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We are trying to measure actual value of physical quantity being measured and that is our Standard The error is defined as the difference between the measured and true physical value of the quantity, we should ask, what is the error of the data? True value is something we can never know exactly because we have to measure it as the first step and process of measurement will have errors We can estimate the possible amount of error, example: 95% of reading from one flowmeter will have an error of less than 1 L/s, so we say with 95% certainty (19 times of 20) that the meter has an error of 1 L/s or less. The reading has accuracy of 1 L/s at odds of 19 to 1. And you can find a theory within this accuracy
Types of error
Error = = xm-xtrue We want to minimize error in the experiment design step, but we also need to estimate the bound on , This bound is in the form of: Where u is the uncertainty estimated at odds of n:1 only one measurement in n will have an error whose magnitude is greater than u
Precision error: also called random error are different for each successive measurement but have an average value of zero, for example: errors from mechanical friction or vibration may cause the reading to fluctuate about the true value If enough measurements are taken then the precision error will be clear Readings will cluster about the true value; therefore we can use statistical analysis to estimate the size of the error. Bias errors cannot be treated using statistical analysis because they are fixed and do not show a distribution Bias errors are estimated by comparison of the instrument to a more accurate standard, or by knowledge of how the instrument was calibrated
Classification of errors
Bias or systematic errors :
Calibration errors (most common) see figure
the most common bias errors is from calibration, calibration is the adjusting the equipment to read the measured values in the right way
zero offset error: causes all readings to be offset by a constant amount (xoffset) scale errors: change in the slope of the output relative to the input , causes all readings to change by a fixed percentage , see figure
Certain recurring human errors: when a human reads high values every time Certain errors caused by defective equipment: equipment sometimes have built-in errors resulting from incorrect design, manufacturing and maintenance. These errors are constant and can be solved by calibration if they dont change with time. Loading error: the effect of the measurement procedure on the system being tested. The measuring process changes the characteristics of both source of the measured quantity and the measuring system. For example: the sound pressure level sensed by a microphone is not the same level if the microphone is not in the room we want to measure the sound level for Limitations of system resolution
If the test time is long, errors will fluctuate during that time causing different calibration errors for each time you make long tests. This is precision error
Errors from variations in procedure or definition among experiments: when the experiment is done with more than one instrument or by different people. In this case each time the test is made it has different bias which means you have precision error from all the tests