of Charge
- is the present capacity of the battery. It is the amount of capacity that remains after discharge from a top-of-charge condition
SoCT (t ) = QT i ( )d
to
18
Battery Parameters
z
State of Discharge
- A measure of the charge that has been drawn from a battery
SoDT (t ) = q = i ( )d
tO
z
Depth of Discharge
- the percentage of battery capacity (rated capacity) to which a battery is discharged
DoD (t ) = QT SoCT (t ) 100% QT
19
Technical Characteristics
z
V
t
RL Vt
EV
Technical Characteristics
z
Practical Capacity
- Practical capacity QP of battery is always much lower compared to the theoretical capacity QT due to practical limitations. The practical capacity of a battery is given as
QP = i (t )dt
tO
z
t cut
Capacity Redefined
- The practical capacity of a battery is defined in the industry by a convenient and approximate approach of Ah instead of Coulomb under constant discharge current characteristics
21
Technical Characteristics
z
Practical Capacity
- Capacity depends on magnitude of discharge current
Vt I2 I1 tcut,1 tcut,2 Discharge Time (h)
Battery Energy
- The energy of a battery is measured in terms of the capacity and the discharge voltage
22
Battery Energy
z
Battery Energy
- To calculate the energy, the capacity of the battery must be expressed in coulombs - In general, the theoretical stored energy is
ET=VbatQT
Ep =
t cut
tO
vi dt
MP VVcu
t
Battery Power
z
Specific Energy
- SE =
Discharge Energy E = Total Battery Mass M B
nVbat m R MM MB
Battery Power
- The instantaneous battery terminal power is
p(t ) = Vt i
24
Battery Power
z
Battery Power
- The maximum power is
Power
2 v
Pmax =
E 4 Ri
Pmax
Specific Power
- The specific power of a battery is
ipmax
Current
SP =
P MB
(units: W/kg)
25
A Comparison of Batteries
System Specific Peak energy power (Wh/kg) (W/kg) Energy efficiency Cycle life (%) Selfdischarge (% per 48h) Cost (US$/kWh) Acidic aqueous solution Lead/acid 35-50 150-400 >80 500-1000 0.6 120-150
Alkaline aqueous solution Nickel/cadmium Nickel/iron Nickel/zinc Nickel/Metal Hydride Aluminum/air Iron/air Zinc/air Flow Zinc/bromine Vanadium redox Molten salt Sodium/sulfur Sodium/Nickel chloride Lithium/iron Sulfide (FeS) Organic/Lithium Lithium-ion 150-240 90-120 100-130 230 130-160 150-250 80 80 80 800+ 1200+ 1000+ 0* 0* ? 250-450 230-345 110 70-85 20-30 90-110 110 65-70 500-2000 75-85 ? 200-250 400-450 50-60 50-60 55-75 70-95 200-300 80-120 100-220 80-150 80-150 170-260 200-300 160 90 30-80 75 75 65 70 <50 60 60 800 1500-2000 300 750-1200+ ? 500+ 600+ 1 3 1.6 6 ? ? ? 250-350 200-400 100-300 200-350 ? 50 90-120
80-130
200-300
>95
1000+
0.7
200
26
27
Battery Model
z
Can be represented by a capacitor in series with an internal resistor Battery model in Simplorer: a capacitor is series with an internal resistor
28
Fuel Cells
z
Generates electricity through electrochemical reaction that combines hydrogen with ambient air Function is similar to a battery, but consumes hydrogen and air instead of producing electricity from stored chemical energy Difference from battery: Fuel Cell produces electricity as long as fuel is supplied, while battery requires frequent recharging
29
Fuel Cells
z
Being used in space application, but has characteristics desirable to EV applications Tremendous interest in vehicle and stationary applications Research focus:
- Higher power cells - Develop FC that can internally reform hydrocarbons
30
Fuel Cells
z z
Fuel: hydrogen and oxygen Concept: Opposite of electrolysis A catalyst speeds the reactions An electrolyte allows the hydrogen to move to cathode Flow of electrons from anode to cathode in the external circuit produces electricity Oxygen or air is passed over cathode
31
Oxygen (air)
Electrolyte
H+ H+
Unreacted Hydrogen Water
H 2 2 H + + 2e
1 2e + 2 H + + (O2 ) H 2O 2
1 H 2 + O2 H 2O 2
32
33
34
A fuel cell
35
In the world that uses an SOFC fuel cell coupled with a gas turbine was developed at Siemens Westinghouse in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The 220kW power plant converts nearly 60 % of the energy contained in natural gas into electric power
36
Useful links
z
NYSERDA Electric Power Research Institute U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Fuel Cells 2000 National Fuel Cell Research Center U.S. Department of Energy U.S. Fuel Cell Council The Hydrogen & Fuel Cell Investor's Newsletter National Hydrogen Association
37
Vehicle Applications: Require low temperature operation Stationary Applications: Rapid operation and cogeneration is desired Research: new materials for electrodes and electrolytes
38
Isothermal operation: Not subject to limitations of Car, not subject to cycle efficiency imposed on heat engines.
