Section 2.

2 Sunspaces and atria

2.2.1 Introduction
Sunspaces and glazed atria are glazed spaces that are thermally separated from the buildings they are connected to. These spaces are often partially heated, or not heated at all. A sunspace is defined as a relatively small glazed space attached to a dwelling. A glazed atrium is defined as a glazed space attached to a large building or placed between two or more such buildings. Historically, atria were uncovered courtyards providing a tempered climate and were valued as protected, private outdoor spaces. The glazed atrium is a relatively recent evolution and we must ensure, by careful design, that the natural benefits of the traditional open space are not lost with its glazing. There is a strong belief that the incorporation of an atrium or sunspace in a building design leads automatically to reduced energy consumption. If properly designed as a passive solar feature, the atrium can save energy, but if the atrium is artifically lit or heated it may waste more energy than it saves. Energy conservation is seldom the primary reason for incorporating atria in a building design, and among the reasons for including a sunspace or an atrium in a building design are the following: to create a dramatic entry or central space, to facilitate circulation and provide more perimeter space, to increase amenities for the building users such as restaurants and recreation areas with interior gardens. However, they can strongly influence the energy use characteristics of the buildings they are attached to and as part of a passive solar system, many environmental benefits can be achieved; including the heating, cooling and daylighting of the adjacent building. 2.2.1.1 Contents of the section This section of the book provides information about the value of a sunspace or an atrium as part of a passive solar system. Emphasis is placed on their potential for saving energy for the buildings they are attached to. Most of the description refers to atria, but, as sunspaces function much the same way, the conclusions drawn are generally valid also for these, smaller spaces. The following subsections describe what types of atria there are, what potential they have for saving energy, and what effect that will have on the cost and on the comfort in the building and in the atrium itself. A few built examples are used to illustrate the issues. These are the ELA university building and the Dragvold university building in Trondheim, Norway, a day care center in Alta, Norway, and the Gateway II office building in the UK. 2.2.1.2 Types of atria
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Core atrium This is the classic atrium type providing a glazed courtyard in the center of the building surrounded by adjacent spaces on all sides. The external envelope of the atrium is limited to the area of the roof glazing.
Atrium Building

Integrated atrium An integrated atrium is a glazed space that is positioned in the building such that only one side faces the exterior. It may or may not have a glazed roof.

Linear atrium The linear atrium covers an open space between two parallel building blocks ending with glazed gables on both sides.

Attached atrium The attached atrium is a glazed space added to the external wall of the building envelope.

Envelope atrium The envelope atrium is characterized by an entirely enclosed building covered by glass representing a "house-in-house" concept. The large external envelope glazing may include one facade of the building.

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2.2.2 Strategies
Atria can be used in strategies to heat, cool, and/or provide daylight to the building: Heating An atrium acts as a buffer reducing transmission losses from the adjacent spaces to the ambient and may also provide heat for the adjacent spaces. It is used to displace auxiliary heating by solar gain transfer from atrium to the adjacent spaces. Thus, the predominant orientation of the atrium aperture should be south, and the glazing should be vertical (to reduce overheating risks in summer). Collected solar radiation has to be stored in interior mass in building components exposed directly to the winter sun. Nighttime heat losses have to be reduced by using good thermal quality materials in the envelope glazing and in the walls and windows separating the atrium from the rest of the building.

Cooling An atrium can be designed to induce natural ventilation and to prevent undesirable solar gains. Natural ventilation can be facilitated by a vertical stack effect and by proper placement of air inlets and outlets. Inlets should be placed at the bottom of the atrium (and/or induced cross circulation should be included), and sufficient exhaust air vents should be placed at the very top. Nighttime convective cooling of building mass structure can be achieved by cross ventilation, with air passing from the ambient through the adjacent spaces and out via the atrium space.

Daylighting An atrium can be used to provide additional light to the adjacent spaces. The key issues are daylight availability, distribution, and utilization. The glazing of an atrium reduces the amount of available daylight inside, but as a consequence of the buffer effect of the glazing, the window area in the intermediate boundary can be increased without penalties in the form of higher heating energy consumption. Consequently, more daylight may be available in the adjacent spaces. The amount available is determined by the overall design and by the properties of the walls and windows separating the atrium and the adjacent spaces. Atrium dimensions (height, length, width), determine the potential daylight aperture, and the size and position of windows in the intermediate boundary, as well as the reflectivity of the walls themselves, determine the amount of daylight penetrating into the adjacent spaces.
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2.2.3 Design considerations

2.2.3.1 Heating strategies The strategies for reducing heating energy consumption used by atrium buildings vary considerably. Atria act as buffers for their adjacent spaces, reducing their heat loss. The energy savings in the adjacent spaces partially offset the atrium heating energy requirements. Some atria also contribute to the total building heating requirements. They act as buffers during the coldest parts of the heating season and contribute heat to adjacent spaces during the warmer parts, when more solar energy is available.

