CHAPTER 1PSYCHOLOGY: THE EVOLUTION OF A SCIENCE 1.

Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior Today psychologists are studying perception, memory, creativity, consciousness, love, a. anxiety Scientists define Mind as our private inner experience of perceptions, thoughts, b. memories, and feelings. c. Behavior is observable actions of human beings and nonhuman animals . !ddressing the "uestions of #illiam $ames, father of modern psychology #hat are the bases of perceptions, thoughts, memories, and feelings, our sub%ective sense of self& Previously believed that the pineal gland 'as a bridge bet'een the physical 'orld and a. the psychological 'orld #e no' (no' that those perceptions are represented as electrical and chemical b. activities in the brain c. Some of the most exciting developments in psychology research focus on ho' our thoughts, memories, and feelings are related to activity in the brain i. )xample* The techni"ue of functional magnetic resonance imaging, or fM+,, allo's scientists to -scan. a living brain and see 'hich parts are active 'hen a person sees a face, reads a 'ord, and so forth /. 0o' does the mind usually allo' us to function effectively in the 'orld& a. Scientists sometimes say -form follo's function.1 if 'e 'ant to understand ho' sometimes 'or(s 2e.g., an engine3, 'e need to (no' 'hat is 'or(ing for 2e.g., po'ering vehicles3 b. Psychological processes are adaptive ii. )xample* Perceptions allo' us to recogni4e our families. 5. 6iven its adaptiveness, 'hy does the mind occasionally function so ineffectively in the 'orld& The mind often trades accuracy for speed and versatility, resulting in malfunctions, or a. -mind bugs. The influence of habit, or doing things 'ithout really thin(ing, could explain bi4arre b. actions of -absentminded. people c. Brea(do'ns and errors are opportunities to examine ho' things change from normal operations, and provide path'ays to (no'ledge I. Psychologys Roots: Th P!th to ! Sc" #c o$ th %"#& !. Psychology7s !ncestors* The 6reat Philosophers 8ativism 2-nature.3 the philosophical vie' that certain (inds of (no'ledge are innate or 1. inborn a. Supported by the 6ree( thin(er Plato Philosophical )mpiricism 2-nurture.3 9 the philosophical vie' that all (no'ledge is ac"uired . through experience b. Supported by the 6ree( thin(er !ristotle, 'ho believed that a child7s mind 'as a blan( slate 2tabula rasa3 upon 'hich experiences are 'ritten /. These thin(ers offered great insight, but could not empirically test their theories B. :rom the Brain to the Mind* The :rench ;onnection 1. :rench philosopher +ene <escartes argued that the body is made of material substance, 'hereas the mind 2or soul3 is made of an immaterial or spiritual substance.

a. <ualism the vie' that the mind and body function separately i. Presents the problem of addressing ho' the mind communicates 'ith the body British philosopher Thomas 0obbes argued that the mind and body are not separate, so the . mind is 'hat the brain does /. :rench physician :ran4 $oseph 6all believed that brains and minds 'ere lin(ed through si4e, not glands1 that is, -more brain e"uals more mental ability. a. Phrenology a no' defunct theory that specific mental abilities and characteristics, ranging from memory to the capacity for happiness, are locali4ed in specific regions of the brain ii. 6all asserted that the si4e of bumps on the s(ull reflected the si4e of the brain beneath, and therefore the predominant characteristics of that person iii. 6all didn7t reali4e that bumps on the s(ull do not necessarily reveal anything about the shape of the brain underneath ,n the end, phrenology came to be seen as a series of strong claims based on 'ea( b. evidence and 'as "uic(ly discredited 5. :rench biologist Pierre :lourens tested the ideas of 6all by removing brain parts from animals and observing any resulting changes in behavior =. Surgeon Paul Broca 'rote about a patient 'ho could understand speech, but could not produce speech 2other than the syllable -tan.3 due to very specific damage in his brain Broca and :lourens 'ere the first to demonstrate that the mind is grounded in the material >. substance of the brain ;. :rom Physiology to Psychology* ! 8e' Science is Born 1. Physiology the study of biological processes, especially in the human body #illiam $ames 'as dra'n to the 'or( of 6erman physiologists 0ermann von 0elmholt4 and . #ilhelm #undt /. 0elmholt4 measured the speed of nerve impulses in a frog7s leg a. Stimulus sensory input from the environment b. +eaction Time the amount of time ta(en to respond to a specific stimulus c. 0elmholt4 noted that reaction times from a stimulus at the toe 'ere longer than those applied to the thigh, sho'ing that the neurological processes underlying mental events are not instantaneous, %ust very fast 5. #undt and the development of structuralism #undt, 0elmholt47s research assistant, is generally credited 'ith being responsible for a. the official emergence of psychology ,n 1?>@, #undt taught 'hat 'as probably the first university9level course in b. physiological psychology ! decade later #undt opened the first university laboratory exclusively devoted to c. psychological studies d. #undt believed that scientific psychology should focus on ;onsciousness a person7s sub%ective experience of the 'orld and the mind e. #undt and his students developed an approach called Structuralism the analysis of the basic elements that constitute the mind Some of their studies involved ,ntrospection the sub%ective observation of i. one7s o'n experience ii. ,n these studies, observers, presented 'ith a stimulus, 'ere as(ed to report their o'n introspections, or sensory experiences +eaction time experiments began to illustrate the differences bet'een sensation iii. and perception