39
Working voltage falls with increasing current Several cells are stacked in series to get desired voltage Major advantage: Lower sensitivity to scaling (system efficiency similar from kW to MW range).
41
42
~800C
40-50%
~800C
40-50%
EV/HEV, Industrial up to ~80kW EV/HEVs, small portable devices (1W-70kW) Stationary (>250kW) Stationary
90-1000C
~30%
H2, CO (coal gas, LNG, methanol) H2, CO (coal gas, LNG, methanol)
Carbonate
600-7000C
50-60%
Yttriastabilized zirconia
~10000C
50-65%
43
Hydrogen Storage
z
Hydrogen is not very dense at atmospheric pressure Can be stored as compressed or liquefied gas
- Lot of energy required to compress the gas - Generation of liquid hydrogen requires further compression
44
47
Ultra-Capacitors
z z
Electrochemical energy storage systems Devices that store energy as an electrostatic charge Higher specific energy and power versions of electrolytic capacitors Stores energy in polarized liquid layer at the interface between ionically conducting electrolyte and electrode
48
Ultra-Capacitors
z z
More suitable for HEVs Can provide power assist during acceleration and hill climbing, and for recovery of regenerative energy Can provide load leveling power to chemical batteries Current aim is to develop ultra capacitors with capabilities of 4000 W/kg and 15Whr/kg.
49
Separator - Electrolyte + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Energy =
1 CV 2 2
50
Equivalent Circuit
z
+ i
RS iL iC C RL Vt
51
1.5
100
1.0
200 300
0.5 0
400 600
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
52
C = d =
53
Technical Specifications
BCAP0010 (Cell) Capacitance (Farads, -20% /+20%) maximum series resistance ESR at 25oC (m ) Voltage, (V) Continuous (peak) Specific power at rated voltage (W/kg) Specific energy at rated voltage (Wh/kg) Maximum current (A) Dimensions (mm ) (referance only) Weight (kg) Volume (Liter) Operating temperature* (oC) Storage temperature (oC) leakage current (mA) 12 hours, 25oC
* Steady state case temperature
BMOD0115 (Module) 145 42 (50) 2900 2.22 600 195 165 415 (Box) 16 22 -35 to +65 -35 to +65 10
BMOD0117 (Module) 435 14 (17) 1900 1.82 600 195 265 145 (Box) 6.5 7.5 -35 to +65 -35 to +65 10
2600 0.7 2.5 (2.8) 4300 4.3 600 60 172 (Cylinder) 0.525 0.42 -35 to +65 -35 to +65 5
54
Flywheels
z z
Electromechanical energy storage device Stores kinetic energy in a rapidly spinning wheel-like rotor or disk Has potential to store energies comparable to batteries All IC Engine vehicles use flywheels to deliver smooth power from power pulses of the engine Modern flywheels use high-strength composite rotor that rotates in vacuum
55
Flywheels
z
A motor/generator connected to rotor shaft spins the rotor up to speed for charging and to convert kinetic energy to electrical energy during discharging Drawbacks are: very complex, heavy and large for personal vehicles There are safety concerns for a device that spins mass at high speeds
56
Basic Structure
Energy =
1 J 2 2
57
Power converter
Load
Use multiple sources of storage Tackle high demand and rapid charging capability One typical example is to combine battery and ultracap in parallel
High specific power storage (a) Low power demand High specific energy storage Power converter Load
High specific power storage (b) Negative power High specific Energy storage Power converter Load
58
Direct parallel connection Or through two quadrant chopper for better power management
......