Bldg. heat loss Net atrium energy (solar gain- heat loss)

Atrium has potential to contribute useful heat to adjacent spaces

Period in which atrium solar gains exceeds atrium heat loss.

Buffer Contrib. Potential

Excess solar gain Contrib. Potential

Buffer

Fig.1. Energy gains and losses in an atrium. Some of the key design factors that influence the ability of an atrium to function as a buffer or a heat source for the adjacent spaces are: Atrium type Most of the buildings that have core or linear atria have more spaces adjacent to their atria than the buildings with other types of atria. In these the potential for the atrium to act as a buffer is substantial since it can affect a greater portion of the building. By contrast, the integrated atria may perform well but do not substantially buffer the building as a whole, since they often are connected to only a small portion of the building.

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Glazing type/insulation level The atrium glazing properties significantly affect atrium energy consumption if the atrium is heated to a temperature near the comfort zone. For example, parametric studies of the atrium in the ELA building, in Trondheim, with north and south facing glazing, show about a 50 % reduction of atrium heating energy requirements when the U-value of the glazing is reduced from 2.1 to 1.0 and the solar gains are kept constant. For the total building, this improvement in U-value results in about a 5 % drop in heating energy requirements. A comparison of glazing options for the ELA atrium was made by the designers prior to construction. The results indicate that the double, low emissivity glazing produces about a 10 % improvement in building heating energy consumption compared to other glazing options, and about a 20 % improvement compared to an open well (non-atrium) building when the atrium is to be heated to 15oC.
Double glazing in roof and gable walls, single in facades.

A
92 %

92%

B
82 %

82%

Double low-E glazing in roofand gable walls, single in facades.

C
91 %

91%

Double glazing in all

81%
81 %

Double low-E glazing in roofand gable walls, double in facades.

100 %

100%

No glass roof, triple glazing in facades.

Fig.2. Energy consumption for heating in the ELA building in Trondheim for different glazing alternatives. Parametric analyses were made of the atrium in the ELA building to study the effect of the insulation level in the common wall on the atrium temperature. The results show that when the insulation level of the common wall is increased, the resulting atrium temperature is lower in the winter and higher in the summer. In these simulations the atrium was not heated unless the temperature fell below 5oC. Additional simulations were performed to examine the effect of changing the atrium width and atrium glazing U-value. Increasing the atrium width has the effect of increasing the area of the atrium external envelope, resulting in a higher heat loss and consequently in higher heating requirements. In these simulations the atrium was heated.

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(MWh) 500 U=2.8 480 460 440 420 U=2.1 U=1.6

6m

10m 12m 14m Width (m)

Fig.3. Calculated annual heating requirement for the ELA atrium of different widths and for different U-values of the atrium glazing. Glazing configuration Most atria have glazing in almost the entire surface of the exterior envelope. Most of this glazing is sloped to form a gable (saddle), shed, or mansard roof. These glazing configurations receive solar energy from throughout the sky vault, providing light in the atrium even during periods of low solar availability. However, unlike vertical south facing glazing, sloped glazing receives more incident solar energy in summer months than in winter months. This contributes to overheating during hot portions of the year. In addition, measurements indicate that the sloped glazing loses more heat than vertical glazing, partially due to nocturnal radiation. The magnitude of these losses is higher than simple calculations indicate. The effect of changing the amount and configuration of glazing in a typical atrium with sloped glazing in the external envelope was studied by computer simulations using a calibrated model of the ELA atrium. The atrium base case (actual building design) has equal glazing areas facing north and south, and the glazing is double, with a low emissivity coating. By simulation, the north facing glass was replaced with an opaque roof (U = 0.35W/m2 oC). This resulted in a decrease in annual atrium heating energy requirements of about 25 %, while there was no change in office heating energy requirements. To examine the effect of climate, the ELA building was moved (by computer simulation) to Washington, DC, a climate with about 2 400 heating degree days (base18oC) and about 900 cooling degree days (base 24oC). This is similar to portions of southern Europe. In this location, with substantial cooling requirements, the north facing atrium glazing was left intact, and the south facing atrium glazing was replaced with an opaque roof. This resulted in a decrease in annual atrium heating energy requirements of about 27 %, and a decrease in cooling requirements of about 36 %.