iv. This type of experiment bro(e ne' ground, sho'ing that psychologists could use scientific techni"ues to disentangle even subtle processes =. Titchener brings structuralism to the Anited States British9born )d'ard Titchener studied 'ith #undt for t'o years and opened a similar a. lab at ;ornell Aniversity i. #hereas #undt emphasi4ed the relationship bet'een the elements of consciousness, Titchener focused on identifying the elements themselves b. Structuralism faded due to the lac( of replicable observations and 'hether it 'as even possible to identify such elements solely through introspection i. Bne such s(eptic 'as #illiam $ames >. $ames and the :unctional !pproach a. #illiam $ames ran experiments in his 0arvard course, the first at an !merican university to dra' on the ne' experimental psychology developed by #undt and Titchener* these lectures and experiments led to $ames7s masterpiece, The Principles of Psychology 21?CD3 b. $ames disagreed 'ith the idea that consciousness could be bro(en do'n into separate elements, instead claiming that consciousness 'as more li(e a flo'ing stream i. 0e proposed instead :unctionalism the study of the purpose mental processes serve in enabling people to adapt to their environment $ames7s ideas 'ere inspired by ;harles <ar'in7s 'or(, The Origin of the Species 21?=C3 i. <ar'in had proposed the principle of 8atural Selection the features of an organism that help it survive and reproduce are more li(ely than other features to be passed on to subse"uent generations $ames believed that mental abilities must have evolved because they 'ere ii. adaptive iii. $ames felt that the structuralists7 laboratory approach 'as limited because it could not explain ho' consciousness functioned in natural environments d. :unctionalism "uic(ly gained ground, especially in 8orth !merica e. :unctionalism prevailed in 8orth !merica by the 1C D7s c. II. E''o's !#& Ill(s"o#s R ) !l Psychology !. ,llusions of Movement and the Birth of 6estalt Psychology ,llusions errors of perception, memory, or %udgment in 'hich sub%ective experience differs 1. from ob%ective reality MEller9Fyer line illusion* hori4ontal lines appear to be different lengths due to a. surrounding angled lines, though they are not i. 6erman psychologist Max #ertheimer, after observing an illusion on a train ride, performed an experiment to induce a movement illusion using the timing of flashes of light #ertheimer7s interpretation of the phenomenon 'as that the separate flashes of ii. light 'ere perceived as a 'hole rather than the sum of t'o parts iii. This unified 'hole is referred to as -6estalt. in 6erman iv. 6estalt Psychology a psychological approach that emphasi4es that 'e often perceive the 'hole rather than the sum of the parts . !lthough it no longer exists as a distinct psychological approach, 6estalt7s basic claims have influenced the modern science of ob%ect perception B. Mental <isorders and Multiple Selves

0ysteria a temporary loss of cognitive or motor functions, usually as a result of emotionally upsetting experiences a. ;onditions described by :rench physicians $ean9Marie ;harcot and Pierre $anet . These conditions of star(ly contrasting behavior 'ithin one individual 'ere dismissed by #undt and Titchener, but embraced as learning opportunities by $ames ! Giennese physician and student of ;harcot, Sigmund :reud, 'as also intrigued by these /. observations ;. :reud and Psychoanalytic Theory #or(ing 'ith Breuer in Gienna, :reud developed theories to explain strange behaviors and 1. symptoms a. ;entral theme of explanations 'as repressed painful childhood memories b. Anconscious the part of the mind that operates outside of conscious a'areness but influences conscious thoughts, feelings, and actions c. Psychoanalytic Theory an approach that emphasi4es the importance of unconscious mental processes in shaping feelings, thoughts, and behaviors i. +elies heavily on early sexual experiences and unconscious sexual desires d. Psychoanalysis a therapeutic approach that focuses on bringing unconscious material into conscious a'areness to better understand psychological disorders e. ;arl $ung and !lfred !dler 'ere prominent in the psychoanalytic movement, but had disagreements, and eventual fallouts, 'ith :reud . #hile $ames 'or(ed in an academic setting and :reud 'ith clinical patients, both believed that mental aberrations 'ere clues into the nature of mind <. ,nfluence of Psychoanalysis and the 0umanistic +esponse 1. Psychoanalysis had its greatest influence on clinical practice, but this has greatly decreased . Mainly because of its pessimism and lac( of testability, psychoanalysis fell out of favor 0umanistic Psychology an approach to understanding human nature that emphasi4es the /. positive potential of human beings 0umanistic psychologists 2i.e., Maslo' and +ogers3 focused on people7s highest a. aspirations for themselves b. The humanistic movement pea(ed in the 1C>Ds 0umanistic therapists treated their -clients. more on an e"ual footing than c. psychoanalysts did their -patients. 1. III. Psychology "# th *+th C #t('y: , h!)"o'"s- T!. s C #t ' St!g 213 Structuralism, functionalism, psychoanalysis, and 6estalt psychology all tried to understand the inner 'or(ings of the mind by examining conscious perceptions, thoughts, memories, and feelings, or by eliciting unconscious material, all of 'hich 'ere reported by the participants or patients in a clinical setting, 2 3 This 'as difficult to replicate and discuss 'ith certainty, 2/3 Behaviorism an approach that advocates that psychologists restrict themselves to the scientific study of ob%ectively observable behavior !. #atson and the )mergence of Behaviorism 1. $ohn #atson felt that private experience 'as too idiosyncratic to be studied scientifically a. #atson proposed that psychology focus on behavior, or 'hat people do, instead of 'hat people experience, because behavior can be measured ob%ectively b. #atson removed the mind from the e"uation and began studying other animals Margaret #ashburn suggested that nonhuman animals have conscious mental experiences, but . #atson disagreed a. #atson 'as influenced by +ussian physiologist ,van Pavlov, 'ho noticed that dogs salivated at the sight of food !8< the people 'ho feed them