Ultracapacitor
........
Ultracpacitors
Batteries
Batteries
59 60
Summary
z
An energy source is where the energy is converted from. Energy sources include gasoline, diesel, hydrogen, coal, nuclear, solar light, wind, etc. An energy storage device is something that holds the energy source, such as a fuel tank or battery Energy converters are devices that convert energy from one form to another, such as ICE, motor, turbine, fuel cell, etc. Batteries are the most used energy storage device in HEVs, but have limitations, such as weight and energy/power density Ultra capacitors and flywheels supplement the HEV application with their performance that batteries do not have, such as rapid charging and discharging Fuel cells convert hydrogen to electricity without pollutant. Hydrogen has to be produced somewhere else Hybridization of energy storage is likely the solution
Contents
Concepts of hybrid propulsion Hybrid architecture Series hybrid configuration and functionality Control strategy of series HEV Sizing of major components Design example Modeling of series HEV
HEV may contain more than one energy source (gasoline + electricity) and more than one energy converters (ICE + motor/generator)
Architectures of HEV
Series hybrid
Fuel tank IC engine Generator
Parallel hybrid
Fuel tank IC engine
Transmission
Transmission
Battery
Power converter
Electric motor
Battery
Power converter
Electric motor
Transmission
Transmission
Battery
Power converter
Electric motor
Battery
Power converter
Electric motor
(d)
Series Architecture
Fuel tank
Torqu e Speed Tractive Effort Vehicle speed
Engine
Generator
Rectifier
Motor controller
Traction motor
Mech. Trans.
DC DC
Speed
Battery
Battery charger
Power,kW
Motor control
Control Objectives
To meet the power demand of the driver To operate each component with optimal efficiency To recapture regenerative braking energy Maintain the SOC of battery within the preset thresholds
Vehicle Performance
Acceleration: vehicle must be able to accelerate to certain speed within certain time limits. It is constrained by the traction motor rating and the power from I/G set and battery Gradeability: must be able to climb certain grade Maximum cruising speed Range
Control Strategy
A control rule
Preset in the vehicle controller Control the operation of each component Receive commands from the driver Receive the feedback from the drivetrain and components
Disadvantages
When battery fully charged, vehicle enters engine alone mode. Engine will not operate efficiently
Vehicle speed
Control Diagram
Traction power Command, Ptraction Traction? Yes Engine/generator Power, Pe/g Ptraction<Pe/g Yes SOC of PPS Eng./gen. alone traction No Hybrid traction (eng./gen. + PPS) No Maximum motor power Pm-max Regenerative braking If Pbrake>Pm-max No Yes Hybrid braking
No
10
Design Example
Specifications
Total mass Rolling resistance coefficient Aerodynamic drag coefficient Frontal area Transmission efficiency 1500kg 0.01 0.3 2 m3 0.9 10 sec 30% at low speed 160km/h
Performance
Acceleration time (0 to 100km/h) Maximum gradeability and 5% at 100km/h Maximum speed
11
Traction Motor
Must be able to satisfy all vehicle performances such as acceleration, gradeability, etc. Motor power to overcome all resistance + ma Designed to be 82.5kW for the example
700 Torque 600 500 Power 400 300 200 100 0 0 80 60 40 20 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 Motor speed, rpm X=4 120 Motor power, kW 100 140
Gear Ratio
Vehicle reaches maximum speed when motor reaches maximum speed
Motor maximum speed is 5000rpm Vehicle maximum speed is 160km/h or 44.4 m/s Radius is 0.28m
12
Acceleration Performance
30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Time 300 250 200 150 100 50
Distance
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Gradeability
8000
4000
=10o (17.6%)
3000
=5o (8.75%)
2000 1000 0
=0o
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
(0%)
160
140
13
Engine/Generator
Highway driving: long time with constant speed
Engine/generator must be able to supply sufficient power to support the speed
During Acceleration
Total power from battery and I/G is needed to support acceleration
Design Example
14
Constant Speed: on flat road and on 5% grade Different driving cycle: average power Therefore engine is 32.5kW
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
Energy Capacity
Support the whole acceleration range when partially discharged 2.5kWh (0.2 SOC change corresponding to 0.5kWh change in PPS energy) In battery alone, with maximum motor capacity, vehicle can run 109 seconds (2.5kWh*3600/82.5kW)
15
Fuel Consumption
Engine is operated at 34.3% efficiency Fuel economy depends on driving cycle Fuel economy depends on control strategy Example vehicle:
42.3 mpg FTP75 Urban Driving Cycle 43.5 mpg FTP75 Highway Driving Cycle
Motor power, kW
Engine power, kW
PPS power, kW
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
Time, Sec.