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Atrium conditioning There are different ways of conditioning the atrium space, from no heat input to almost full comfort conditioning. The approach chosen affects the times and purposes for which the atrium can be used, as well as the atrium heating energy requirements. Most unconditioned atria are primarily used for circulation. Solar energy heats the atria but no attempt is made to maintain a specific temperature. When atrium temperatures are comfortable, they can be used for exhibits, and other casual purposes. During the heating season, they act as buffers for adjacent conditioned spaces, but do not contribute heating energy, except by casual transmission through the intermediate boundary. Some atria, such as the day care center, in Alta, are designed to be used to preheat ventilation air during a portion of the year. In this case, the incoming ventilation air passes first through a heat exchanger (extracting heat from the exhaust air), and then through the atrium before entering the adjacent spaces. During mid-winter, this results in the atrium being slightly heated by the ventilation air; in milder periods, solar energy gains in the atrium increase the temperature of the ventilation air. Based on building measurements, this process increases atrium temperature by 10-15oC above ambient conditions.

Exhaust air

Fresh air

Fig.4. Preheat of ventilation air. On an annual basis, about one third of the atrium heating is obtained from the ventilation air passing through the atrium; in mid-winter the percentage is higher. Simulations indicate that the energy use would be less if the incoming air passed through the atrium first, but this would lower the atrium temperature, reducing the time during which the atrium can be used as a play area for the children. The value of semi-conditioned play space in this climate may be greater than that of the energy savings.
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Other atria are partially conditioned by ventilation exhaust air from the adjacent office spaces. In this way, no primary energy is used to condition the atrium, and it serves as a buffer for the fully conditioned adjacent spaces. Others again have small, localized space heaters that, for instance, control cold draughts along the glass. This has proved effective both in the Gateway II building and in the ELA building. Other atrium buildings use mechanical means to transfer heat from the atrium to the adjacent spaces or the reverse. This can be a refrigerant loop that recovers extra heat from the atrium during spring and fall and provides heat to the adjacent spaces, or a heat pump that extracts heat from the atrium for water heating and ventilation air preheating purposes. Thermal capacity In free floating atria, a heavy construction will provide some thermal storage capacity, delaying the passage of heat. This results in a more stable atrium temperature, but the stabilizing effect may prevent the atrium temperatures from becoming high enough to provide useful heat to other parts of the building. In conditioned atria that maintain lower temperatures at night, the thermal mass lengthens the time required to increase comfort conditions after temperature setback periods. Computer simulations of the ELA building were used to assess the effect of increasing the mass in the common wall in all climates. Replacing wood frame construction with concrete block resulted in a very small reduction in atrium or adjacent space heating requirements in any climate studied (typically less than 1 %). Atrium temperature The ELA building atrium is very well liked by students who use it for circulation and as a study space. The popularity of the space caused a need for the temperature to be increased from 15oC in the first year of use to 18oC in the second year. More students use the building than originally planned, because of an increase in admissions. Thus, the atrium provides much needed space for studying and social communication. Measurements and simulations of ELA demonstrate that heating the atrium to 15oC results in an energy saving for the overall building, compared to a building with no atrium. This is due to the buffering effect. In fact, there is little difference in total building energy consumption if the atrium is heated to 5oC or 15oC, while temperatures higher than this result in substantial increases in atrium heating energy requirements. The effect of atrium temperature on building energy requirements was further studied in simulations for Trondheim and for Washington, DC. In both climates, the total building heating requirements increased dramatically when the atrium temperature was raised above 15oC. In Trondheim, the increase in temperature setpoint to 20oC caused the atrium heating energy use to increase by about 60 %. However, the warmer atrium serves as a better buffer for the adjacent offices, reducing their energy requirements. For the overall building, raising the atrium temperature caused approximately a 20 % increase in heating requirements, excluding ventilation heating. For Washington, the result is similar; the increase in temperature from 15oC to 18oC caused an increase in atrium purchased heating of 100 % and an increase in total building purchased heating requirements of approximately 40 %.