Pavlov trained dogs to expect food follo'ing a tone 2stimulus3 and measured salivation in response ii. +esponse an action or physiological change elicited by a stimulus b. Behaviorism is often referred to as -S9+. or -stimulus9response. psychology B. B.:. S(inner and the <evelopment of Behavior S(inner 'ondered if he could develop behaviorist principles to explain ho' animals learn to 1. act on their environments S(inner developed a conditioning chamber, or S(inner box, that allo'ed animals the ability to . access food a. +einforcement the conse"uences of a behavior that determine 'hether it 'ill be more li(ely that the behavior 'ill occur again /. S(inner set out to use his ideas about reinforcement to improve the "uality of everyday life a. S(inner developed automatic devices called -teaching machines S(inner thought the satisfaction of (no'ing an ans'er 'as correct 'ould be i. reinforcing and help children learn 5. S(inner7s philosophy 'as that choice and free9'ill 'ere illusions, and that people 'ere simply responding to past and present reinforcements i. IV. , yo#& , h!)"o'"s-: Psychology E/0!#&s !. The )mergence of ;ognitive Psychology )ven at the height of behaviorist domination, some researchers continued to focus on mental 1. processes British psychologist Sir :rederic Bartlett studied memory through short stories and a. noted the errors sub%ects made in recall i. Bartlett found that sub%ects often remembered 'hat should have happened or 'hat 'as expected, not 'hat did happen in the story, indicating that memory is influenced by our (no'ledge, beliefs, and desires . S'iss psychologist $ean Piaget studied children7s perceptual and cognitive errors a. 0e 'anted to understand the nature and development of the human mind i. )xample* until they are >9 or @9years old, children do not understand that the mass of an ob%ect is retained even if it is divided in half 6erman psychologist Hurt Fe'in reintroduced the importance of one7s sub%ective experience /. in the 'orld in predicting behavior a. !ccording to Fe'in, it 'as not the stimulus, but rather the person7s construal of the stimulus, that determined the person7s subse"uent behavior Fe'in used topology, a (ind of mathematics, to model and predict a person7s sub%ective b. experience Still, most psychologists ignored mental processes until the advent of the computer in the 5. 1C=Ds a. Psychologists no' 'ondered if the computer might be a model for the mind b. The invention of the computer also led to rene'ed interest in mental processes, leading to the development of ;ognitive PsychologyIthe scientific study of mental processes, including perception, thought, memory, and reasoning. =. ;ognitive psychology 'as also energi4ed by the publication of S(inner7s boo( Verbal Behavior 21C=@3, 'hich argued that language ac"uisition unfolds according to the principles of behaviorism a. !merican linguist 8oam ;homs(y blasted S(inner7s analysis, citing the need for many mental rules for grammar, novel 'ords, and sentences

>.

These developments set the stage for the explosion of cognitive studies in the 1C>Ds

B. The Brain Meets the Mind* The +ise of ;ognitive 8euroscience 1. )rrors in behavior continue to illuminate the need to understand the hard'are of the brain in order to understand even the simplest cognitive processes a. Studies of damaged brains remind us that our simplest mental processes depend on intricate operations carried out in the brain . #atson7s student Harl Fashley follo'ed the lead of :lourens by removing parts of the brain of an animal and loo(ing for -learning. in the brain through behavioral deficits Fashley discovered that removing more brain led to 'orse behavior instead of finding a a. specific site in the brain for learning b. Behavioral 8euroscience an approach to psychology that lin(s psychological processes to activities in the nervous system and other bodily processes i. ,ncludes recording electrical and chemical changes in the brain as sub%ects perform specially constructed tas(s, or removing parts of the animal brain to see ho' that affects performance /. Because it is not ethical to do such research using human sub%ects, human research relied on accidents and brain in%ury for many years, until brain9scanning techni"ues 'ere developed to gauge brain activity during specific tas(s and behaviors 2e.g., reading and spea(ing3 :or example, scanning techni"ues are used to identify parts of the brain used in specific 5. aspects of language ;ognitive 8euroscience a field that attempts to understand the lin(s bet'een cognitive a. processes and brain activity ;. The !daptive Mind* The )mergence of )volutionary Psychology 1. )xperiments by $ohn 6arcia sho'ed that rats learn to associate smells 'ith food more "uic(ly than other modalities 2i.e., visual stimuli3 a. Fearning from the rat7s ancestors 'as being represented in the present . )volutionary Psychology a psychological approach that explains mind and behavior in terms of the adaptive value of abilities that are preserved over time by natural selection a. ! central theme of the approach is that the brain is not an -all9purpose computer,. but 'as built to do some things very 'ell and not others 2i.e., it comes 'ith a small suite of built9in applications3 /. )volutionary psychologists 'ould explain the existence of human traits 'e have today by saying that these traits have served and continue to serve an adaptive function1 for example, %ealousy 5. ;ritics of evolutionary psychology argue that some traits that aid people and animals no' probably evolved initially for different functions 2e.g., feathers 'ere probably for temperature regulation, not flight, initially3 Testing evolutionary psychology is difficult because of the lac( of existing records for past =. events, thoughts, feelings, and actions a. Bne approach is to study traits across multiple cultures b. !nother approach is to examine the issue through reproductive success <. Beyond the ,ndividual* The <evelopment of Social Psychology 1. Trying to understand people in the absence of family, friends, and co'or(ers is li(e trying to understand an ant 'ithout considering its function in the colony Social Psychology a subfield of psychology that studies the causes and conse"uences of . interpersonal behavior a. 8orman Triplett noticed that cyclists rode faster 'hen they 'ere 'ith other cyclists

compared to riding alone, that is, the presence of other people affected performance /. <evelopment of social psychology in the 1C/Ds 'as strongly influenced by 6estalt psychology 5. 0istorical events also influenced its development a. The 0olocaust brought issues of conformity and obedience to the forefront b. The civil rights movement brought stereotyping, pre%udice, and racism to the forefront 6ordon !llport suggested that pre%udice 'as the result of a perceptual error i. analogous to an optical illusion c. Social psychology remains dedicated to understanding the brain as a social organ, the mind as a social adaptation, and the individual as a social creature ). The )mergence of ;ultural Psychology !lthough 'e are more ali(e than different, there is considerable diversity among human 1. cultures ;ulture the values, traditions, and beliefs that are shared by a particular group of a. people Bften defined by nationality, ethnicity, age, sexual orientation, religion, or i. occupation ;ultural Psychology the study of ho' cultures reflect and shape the psychological b. processes of their members . Bne of the first psychologists to pay attention to culture 'as #undt, 'ho believed that a complete psychology 'ould have to combine a laboratory approach 'ith a broader cultural perspective !nthropologists Margaret Mead and 6regory Bateson traveled all over the 'orld to a. study various aspects of other cultures :or much of psychology7s history, it 'as believed that certain universals hold in explaining /. human life a. Some psychologists believed in Absolutism, 'hich holds that culture ma(es little or no difference for most psychological phenomena b. Bther psychologists believed in Relativism, 'hich holds that psychological phenomena are li(ely to vary considerably across cultures and should be vie'ed only in the context of a specific culture /. Today most psychologists fall bet'een these t'o extremes ;ultural psychologists design research to investigate 'hether a phenomenon is variable or 5. constant across cultures V. Th P'o$ ss"o# o$ Psychology: P!st !#& P' s #t 1. !s the field gre', psychologists began to band together. The first ma%or professional organi4ation, the !merican Psychological !ssociation, 'as founded in 1?C by seven psychologists, 2 3 The !P! no' has over 1=D,DDD members, 2/3 Today, academic psychologists no' ma(e up only DJ of membership and @DJ of members are clinical or health9related psychologists, 253 The second ma%or organi4ation, the !merican Psychological Society 2!PS3, 'as founded in 1C?? by 5=D academic psychologists focused on the scientific research in psychology and 'as renamed the !ssociation for Psychological Science in DD>. !. The 6ro'ing +ole of #omen and Minorities Briginally all 'hite men, the !P! is no' roughly half 'omen and increasingly diverse in 1. minority representation . )arly pioneers bla4ed the trail a. Mary ;al(ins became the first 'oman to serve as !P! president in 1CD= /. Today 'omen play leading roles in all aspects of psychology

