| Schlumberger tam mee TH CTT] ETAL ELE a aFOREWORD ‘The study of Petroleum Engineering covers a broad spectrum of geology, physics and applied mathematics spanning the geological processes by which hydrocarbons are formed and accumilated into reservoirs, the properties of reservoir rocks and the behavior of formation oil, water and gases during the process of extraction. ‘This booklet was distilled fram the mass of Literature available on the subject with the objective of providing the incoming engineer with an overall view of the industry and with the fundamentals of reservoir and production that a Schlumberger general field engineer requires. The reservoir and wells are interacting elements of a composite system in which the well provides access to the reservoir and is the means by which measurements (and our revenues) are made. Considerable emphasis is placed on well. perfor ance and testing as these are areas of direct involvement with our Production logging and well completion services. With the advent of computor log processing, field integrated log analysis has ‘become possible and reservoir mapping of reserves is a developing extention of our logging activities into reservoir managenent. ‘The study of fractured reservoirs would nommally be considered beyond the scope of an introductory petroleun engineering course. However, due to the great importance of this unconventional type reservoir to Middle East oil production, Chapter 10, written by Prof. Van Gold Racht of the University of Trodheim, has been included summarizing the subject. We would like to thank Manfred Wittmann and Dr. G. Stewart of EHS Marketing PR for their help in reviewing the draft of this booklet. . Aitken ‘guly 1980CONTENTS Chapter, Page > ow Introduction 1-1 A. Conditions favorable for hydrocarbon reservoir formation 41 B. Oil field units of measurement 1-2 Cc. SI oilfield units 1-3 Geology and hydrocarbon accumulations 21 A. Introduction (geological terminology) 2-1 B. Historical geology 2-2 Cc. Structure of the earth 24 D. Classification of rocks 2-7 E. The origin and habitat of oil 2-11 F. Hydrocarbon reservoirs 2-13 G. Sub-surface mapping 2-16 H. Reservoir temperature and pressure 2-17 3.-__Reservoir Fluid behaviour 341 A. Classification of oil and gas 3-1 B. Phase behaviour in hydrocarbon reservoirs 34 C. Reservoir fluid properties 3411 1) source of fluids data 3411 2) compressibility of gases 3-12 3) conversion factors between surface and downhole volumes: 316 a) gas formation volure factor, Bg 3-17 b) oi1 formation volume factor, Bo 3-19 ©) water formation volume factor, By 3-23 4) fluid density correlations 3-24 5) viscosity correlations 3-26 D. Rock compressibility 3-28 B. Appendix - Fluid Conversion Charts 3-29 Reservoir Rock properties a1 A. Porosity 4-1 B. Permeability 4-3 C. Measurement of permeability 4-6 D. Measurement of porosity 4-8 E, Measurement of capillary pressure (mercury injection) 4-9Well performance A. r Page awd a Surface-tensicn-wettabi lity-capillarity-saturation 54 Surface tension 5-1 Wettebility 5-3 Capillarity 5-4 Repartition of saturation in reservoir rocks 5-6 Irreducible water saturation 5-7 Displacement pressure 5-8 Displacement of oil 5-9 Residual oil 5-11 Relations between permeabilities and fluid saturations 5-13 Relative permeability - Saturation correlations 5-15 Reservoir drive mechanisms 1 Oil reservoirs ot Solution gas drive reservoirs 6-2 Gas cap expansion drive reservoirs 6-3 Water drive reservoirs 6-4 Discussion of recovery efficiency (including gravity 65 drainage) 7-1 Nomenclature and model for ideal cylindrical flow mm Radius of drainage 74 Well pressure drawdown a Productivity index and specific productivity index 75 Fomnation damage 7-6 Fonnation improvement 7-8 Skin factor 7-8 Skin damage in perforated completions 7-9 Inflow production relation - IPR 7-10 Evaluation of a formation treatment with IPR ca Composite IPR of multi-zone completion 7412 Cross flow between zones 7-13 Water cut vs. production rate 7-14 Performance of flowing oil wells 7-15 Simulator - single well model 7-20 Reservoir Estimates 8-1 Volumetric methods a1 Calculation of the reserve 8-2 Uncertainty in reservoir estimates 8-3 Pield integrated log analysis and reservoir mapping services 8-6 4) Normalization of data 8-8 2) Gridding and mapping 89 3) Monitoring fluid interface changes 89 Reservoir estimates - material balance methods 8-10 1) Material balance - gas reservoirs 8-10 2) Generalized material balance - oil reservoirs 8-13Chapter — 9.