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University Building, Trondheim

Heating Consumption (KWh)

350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 5

Total Atrium Office

10 15

Atrium heating setpoint Temperatureo (C)

University Building, Washington DC

20
Heating Consumption (KWh)

350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 5

Total Atrium Office

10 15
Atrium heating setpoint Temperatureo (C)

Fig.5. Heating requirement as a function of atrium temperature for the ELA building in Trondheim and in Washington DC. It is worthwhile to note that in both locations an increase in atrium temperature from 5oC to 15 C caused a relatively small increase in total building heating requirements. Within this range, the increase in atrium temperature improves the buffering effect, decreasing the heating requirements of adjacent offices. An additional benefit of the buffering effect is that the installed heating capacity of the adjacent spaces was reduced, saving on the construction cost. Increasing the atrium temperature above 15oC provides little additional buffering benefit for the adjacent spaces, however. The total building energy consumption for a conditioned atrium (heated to 18oC and cooled in climates where cooling is required for comfort), a free floating atrium, and a building with no atrium was also studied. These strategies were compared in the climates of Trondheim, Oslo, and Zurich (heating only); and Washington DC, Dallas, Texas, and Rome (heating and cooling). When the total
o

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energy density is compared, accounting for the difference in size between the building with the atrium and the one without an atrium, the most attractive strategy varies significantly with climate. 250 KWh/m2 /yr Trondheim Zrich Oslo

No atrium

Free-float

Cooling

Heating Fig.6a. Total energy consumption for a building with an atrium heated to 18 oC, a free floating atrium, and a building with no atrium; the building is only heated. Rome KWh/m 2/yr Washington Dallas

250

0 Atrium heat & cool Atrium heat & cool Atrium heat & cool No atrium No atrium No atrium Free-float Free-float Free-float

Fig.6b. Total energy consumption for a building with an atrium heated to 18 oC, a free floating atrium, and a building with no atrium; the building is both heated and cooled. The effect of activity level and clothing on atrium comfort during the heating season was examined by simulating the ELA building with a free floating atrium on a cold winter day in each of four climates. Even on the coldest day, the atrium was comfortable to someone using it for circulation from one part of the building to another. In relatively mild climates, such as Rome or Washington, the atrium was comfortable to someone seated in it for part of the day, depending on the type of clothing being worn. In practice, comfort will be greater if the people are able to sit in a sunlit area. These studies suggest that designers can save energy by partly conditioning portions of the atrium, such as using radiant heat in seating areas, and allowing the other portions of the atrium to maintain a lower temperature during the heating season. 2.2.3.2 Cooling strategies
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No atrium

No atrium

Free-float

Free-float

Electricity

0 Heated atrium Heated atrium

Cooling considerations are important in all locations. In cold climates, the cooling approaches used in atrium buildings are principally intended to avoid excessive overheating in summer months. In warmer climates, the atrium may be used to provide a cooling effect for the adjacent spaces. Natural ventilation and shading unwanted solar gain are the most applicable methods of cooling atria in the warmer climates. An atrium should have adequate daylight, sunlight and view without overheating and discomfort. Excessive sunlight causes overheating and glare and controls are neccessary to limit the amount of solar radiation entering the building, which minimises the amount of cooling neccessary. Solar Control There are three main methods of solar control: internal blinds external shading solar control glazing The most effective of these is external shading because it intercepts solar radiation before it enters the building. Horizontal shades are most effective on south-facing facades, vertical on east / west facing facades. However, all permanent shading reduces daylight, so moveable shades are preferable, either manually or power assisted (refer section 2.1.1) Internal blinds are most common, but they do allow almost half the solar radiation to enter the building. Venetian blinds properly adjusted are most effective and specialised mirrored venetian blinds can now increase daylight at high level while lower slats are closed. Mid-pane venetian blinds allow about one third solar radiation into the building. The choice of glazing effects the daylight, solar gain and heat loss through an atrium. Solar control glass, heat absorbing or heat reflective, reduces heat gain and loss, but can reduce light also. (refer section 3.1.5) Stratification and ventilation In cold climates with moderate summer temperatures, the most common cooling strategy is to ventilate the atrium taking benefit from the stratification that occurs. Operable windows or hatches can also be used. Outside air is usually admitted to the atrium at a low level and allowed to flow upward, exiting through smoke vents or other openings at the high levels of the atrium. In the ELA building smoke vents are used for ventilation purposes. Measurements indicate that the atrium temperature can be maintained at about the outside air temperature if adequate ventilation is provided using top and bottom openings. A temperature range of only 2 - 3oC was measured from bottom to top when the vents were open. However, when the vents were not open during the summer, the temperature of the top of the atrium rose to 10 - 15oC above the outside air temperature. Overheating of the offices in the adjacent space occur under these conditions, and the operable windows of these offices are ineffective in obtaining ventilation. This shows that dependable operation of the ventilation openings is quite important if atrium comfort is to be maintained during summer conditions. Simulations of the ELA building were carried out in order to examine the amount of ventilation required to maintain comfort conditions. Air change rates were varied from 1 - 25 per hour for both peak summer days and typical swing season days in different climates. The results show that it is not possible to maintain atrium comfort during mid-day in Washington in the summer. A range of one to ten ACH is sufficient to maintain comfort on a typical day in May. In Oslo, a ventilation rate ranging between one and ten ACH is sufficient to maintain comfort in the atrium even on a peak summer day, and during the milder months, a maximum of five ACH is sufficient.
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In most countries, there are fire code requirements for ventilation of the atrium space to control smoke accumulation. Although the specific regulations vary, a rate of 4-6 ACH is common. In some places, the regulations mandate a specific vent area, such as 10 % of the floor area. These requirements are very close to the ventilation rates necessary to maintain atrium comfort without cooling. If these requirements are met using either natural stack ventilation or fan induced exhaust, it may be possible to use the smoke venting system to maintain comfort during much of the cooling season in many climates.