5. $ust as there 'ere no 'omen at the first !P! meeting, so 'ere there no non either a. Henneth ;lar( became the first minority member to serve as !P! president in 1C@D i. ;lar( studied 'ith :rancis Sumner, the first !frican !merican to receive a Ph< in psychology99from ;lar( Aniversity in 1C D B. #hat Psychologists <o Most psychologist attend graduate school to earn a doctor of philosophy 2Ph<3 in some area of 1. psychology Some continue to study ne' sub%ects or techni"ues as postdoctoral fello's . Some apply for academic, government, or industry %obs after receiving a Ph< a. !cademic %obs typically involve teaching and research b. 6overnment or industry %obs are typically dedicated to research alone /. There are a variety of other career paths, ho'ever a. Clinical Psychologists assess or treat people 'ith psychological problems Psychiatrists earn a medical degree 2M<3 and are allo'ed to prescribe i. medication ;linical psychologists 'or( in hospitals, schools, universities, or in private ii. practice ;ounseling Psychologists assist people in dealing 'ith 'or( or career issues and changes or 5. help people deal 'ith common crises ;ounseling psychologists comprise roughly 1DJ of !P! membership a. b. They may have a Ph<, M! 2master7s degree3 or an MS# 2master of social 'or(3 =. School Psychologists offer guidance to students, parents, and teachers a. They ma(e up roughly =J of !P! membership b !ndustrial"Organi#ational Psychologists focus on issues in the 'or(place c. They comprise roughly =J of !P! membership

I. E-0"'"c"s-: Ho1 to 2#o1 Th"#gs 1. Briginally, there 'ere t'o (inds of 6ree( doctors* <ogmatists and )mpiricists <ogmatists attempted to treat illnesses by developing theories about the body7s a. functions b. <ogmatism The tendency for people to cling to their assumptions )mpiricists attempted to treat illnesses by understanding the illness through the c. observation of sic( people )mpiricism The belief that accurate (no'ledge of the 'orld re"uires observation d. of it Bnly in the last /DD years have people trusted observation over elders, laying the e. foundation for modern science )mpiricism is not infallible, ho'ever1 Anderstanding natural phenomena through f. empiricism re"uires a method g. Method ! set of rules and techni"ues for observation that allo' observers to avoid the illusions, mista(es, and erroneous conclusions that simple observation can produce . Three things ma(e human behavior especially difficult to study i. ;omplexity* The brain is nearly infinitely complex as a structure and it is

responsible for producing thoughts, feelings, and actions that are the core of psychology7s concerns Gariability* 8o t'o people ever do, say, thin(, or feel exactly the same thing ii. under exactly the same conditions iii. +eactivity* People often react differently 'hen they are being 'atched compared to 'hen they are not, and each individual may have a uni"ue reaction to being observed II. Th Sc" #c o$ O3s ')!t"o#: S!y"#g 4h!t 1. Kou have to (no' $hat people are doing before you can say $hy they do t a. Bbserving something means using your senses to learn about the thing7s properties b. But casual observations are not useful in doing science i. ;asual observations are notoriously unstable ;asual observation can7t tell you about many of the properties of something ii. that you might be interested in Therefore, to (no' and understand the properties of interest of any thing you must c. measure !. Measurement ,n order to measure something you must first define the property to measure and then find a 1. 'ay to detect it Bperational <efinition a description of an abstract property in terms of a concrete a. condition that can be measured )xample* The operational definition of length L the change in the location of i. light over time The first step in ma(ing any measurement is to define the property 'e 'ant to b. measure in concrete terms . Measure a device that can detect the events to 'hich an operational definition refers i. )xample* Kou can detect the changes in the location of light over time 2length3 by using a photon detector 2location of light particle3 and a cloc( 2time for light particle to travel from one point to another3 /. <efining and detecting are the t'o tas(s that allo's us to measure physical properties and they also allo' us to measure psychological properties i. )xample* ,f 'e 'anted to measure happiness, our first tas( 'ould be develop an operational definition of that property 'e might define happiness as the simultaneous contraction of the 4ygotomatic ma%or and the orbicularis oculi iii. #e 'ould then need to measure these contractions, 'ith the )lectromyograph 2)M63 a device that measures muscle contractions under the surface of a person7s s(in 5. But there are many 'ays to measure happiness. a. #ith so many options, ho' do 'e choose among them& =. The best (inds of measurements share three properties* validity, reliability, and po'er a. Galidity the characteristic of an observation that allo's one to dra' accurate ii.