16
Summary
HEVs can be designed to have series, parallel or complex configurations to overcome the cost/range problem in pure EVs Series HEVs convert energy twice, hence there may be more cost and efficiency disadvantages Series HEVs are suitable for most stop-go applications such as bus, delivery truck, commuter car, yard tractor, etc. Series HEVs can be controlled using either maximum battery SOC or thermostat (engine on-off) control The design of series includes sizing the ICE, motor, and energy storage device The performance of series HEVs can be simulated for standard driving cycles, which include maximum speed, acceleration, gradeability, etc.
17
Contents
Parallel hybrid architecture Control strategy of series HEV Sizing of major components Design example Modeling of parallel HEV
Parallel Architecture
Two energy converters Engine and motor mechanically coupled Different configurations possible
Mechanical. coupling
Torque Coupling
Splits engine torque Or combine engine torque and motor torque
Tout = k1T1 + k1T2
Regenerative braking
out =
1
k1
2
k2
k1 =
z3 z , k2 = 3 z1 z2
k1 = 1, k 2 =
z1 z2
k1 =
r2 r , k2 = 3 r1 r4
k1 = 1, k2 =
r1 r2
Gear box
k1 = 1 k2 = 1
Flexibility in design
Transmission
Engine Motor
Transmission
Speed Coupling
Splits engine torque Combines engine speed and motor speed
out = k11 + k1 2
Regenerative braking
Tout =
T1 T2 = k1 k 2
Engine
Transmission
Motor
Motor controller
Batteries
Control Objectives
Control objectives
To satisfy performance requirements including acceleration, gradeability, and maximum cruising speed To achieve overall high efficiency To maintain battery SOC To recover braking energy
Control Strategy
Categories of the control strategy
Supervisory: vehicle controller Component controllers: engine controller, motor controller, battery controller
Combined
Pt>Pe-opt SOC>SOClow
Power split
Pt<Pe-opt SOC<SOClow
Engine alone
Pt<Pe-opt SOC>SOChigh
Engine off
V<Vhysteresis SOC>SOClow
Mild Hybrids
Reduce size of battery (cost, weight and volume) Reduce complexity of drivetrain (reduced cost) Reduce energy consumption during engine idle (shut off engine, as well as transmission loss saved) Drawbacks
Not able to drive vehicle alone using the motors Not be able to recover majority of braking energy
Example, Honda Civic: 10kW motor (10 percent of engine) Operation Modes
Engine alone Motor alone (ultra low speed) Regen mode Combine mode Power split mode
Battery SOC
Drivetrain Controller
Motor control signal
Battery pack
Motor controller
10
Plug-in Hybrids
Further increase fuel economy Need bigger battery pack Possible to make a portable battery pack
Charged overnight for commute driving (up to 100 miles) Removed for long time driving (just like removable seats)
Summary
Parallel HEVs can be designed with speed coupling or torque coupling or both A parallel HEV is suitable for both city and highway driving It can be controlled using thermostat (engine on-off) control, and operated in seven different modes (combine, power split, regenerative braking being the most important ones) The design of a parallel HEV includes sizing of the ICE, motor, and energy storage device The performance of a series HEV can be simulated for standard driving cycles, which include maximum speed, acceleration, gradeability, etc. Mild HEV, and Plug-in HEV may play an important role in the near future
11