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Using the atrium to cool the building While the stratification, ventilation, and shading devices in most of the atrium buildings are used to control overheating in the atrium itself, they do not provide a cooling benefit to the adjacent spaces of the building. The Gateway II building, in the UK, was designed to eliminate the mechanical cooling system by using the atrium to create a flow of air through the adjacent spaces and the atrium. This saved considerable construction and operating cost.

Fig.7. A section through the Gatway II building. The offices are arranged around a core atrium so that there is only 14 meters from the exterior wall of the building to the common wall with the atrium. Manually controlled operable windows in the building exterior wall and louvered windows in the common wall permit the flow of outdoor air through the offices to the atrium. The atrium has large roof lights located near the top that allow the ventilation air to escape. Stratification of the air in the atrium, aided by solar gains, enhances the air flow, as do small fans in some of the offices. Sensitivity to climate The atrium buildings described are located in climates where it is possible to avoid the use of mechanical cooling in the atrium. To test the effect that warmer climates can have on atrium design, a calibrated computer model of the ELA building was used to examine building performance in Washington, DC, U.S. The base case assessment is for the building as designed, without mechanical cooling in the atrium. The results show that the atrium comfort conditions are unacceptable during a typical summer day, based on the Fanger Thermal Sensation Index. This finding is consistent with other analyses, and demonstrates why most atria in similar climates are mechanically cooled. However, the comfort conditions for the atrium in its actual location in Trondheim are quite acceptable. This is consistent with measured data in the building. A series of alternatives was examined to achieve tolerable atrium conditions with low cooling energy use. First, the offices were cooled to 24oC, but the atrium was left uncooled. This did not improve comfort conditions in the atrium, so other strategies that use mechanical cooling in the atrium were tried. Education of Architects in Solar Energy and Environment, section 2.2 page 13
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A mechanically cooled base case was established by simulating the cooling of both the offices and the atrium to 24oC. If the south facing portion of the roof glazing in the atrium is replaced with opaque roof, the cooling energy requirements drop significantly. Another way of achieving this cooling benefit is to use a fixed or operable external shading device in order to reject the solar gain before it reaches the building. Shading devices can be designed to admit daylight without substantial solar gain, which may be more architecturally desirable than an opaque roof. 2.2.3.3 Daylighting strategies The glazing of an open well or courtyard reduces its potential as a daylighting strategy. A general estimate is that the atrium external envelope reduces daylight factors by at least 20% and sometimes by as much as 50 % compared to an open well. Thee amount of daylight entering the space depends on: shape and height of the atrium roof construction transmission of the glazing reflectance of the atrium walls.

The most important issues to consider in order to maximize the benefits of daylighting for the atrium itself and for the adjacent spaces are: Atrium function The light levels necessary to support the various activities planned for the atrium vary significantly. In most atria the daylight levels are sufficient to serve most suitable functions throughout the majority of the year at most latitudes. In some cases, additional light may be required to maintain plant growth. (Daylighting mb, pg. 4, Fig. 4) Adjacent space function Differing functions require differing illuminance levels, (Daylighting mb, pg 5, table) and that requirement must be met in spaces adjacent to the atrium. The ELA building has four floors of offices adjacent to the atrium. They require about 500 lux during occupied hours. A combination of measured and simulated results shows a daylighting potential for the top floor of the spaces adjacent to the atrium of about 50 - 55 %. The daylighting potential for the second floor is estimated to be 30 - 40 %. These estimates do not consider the possible influence of plants or ducts in the atrium, or contrast ratios. When this building is moved by simulation to the Dallas climate, the daylighting potential increases to about 80 % for the top floor and 60 - 70 % for the second floor. To realize this level of saving in the electric lighting requires either high quality automatic dimmers, or highly motivated users who manually control the lights to save energy. In practice, this does not occur in this building, and little or no daylighting energy savings occurs in the offices. However, light levels in the atrium are quite satisfactory.