inferences from it b. There are t'o 'ays for a measurement to be valid i. The operational definition must ade"uately define the property The measure can ade"uately detect the conditions that the operational ii. definition describes >. The other important property of a good measurement is reliability +eliabilityIthe tendency of a measure to produce the same result 'henever it is used a. to measure the same thing b. The flip side of reliability is Po'erIthe tendency for a measure to produce different results 'hen it is used to measure different things c. +eliable and po'erful measures are those that detect the conditions specified by an operational definition 'hen they happen, and only 'hen they happen @. Galidity, reliability, and po'er are prere"uisites for accurate measurement a. The next step is to find something to measure, using these, and psychologists have developed techni"ues for doing this too B. Samples 1. Sometimes individuals do remar(able things that deserve close study by psychologists ;ase Method a method of gathering scientific (no'ledge by studying a single a. individual i. )xample* Bliver Sachs described his observations of a brain9damaged patient 'ho made certain (inds of mista(es and these observations 'ere 'orth ma(ing because they 'ere unusual mista(es for a man to ma(e b. ,t is 'orth studying an exceptional or unusual individual because it might provide insight about a psychological phenomenon But most often, psychologists are interested in explaining 'hy unexceptional 2i.e., -ordinary.3 people do 'hat they do ,t is impossible to observe the entire PopulationIthe complete collection of ob%ects a. or events that might be measured Therefore, psychologists observe a SampleIa partial collection of ob%ects or events b. that is measured c. ,f the sample is 'ell9chosen and relatively large, then the behavior of individuals in the sample should be representative of the larger population d. :or more on sampling techni"ues, see the !ppendix. ;. <emand ;haracteristics 1. !fter psychologists have settled on a valid and reliable measurement, and constructed a representative sample to study, they next have to figure out ho' to apply that measurement to the sample in the most accurate 'ay possible Bne problem is that, people are tying to behave as they thin( they should behave a. . b. <emand characteristics99those aspects of a setting that cause people to behave as they thin( an observer 'ants or expects them to behave i. )xample* -<o you thin( these %eans ma(e me loo( fat&.

Bne 'ay for psychologists to avoid demand characteristics is to observe people 'ithout their (no'ledge a. 8aturalistic Bbservation a method of gathering scientific (no'ledge by unobtrusively observing people in their natural environments i. )xample* 0ungry shoppers buy the most impulse items at the grocery store There are t'o reasons 'hy naturalistic observations doesn7t solve demand characteristic /. problems* . a. Some of the things that psychologists 'ant to observe do not occur naturally i. )xample* ,f 'e 'anted to find out 'hether people 'ho have undergone sensory deprivation perform poorly on motor tas(s, 'e 'ould have to 'ait a long time for a fe' do4en blindfolded people 'ith earplugs to 'ander by and start typing Some of the things psychologists 'ant to observe can only be gathered from direct b. interaction of a person )xample* ,f 'e 'anted to (no' ho' often people 'orried about dying, i. simply observing them 'ould not do the tric( 5. Psychologists use several tric(s for avoiding demand characteristics a. They allo' sub%ects to respond anonymously b. They measure behaviors that are not susceptible to demand characteristics i. )xample* Pupil dilation in response to excitement c. They retain lac( of relationship information bet'een demand and behavior 2i.e., (eep the participant blind to the purpose of the study3 =. But the best 'ay to avoid demand characteristics is to (eep the people being observed from (no'ing the true purpose of the observation #hen participants are (ept blind to the observer7s expectations, they cannot strive a. to meet those expectations. >. 0o'ever, people are curious, and so try to figure out 'hy they are being observed a. So psychologists sometimes use cover stories, or misleading explanations that are meant to (eep participants from seeing the true purpose of an observation Br they may use filler items, or pointless measures that are meant to mas( the true b. purpose of the observation <. The Blind Bbserver 1. The behavior of the observers can also interfere 'ith valid and reliable measurement i. )xample* ,n a classic study, students 'ho thought they 'ere measuring the speed of a dull rat reported that it too( longer for that rat to run a ma4e than did the rat than other students thought 'as a bright rat . There are t'o reasons 'hy this happened i. )xpectations can influence observation ii. )xpectations can influence reality /. Psychologists used many techni"ues to avoid these influences a. Bne of the commonest is the <ouble9Blind an observation 'hose true purpose is hidden from the researcher as 'ell as from the participant

b.

Many modern studies are carried out by the 'orld7s blindest experimenter* a computer

III. Th Sc" #c o$ E/0l!#!t"o#: S!y"#g 4hy !lthough the careful measurement of properties is important, the ultimate goal of scientific research is to discover the causal relationships bet'een properties i. )xample* Measurement can tell you ho' much happiness and altruism occur in a particular sample, but it cannot tell you 'hether t'o properties are related, or, if so, 'hether their relationship is causal !. ;orrelation and ;ausation !fter collecting some data, you may notice that t'o properties tend to occur together more 1. often than not a. #hen t'o properties occur together, 'e often say they are ;orrelated the value of one is systematically related to the value of the other b. #hen the value of altruism is high, then the value of happiness tends to be high, too. Correlation is short for co%relationship . But that t'o GariablesIproperties 'hose values can vary across individuals or over timeI are present does not necessarily mean that one causes the other :or example, the more television violence a child sees 2variable &3, the more aggressive that /. child is li(ely to be 2variable '3 a. But it may not mean that seeing violence causes aggression i. )xample* ;hildren 'ho are naturally aggressive may en%oy TG violence more than those 'ho aren7t and therefore may see( opportunities to 'atch it 5. To complicate matters even more, it may be that a third variable 2(3 causes children to both be aggressive and to 'atch TG violence The relation bet'een aggressiveness and TG violence may be caused by Third9 a. variable correlationIin 'hich t'o variables are correlated only because each is causally related to a third variable i. )xample* Fac( of adult supervision 2(3 may allo' children to get a'ay 'ith bullying other children and to get a'ay 'ith 'atching TG sho's not normally permitted by adults1 thus, 'atching TG violence 2&) and behaving aggressively 2'3 may not be causally related but be the independent effects of a lac( of adult supervision 2(3 B. Matched Samples and Matched Pairs The most straightfor'ard 'ay to determine 'hether a third variable 2(3 causes children to 'atch TG violence 2&3 and behave aggressively 2'3 is to eliminate differences in adult 1. supervision 2() among a sample of children and see if the correlation bet'een TG violence 2&3 and aggressiveness 2'3 remains a. Kou could observe children using the Matched Samples Techni"ueIa techni"ue 'hereby the participants in t'o samples are identical in terms of a third variable b. Br you could observe them using the Matched Pairs Techni"ueIa techni"ue 'hereby each participant in a sample is identical to one other participant in that sample in terms of a third variable c. +egardless of 'hich techni"ue you use, you 'ould (no' that children 'ho do or