- Well testing and pressure transient analysis A. The DST (drill stem testing) B. LIT (long term production test)of oil wells C. ‘Test procedures for high capacity gas wells D. RET - The wireline formation tester E, Transient test. techniques and analysis F. Drawdown behavior G. Pressure buildup analysis 4) Homer's method 2) MOH (Miller, Dyes, Hutchinson method) H, Remarks concerning slope and shape of pressure drawdown curves 10.- Fractured reservoirs Introduction A physical description of a fractured reservoir A comparison of conventional and fractured reservoir performance Tdealized model of a fractured reservoir Description of the fracture process Porosity and permeability ae Oe 1) Determination of porosity 2) Penteability determination G. Production mechanisms in the fractured reservoir H, Discussion of displacement mechanisms I. Steady state flow towards the well J. Transient flow 1) Warren and Root method 2) Pollaird method K, Appendix - Mathematical derivation of Warren and Root method A. Nawenclature - Practical oilfield units and synbols B. Conversion factors between Practical oilfield units, Metric S.I. and other measures ©. Miscellaneous oil field conversions D. Physical constants and values ot o-1 9-4 9-6 9-10 ott 9-15 9-18 9-19 9-22 9-24 11-1 11-3 11-12 11-13INTRODUCTION | 1 Conditions favorable for hydrocarbon reservoir formation ‘Three basic requirements must be fulfilled to accumlate oil and gas ina commercially exploitable reservoir. First, the reservoir rock mst possess sufficient void space, called porosity, to contain the oil and gas. Secondly, there must be adequate connectivity, or poceesatliery Of the pore spaces to allow transportation of the fluids over large distances under reasonable gradients of pressure. ‘Third, a sufficient quantity hydrocarbons mst be accumilated into a trap of impervious cap rock which prevents upward migration of the oil and gas from the source beds, form- ing a petroleum reservoir. HYDROCARBON BEARING Fig. 1-1, Accumilation of oil and gas into a reservoir.1-2 B, Oilfield units of measurement ‘Thus far no industry-wide standardization of units has occured and a mixture of metric mks, cs, SI, and "practical oilfield units" with its API barrels, cubic feet of gas and psi units are used, Tt is expected that all countries will eventually standardize on metric sI* system of measurements, Standardization within the Petroleun industry, with only very minor variations in detail, has been launched in England, Canada and the U.S. Progress is slow however, and the ‘of technical literature available today uses the "practical oilfield units" established by the AMIE (American Institute of Mining and Petroleum Engineering) in 1958. Table 1-1 below compares units and quantities most frequently encountered in oil field practice. Jvoiune, gas Progaction rate, gas cos-oll ratio Pressure ‘Temperature, absolute nine Fomation thickness viscosity ‘Table 1-1 ‘tok tank barrel measured at 60%, 14,65 pata standard cuble foot measured at 60%, 14.65 pata stock tank barrel per day standard cubic feet per day standard cubic fect per stock tank barrel pounds per square finch Agree Rankine Comparison of units used in the oilfield. lo mates measured at fate = 101.35 KPa cubic metre measured at $58, 1 atm bic metre per second cubic netre par second n/m, dimensionless Pa, pascal « nevton per square metre K, Kelvin 8) second im, metre * $.I, is the official abbreviation, in all languages, for the International System of units (le Systéme International d'unités)