Atrium proportions There are two basic principles regarding the proportions of atria for maximising daylight in atria: a lower atrium will be lighter than a higher atrium of similar plan, and the smaller the perimeter walls for similar roof area, the lighter it will be also. (image? BRE) Education of Architects in Solar Energy and Environment, section 2.2 page 14
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Parametric studies using a physical model of the ELA atrium, as well as computer simulations with the program Superlite, indicate that doubling the height to width ratio (that is, making the atrium twice as high) results in a decrease in the daylight factor at the bottom of the atrium of between one third and one half.
70

60

50 Daylight factor in centre of street

40

30

20
0.8 0.65 0.4 0.1

10

0 0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7 0.8

0.9

1.0 1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

Street width : Building height ratio

Fig.8. Calculated daylight factors at the center of the floor of a long glazed street. For extreme ratios, i.e. for very tall and narrow atria, the windows at the upper levels should be smaller than those at lower levels, as they receive more direct light from the sky. While increasing daylight to lower adjacent floors and minimising glare at upper adjacent floors, it also has the advantage of reflecting more light downwards, as light coloured walls will reflect more light than glazed surfaces. Splaying the walls of a high atrium can greatly increase the light which lower adjacent floors receive and mirrors are ofter used to reflect light downwards also.

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Percent daylight factor in rooms facing glazed street 4

0.9 0.4 0.1

75% window in building facade 50 % window in building facade 25% window in building facade

0
0.9 0.4 0.1

100% window in building facade

0.9 0.4 0.1

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4 0.5

0.6

0.7 0.8

0.9

1.0

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4 1.5

Street width : Building height ratio

Fig.9. Measured daylight factors close to the windows on the first floor rooms adjacent to a four story atrium, for different atrium proportions, window sizes, and facade reflectances (0.9, 0.4, 0.1). Roof construction and external envelope glazing The amount of daylight entering through the external envelope is influenced by the structural elements of the roof and glazing and the optical properties of the glazing materials. (EIA, pg.147, Fig 9.34) Conventional single clear glass will transmit approximately 85% of the light that falls upon it. Double and triple glazing with low e coatings will reduce this to between 60% and 70%, however, its increased thermal qualities and solar gain reductions make it more suitable for large areas of glazing in atria. ( Green Design, pg. 51, fig. 7.1 chart ) Technical developments in recent years have now made it possible to specify the make-up of a glazing unit to meet the requirements of heat gain, heat conservation, light transmission and light direction, at different latitudes and for different orientations. (see section 3.1.5. Daylighting and Solar Control Glazing Systems) Reflectance of atrium surfaces In most cases, the colour of the atrium walls has some effect on the daylight factor on the atrium floor. A darker colour has a far more serious effect on a higher atrium than a low one, it may reduce the daylight factor on the floor by up to half. A parametric study of the ELA atrium with 50 % glazing in the intermediate boundary was made for varying height to width ratios. The results show that when the colour of the solid walls in the intermediate boundary is changed from black, to grey, to white, the daylight factor at the center of the atrium floor improve by about 10 % for all ratios. In practice, most surface reflectance characteristics are similar to the grey curve; the black and white curves represent the extremes of performance. Glazing in common wall

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For the most common atrium proportions, the amount of light available in the atrium itself is not greatly influenced by the glazing in the common wall, although some interreflection does occur. However, the amount of light available in the adjacent spaces is directly affected by the amount (and type) of glazing in the common wall. Since the daylight factor drops on the lower floors of an atrium, a useful design strategy is to increase the size of the windows in the common wall as the distance from the atrium external envelope increases. For the Dragvoll building, physical model studies were conducted during the design phase to determine the appropriate amount of glazing in the common wall on each of three levels in the atrium. In order to achieve balanced light in the offices adjacent to the atrium, the top level has 40 % glazing, the middle level 70 % glazing, and the bottom level 90 % glazing was applied. Measurements of daylight factors in the completed building confirms the validity of this strategy.