don7t 'atch TG violence have e"ual amounts of adult supervision on average1 as such, if those 'ho 'atch a lot of TG violence have more aggression than those 'ho don7t, then lac( of adult supervision can not be the cause . )ven so, neither matched samples nor matched pairs techni"ues 'ould be enough to dismiss a particular third variable li(e adult supervision, so you could not use them to dismiss all third variables /. The reason is that there is an infinite number of third variables and thus an infinite number of reasons 'hy & and ' might be correlated a. The Third Gariable ProblemIrefers to the fact that a causal relationship bet'een t'o variables cannot be inferred from the naturally occurring correlation bet'een them because of the ever9present possibility of third9variable correlation ;. )xperimentation 1. To learn about causal relationships, 'e have to find another method . )xperiment a techni"ue for establishing the causal relationship bet'een variables a. Kou already (no' about experiments because 'e have been doing them all your life i. )xample* ,f you are surfing the #eb on a laptop that uses a 'ireless connection and suddenly the connection stops 'or(ing, you might suspect your roommate7s ne' cordless phone has interfered 'ith your connection, and then you might observe and measure carefully, noting 'hether your connection 'or(s 'hen you roommate uses his cordless ii. )ven if you observe a correlation bet'een the failure to connect and your roommate7s phone usage, the third9variable problem 'ould prevent you from dra'ing a causal conclusion1 for example, perhaps your roommate calls his mom 'hen there is an electrical storm because such storms terrify him, and thus it is the storm that interrupts your connection iii. Then the storm 2() is the cause of both your roommate7s phone calls 2&3 and your laptop7s failure to connect to the internet 2') /. To solve the third9variable problem, you could try to create a correlation i. )xample* Kou can intentionally s'itch your roommate7s phone on and off a fe' times and at the same time observe changes in your laptop7s connection ii. ,f you notice that 'hen he phone is on the connection failure occurs more often than not, then you 'ould conclude your roommate7s phone is the cause of your failed connection To solve scientific problems, psychologists use the same techni"ue that you intuitively did to 5. solve your connection problem i. )xample* Kou can determine 'hy there is a correlation bet'een aggressiveness and TG violence by manipulating ho' much TG violence a child 'atches ii. Kou could, for example, find a sample of children, expose half of them to hours of TG violence every day for a month, and ma(e sure the other half sa' no TG violence during the same period iii. !t the end of a month, you could measure the aggressiveness in each group1 you 'ould essentially be computing the correction bet'een a variable you measured 2aggressiveness3 and a variable you manipulated 2TG violence3 and in so doing you 'ill have solved the third9variable problem7

=. ,ndependent Gariable the variable that is manipulated in an experiment )xperimental 6roup the group of people that are treated in a particular 'ay ;ontrol 6roup the group of people that are not treated in a particular 'ay <ependent Gariable the variable that is measured in the study <. <ra'ing ;onclusions 1. ,nternal Galidity the characteristic of an experiment that allo's one to dra' accurate inferences about the causal relationship bet'een an independent and dependent variable a. )verything inside of the experiment is 'or(ing li(e it should in order to dra' conclusions about causal relationships, 'hich means i. !n independent variable has been effectively manipulated ! dependent variable has been measured in an unbiased 'ay 'ith a valid, ii. po'erful, and reliable measure ! correlation has been observed bet'een the independent and the dependent iii. variable . ,f 'e do these things, 'e may conclude that manipulated changes in the independent variable caused measured changes in the dependent variable1 that is, that TG violence 2as 'e defined it3 caused aggressiveness 2as 'e defined it3 in the children 'e measured a. )ven if an experiment is internally valid, it only allo's you to dra' the conclusion that one variable caused another -as you defined it. and only in the people -'hom you studied. /. )xternal Galidity a characteristic of an experiment in 'hich the independent and dependent variables are operationally defined in a normal, typical, or realistic 'ay Most psychologists are trying to learn about the real 'orld by using experiments to test 5. theories and hypotheses a. Theory a hypothetical account of ho' and 'hy a phenomenon occurs, usually in the form of a statement about the causal relationship bet'een t'o or more properties 2'hich leads to hypotheses3 b. 0ypothesis a specific and testable prediction that is usually derived from a theory Theories allo' us to generate hypotheses about 'hat can happen, or 'hat c. must happen, or 'hat 'ill happen under particular circumstances d. )xperiments are typically meant to create these circumstances, test the hypotheses, and thereby provide evidence for or against the theories that generated them =. The best 'ay to (no' 'hether the conclusions 'e dra' about a sample are also true of the larger population is to use random sampling a. +andom Sampling a techni"ue for choosing participants that ensures that every member of a population has an e"ual chance of being included in the sample +andom sampling allo's the right to generali4e from the behavior of the sample to b. the behavior of the population True random sampling is extremely difficult and thus is never really done and so nonrandom >. sampling is used instead @. There are three reasons 'hy nonrandom samples are o(ay i. Sometimes generality does not matter1 it often doesn7t matter if everyone does something as long as someone does it99as an experimental result can be illuminating even 'hen its generality is severely limited

ii. Sometimes generality can be determined1 for example, if the results of an experiment can be replicated in other nonrandom samples, 'e can be more confident that the results 'ould generali4e to the 'hole population iii. Sometimes generality can be assumed1 thus many participants in samples share enough in common 'ith other people in other places to assume that the effects found in one study 'ould occur again in another study IV. Th Eth"cs o$ Sc" #c : S!y"#g Pl !s !#& Th!#. Yo( Psychologists are bound by a strict code of ethics to treat participants fairly, and to ensure 1. their safety and 'ell9being a. ,nformed ;onsent a 'ritten agreement to participate in a study made by a person 'ho has been informed of all the ris(s that participation may entail b. :reedom from ;oercion99psychologists may not coerce 2e.g., physically, psychologically, or monetarily3 participation from potential sub%ects c. Protection from 0arm* psychologists should al'ays use the safer of t'o methods 'hen available, and if no safe method is available, the study must not be conducted d. +is(9benefit !nalysis* Participants must not be as(ed to ta(e ris(s beyond those that they 'ould ordinarily, and re"uests for small ris(s must be sho'n to provide ne' social benefits as a result of the study e. <ebriefing a verbal description of the true nature and purpose of a study that psychologists provide to people after they have participated in the study . These rules of ethics are enforced by ,nstitutional +evie' Boards 2,+Bs3, instructors and researchers, university staff, and laypeople from the community, 'ho revie' the proposals for studies to ensure the safety of the participants /. Some psychological experiments are performed on nonhuman animals 8onhuman animal experiments are governed by similar guidelines as those a. for people to ensure their ethical treatment Some experiments on nonhuman animals have had tremendous benefits for b. humans and many do not 5. Still, there is a controversy over 'hether it is morally acceptable to force nonhuman animals to pay certain costs so human animals can reap uncertain benefits a. This is a moral dilemma and not a scientific controversy b. :or no' there is no easy solution I. N ('o#s: Th O'"g"#s o$ , h!)"o' 8eurons have thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that are often accompanied by visible signals, 1. such as a smile 'hen seeing a friend. !ll these signals are produced by an underlying invisible component coordinated by a. the activity of your brain cells 8eurons cells in the nervous system that communicate 'ith one another to perform . information9processing tas(s a. There are approximately 1DD billion neurons in the brain b. 8eurons came in many shapes and si4es, and communicate 'ithout touching

/. Fi(e cells in all organs of the body, neurons have a cell body ;ell Body 2Soma3 coordinates the information9processing tas(s and (eeps the cell a. alive b. <endrites receive information from other neurons and relay it to the cell body c. !xon transmits information to other neurons, muscles, or glands 5. 6lial ;ells support cells found in the nervous system a. There are 1D to =D times more glial cells than neurons 6lial cells clean up dead tissue, provide nutrients to neurons, and provide myelin for b. axons c. Some glial cells form myelin sheaths Myelin Sheath an insulating layer of fatty material around the axon that speeds d. conduction =. ,n demyelinating disease, the myelin sheath deteriorates, causing a slo'do'n in the transmission of information from one neuron to another >. SynapseIthe %unction bet'een one neuron7s axon and another neuron7s dendrite or cell have bet'een1DD trillion and =DD trillion synapses @. There are three types of neurons Sensory neurons receive information from the external 'orld and convey this a. information to the brain via the spinal cord Motor neurons carry signals from the spinal cord to the muscles to produce b. movement c. ,nterneurons connect sensory neurons, motor neurons, and other interneurons d. Most of the nervous system is composed of interneurons e. ,nterneurons 'or( together in small circuits to perform simple tas(s !. )lectrical Signaling* ;ommunicating ,nformation 'ithin a 8euron 1. ;ommunication 'ithin and bet'een neurons proceeds in t'o stages 9 conduction and transmission, together referred to as electrochemical action a. :irst the a signal is received and may initiate electrical conduction do'n the axon b. Second, the signal travels chemically across the synapse to the next neuron ;harged molecules, or ions, flo' across the cell membrane differentially to set up the resting . potential !t rest there is a higher concentration of potassium 2HM3 on the inside of the cell a. and sodium 28aM3 outside of the cell The flo' of ions across the cell membrane is controlled by opening and closing small b. channels that are specific to each ion This leaves the neuron 'ith fe'er positively charged molecules on the inside relative c. to the outside +esting PotentialIthe difference in electric charge bet'een the inside and outside of d. a neuron7s cell membrane e. The resting potential of a neuron is approximately 9@D millivolts !ction Potential an electrical signal that is conducted along the length of a neuron7s axon to /. the synapse a. ,nput must pass a threshold to activate an action potential

b. !ll9or9none, that is, an action potential7s strength remains the same from the beginning to the end and is not influenced by further changes in input strength The action potential occurs only 'hen there is a change in the state of the axon7s membrane 5. channels =. #hen an action potential is generated at the beginning of the axon, it spreads a short distance, 'hich generates an action potential at a nearby location +efractory period the time follo'ing an action potential during 'hich a ne' action a. potential cannot be initiated >. Bare segments of axon bet'een sections of myelin are called the nodes of +anvier, 'hich cause action potential to -%ump. 2saltatory conduction3 and speed conduction B. ;hemical Signaling* Synaptic Transmission bet'een 8eurons 1. Terminal ButtonsI(nobli(e structures that branch out from an axon 8eurotransmitters chemicals that transmit information across the synapse to a. receiving neuron7s dendrites or soma +eceptors parts of the cell membrane that receive neurotransmitters and initiate a b. ne' electrical signal +eceptors act li(e a loc(9and9(ey system, 'here only certain neurotransmitters can c. activate certain receptors d. The sending, or presynaptic neuron, releases neurotransmitters into the synapse that are received by the postsynaptic neuron 8eurotransmitters are cleared from the synapse 'hen they are finished binding to receptors via . three different processes +eupta(e neurotransmitters are ta(en bac( into the presynaptic neuron through a. transporters )n4ymatic <eactivation en4ymes can destroy the neurotransmitter 'hile still in the b. synapse c. !utoreceptorsIreceptor sites that can detect if there is too much neurotransmitter being released and 'hen this happens signal the presynaptic neuron to stop the release ;. Types of 8eurotransmitters Sixty chemicals play a role in transmitting information through the brain and body1 some of 1. the most important are* !cetylcholine a neurotransmitter involved in a number of functions, including a. motor control <opamine a neurotransmitter that regulates motor behavior, motivation, pleasure, b. and emotional arousal 6lutamate a ma%or excitatory neurotransmitter involved in information transmission c. throughout the brain 8orepinephrine a neurotransmitter that influences mood and arousal, particularly d. states of vigilance or danger a'areness )ndorphins chemicals that act 'ithin the pain path'ays and emotion centers of the e. brain <. 0o' <rugs Mimic 8eurotransmitters 1. Many drugs affect the nervous system by operating through increasing, interfering 'ith, or