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2.2.4 Examples of sunspaces and atria

2.2.4.1 Mid Europe and mediterranean climates Example in Greece HELIOS 2 - Passive Solar residence - Ekali, Athens Architect : Design: Construction : Alexandros N. Tombazis assisted by O.Diamandopoulou and C. Bitzaraki, architects 1979 1983 - 83

This single family house of 300 m2 is heated by passive solar energy. The house has two stories which wrap around a sunspace and courtyard on the side of the house, dug out of the terrain which slopes from south to north. The first floor bedrooms are heated directly by direct gains and the warm air from the sunspace wheb doors are left opened. In summer, the sunspace is shaded by an interior awning and vented from the ceiling. Apart from being used as a pleasant living area the owner is using it for growing plants. On average 59 % of energy demands have been calculared to be covered by solar contributions. The solar velum allow to reduce dazzling and direct irradiation and such to increase comfort conditions. The height of the sunspace which imply air stratification is also a good design with upper ventilation. Vegetation participate in cooling the conservatory in summer and mid-seasons. 2.2.4.2. Case studies in the south of France MAZOREL REHABSOL is a project for the bioclimatic and socio-environnemental renovation of social housing in Drme Department (France), in the Rhone Walley near Valence. The six buildings (on two sites Mazorel, Crest and Val dOr, Saint Rambert dAlbon) contain 88 apartments of varying sizes. MAZOREL PROJECT : The designers, ARCHI.M.E.D.E.S., arranged new site planting to provide meeting and play spaces as well as protection from sun and wind. External insulation with a rendered finish, double glazing and conservatories improve appearance and thermal performance. Trombe walls with transparent insulation act as passive solar collectors on South faades. SUNSPACES : New conservatories have been added 15 m2 to living rooms, which were formerly only 18 m2 even in the five-room dwellings. In winter they act as solar collectors, and in summer provide shading from high-angle sun for the rooms behind. Inhabitants have somewhere to grow their plants kumquats, lemons and herbs. Solar panels on the roof terraces provide 60 % of hot water requirements. Mechanical ventilation incorporates a heat recovery system. The cost of this energy-saving retrofit is approximatively 13000 ECU per unit. Energy savings are expected to be 70 % of previous consupmtion overall - 2.12 TOE / year per dwelling. Pollution reduction should be 2.2. TOE / year per dwelling. The projected life of the retrofit components is 25 to 30 years, and the calculated payback period 8 or 9 years.
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All interior work has been carried out and Trombe walls are being installed in March 1995. Monitoring is under way and will continue until March 1996. 2.2.4.3. Case studies in the south of France CREST The sunspaces (one per dwelling) are treated as buffer spaces, that means usable when meteorological conditions are favourable. It is a solar collector in winter, a living space in mid-season and in summer, when temperature and irradiation are low. The thermal mass of the walls and floors allow to reduce temperature and to store energy. Energy saving for the sheme is supposed to be 20 % in comparison with standard housing and 13 % due to solar gains. ALBON Glass, concrete and wood are mixed to create a terrace architecture. Living room is largely opened on the sunspace for both sun and landscape. This design is typically the good solution to benefit of solar gains in winter and prevent over heating in Summer. This additional area can be used all the year long. Solar control, except for ventilation is made by the architecture itself (opaque roof and roof-overhangf to south orientation). The design allow a 49 % of real data energy saving (the calculation gave a 15 % saving for the global performance).

2.2.5 Conclusions
Many atrium buildings save energy when compared to conventional buildings without atria. They act as buffers for their adjacent spaces, reducing their heat loss. The energy saving in the adjacent spaces partially offset the atrium heating energy requirements. Some atria also reduce the total building heating requirements. They act as buffers during the coldest parts of the year and contribute heat to the adjacent spaces during the milder parts, when more solar is available. Some of the most important conclusions that can be drawn regarding the atrium as part of a passive solar heating strategy are: - During midwinter an atrium primarily functions as a buffer. The buffer effect will naturally be greater the more surfaces the atrium and the adjacent spaces have in common. - During the spring and fall the atrium also has the potential to contribute useful heat to the rest of the building. A prerequisite for this is that the atrium is not fully heated and that its temperature is allowed to fluctuate. - In most climates, heating the atrium to a temperature in the range of 10-15oC results in little or no increase in the overall building heating energy requirements. The heat put into the atrium partially offsets the heating requirements in the rest of the building. Temperatures above 15oC result in substantial increases in atrium heating energy requirements.

- Tempering the atrium also reduces the size of the installed heating capacity in the adjacent spaces and reduces construction costs.
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- During the heating season, the U-value of the glazing is more important than the solar transmission for the energy consumption. Double low-emissivity glazing is particularly effective in northern latitudes. - Thermal mass in the atrium improves comfort, as it reduces temperature fluctuations, but it has little influence on the overall energy consumption. - If the atrium is used for active functions such as circulation, occupants will be comfortable inany of the climates considered without any heat being put into the atrium. If the atrium is used for more sedentary functions, such as seating, comfort conditions may not be acceptable and localized heating would have to be considered. Some of the most important conclusions regarding the atrium as part of a passive solar cooling strategy are: - In most northern climates, no mechanical cooling system is required to maintain atrium comfort. Natural or fan assisted ventilation with ambient air is sufficient to maintain reasonable comfort. - The smoke ventilation that is usually required for building reasons can be used to accomplish this, resulting in little effect on construction costs. - Solar controls, such as awnings, shutters, fabric drapes, and movable blinds, can all be effectively used to control solar gain during the overheating season without hindering solar gains during the winter. - An atrium can act as a thermal chimney, drawing ventilation air through the adjacent spaces.In some cases that can result in the elimination of a mechanical cooling system and thus in a building that is less expensive to build than one with mechanical cooling, but with no atrium. Some of the most important conclusions regarding the atrium as part of a daylighting strategy are: - The frames and glazing of an atrium reduce the amount of available daylight inside. However, the window area in the common wall can be increased without penalties in the form of higher heating energy consumption because of the buffer effect of the glazing. Consequently, more daylight may be available in the adjacent spaces. - Daylighting of the atrium results in lighting energy savings in many buildings, but few take advantage of the potential to save energy in the adjacent spaces, even if there is sufficient daylight available. - The atrium's width to height ratio substantially influences the amount of daylight available in the adjacent spaces, while the color of the surfaces in the atrium have a somewhat smaller influence. It is clear that the integration of an atrium in a building can result in energy savings when heating, cooling, and daylighting strategies are skillfully combined. In most cases, the inclusion of a well designed atrium also enhances the building's amenity value, and in some cases the use of an atrium lowers initial construction costs and operating costs.

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2.2.6 References
.Aschehoug, Daylight in Glazed Spaces, Building Research and Information, Volume 20 Number 4, 1992. A.G.Hestnes et al, Atria, pages 329-429 in Passive Solar Commercial and Institutional Buildings: A Sourcebook of Examples and Design Insights, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, UK 1993. A.G.Hestnes, Four Norwegian Case Studies, pages 179-202 in Passive and Hybrid Solar Commercial Buildings. IEA Task XI - Basic Case Studies, ETSU, Oxfordshire, UK 1990. European directory of sustainable and energy efficient building - 1995 - JAMES & JAMES Architecture solaire en europe, Commission des Communauts Europennes - EDISUD Rgles professionnelles pour la conception des verandas, SNFA, 1989 - Documentation technique - 20 P - Editeur : SNFA Architecture, ambiances et nergie : prix 1989, Ministre de l'quipement - Direction de l'Architecture et de l'Urbanisme, 1989 - Ouvrage - 85 P - Editeur : Techniques et Architecture Guide de l'clairage naturel et de l'clairage artificiel dans les tablissements scolaires, P. CHAUVEL, CCTCT/ MINEDUC - Direction des Personnels d'Inspection et de Direction, 1989 - Ouvrage - 79 P Editeur : Paris - CCTCT Prise en compte du rayonnement solaire dans l'clairage naturel des locaux : mthodes et perspectives, M. FONTOYMONT / ENSMP, 1987 - Thse - Travaux universitaires Mmoire - 228 p - Editeur : Fontoymont Concevoir et habiter : l'espace de la veranda, Plancon, 1987 - Ouvrage - 144 P - Editeur : Plancon European solar passive handbook : basic principles and concepts for passive solar architecture (preliminary edition), P. ACHARD / R. GICQUEL, 1987 - Ouvrage - CCE Passive solar energy dwellings, M. de Langen, Th. Reijenga, C. Boonstra, May 1989, final report, Goirle Effets de serre : Conception et construction des serres bioclimatiques, I. HURPY / F. NICOLAS Ouvrage - 206 P - Editeur : AIX EDISUD Project monitor (CCE brochures, Cas study) Energy in Architecture, The European Passive Solar Handbook, 1986, J. GOULDING / J.OWEN LEWIS / THEO C. STEEMERS, Batsford European Passive Solar Handbook, 1986, P. ACHARD / R. GICQUEL, CEC Environmental Design Guide for naturally ventilated and daylit offices, 1998, D. RENNIE / F. PARAND, BRE Working in the City, 1990, S. OTOOLE / J.OWEN LEWIS, CEC

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