mimic(ing the manufacture or function of neurotransmitters a. !gonists are drugs that increase the action of a neurotransmitter i. )xample* F9dopa increases dopamine and helps treat Par(inson7s disease Anexpected evidence has highlighted dopamine7s central role in regulating movement and . motor performance. a. Six young street people 'ere diagnosed 'ith advanced Par(inson7s, but none of them actually had Par(inson7s but they 'ere all heroin addicts /. The six thought they 'ere ingesting a form of heroin 2MPPP3, but they had really ingested a close derivative 2MTTP3, 'hich destroyed dopamine9producing neurons in brain area critical for motor performance 5. Bther street drugs can alter neurotransmitter function a. !mphetamine is a strong agonist b. ;ocaine acts through similar mechanisms to amphetamine but an overdose of either can cause the heart to contract very rapidly, leading to fainting and sometimes to death c. 8orepinephrine and dopamine play a critical role in mood control1 an increase in either results in euphoria, 'a(efulness, and a burst of energy =. Pro4ac increases serotonin by bloc(ing reupta(e, 'hich helps treat symptoms of depression II. Th O'g!#"5!t"o# o$ th N ')o(s Syst 8ervous SystemIan interacting net'or( of neurons that conveys electrochemical information throughout the body !. <ivisions of the 8ervous System 1. There are t'o ma%or divisions of the nervous system1 the first is the a. ;entral 8ervous System 2;8S3 brain and spinal cord . The second division is the Peripheral 8ervous System 2P8S3 connects the central nervous system to the body7s b. organs and muscles Somatic 8ervous System2P8S3 a set of nerves that conveys information into and c. out of the central nervous system /. !utonomic 8ervous System 2!8S3 a set of nerves that carries involuntary and automatic commands that control blood vessels, body organs, and glands1 the !8S has t'o ma%or subdivisions Sympathetic 8ervous System a set of nerves that prepares the body for action in a a. threatening situation b. Parasympathetic 8ervous System helps the body return to normal resting state 5. #hen danger threatens, your S8P (ic(s off automatic responses that increase the li(elihood you can escape from or fight off the threat =. 0o' does your body return to calm after a threat has been eliminated or avoided& a. Parasympathetic nervous systemIhelps the body return to a normal resting state i. )xample* The parasympathetic nervous system constricts your pupils, slo's your heart rate and respiration, diverts blood flo' to your digestive system

The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems coordinate to control many body functions a. !n example is sexual behavior1 in both men and 'omen, a successful sexual experience depends on a delicate balance bet'een the t'o systems B. ;omponents of the ;entral 8ervous System 1. The brain and spinal cord are ultimately responsible for most of 'hat 'e do . Spinal cord coordinates breathing, pain, movement, and other functions Spinal +eflexes simple path'ays in the nervous system that rapidly generate muscle /. contractions 5. More elaborate tas(s re"uire collaboration of the spinal cord and the brain a. <amage to the spinal cord severs the connection from the brain to sensory and motor neurons essential to sensory perception and movement b. The location of the spinal in%ury often determines the extent of the abilities lost Patients 'ith damage at a particular level in cord could lose sensation in body parts c. belo' the level of in%ury ,n%ury higher up on the spinal cord usually predicts a poorer prognosis, such as d. "uadriplegia The *indbrain + The s(ull is continuous 'ith the hindbrain 0indbrain an area of the brain that coordinates information coming into and out of a. the spinal cord Medulla an extension of the spinal cord into the s(ull that coordinates heart i. rate, circulation, and respiration +eticular :ormation a cluster of neurons in the medulla that regulates ii. sleep, 'a(efulness, and levels of arousal ;erebellum 2-little brain.3 a large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor s(ills, . coordination, and balance Pons 2-bridge.3 a structure that relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the /. brain The ,idbrain Midbrain above the hindbrain, it coordinates orientation and movement in the environment, 1. and contributes to arousal a. Tectum orients an organism in the environment b. Tegmentum involved in movement and arousal, including motor behavior 2substantia nigra and dopamine3, motivation, and pleasure The -orebrain The forebrain is highest level of the brain, controlling complex cognitive, emotional, sensory, 1. and motor functions ;erebral ;ortex the outermost layer of the brain, visible to the na(ed eye, and a. divided into t'o hemispheres Subcortical Structures areas of the forebrain housed under the cerebral cortex near b. the very center of the brain . Thalamus relays and filters information from the senses and transmits the information to the >.

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cerebral cortex 0ypothalamus 2belo' thalamus3 regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior :our :s of behavior* fighting, fleeing, feeding, and mating ;ommissures bundles of axons that ma(e possible communication bet'een parallel a. areas of the cortex in each half b. ;orpus callosumIthe largest commissure, it connects large areas of the cerebral cortex on each side of the brain and supports communication of information across the hemisphere There are several other (ey subcortical structures Pituitary 6land the -master gland. of the body7s hormone9producing system, 'hich a. releases hormones that direct the functions of many other glands in the body b. 0ippocampusIcritical for creation and storage of ne' memories c. !mygdalaI'hich plays a central role in many emotional processes d. :inally, the basal ganglia is a set of structures that direct intentional The Cerebral Corte. Separation of cortex into t'o hemispheres1 each side is roughly symmetrical and controls many functions on the opposite, or contralateral, side of the body ;ommissures bundles of axons that ma(e possible communication bet'een parallel a. areas of the cortex in each half ;orpus callosumIthe largest commissure, it connects large areas of the cerebral b. cortex on each side of the brain and supports communication of information across the hemisphere )ach hemisphere has four lobesIoccipital, parietal, temporal, and frontal a. Bccipital Fobe a region in the bac( of the brain that processes visual information Parietal Fobe located in front of the occipital lobe and carries out functions such as b. touch Temporal Fobe located laterally and belo' parietal cortex, is responsible for hearing c. and language :rontal Fobe behind the forehead, has speciali4ed areas for movement, abstract thin(ing, planning, memory, and %udgment !ssociation !reas areas of cortex that are composed of neurons that help provide sense and meaning to information registered in parts of the primary cortex 8eurons in the association areas are usually less speciali4ed and more flexible than a. neurons in the primary areas This means they can be shaped by learning and experience to do their %ob more b. effectively1 a "uality called plasticity :unctions that 'ere assigned to certain areas of the brain may be capable of being reassigned to other areas i. )xample* ,f you lose your middle finger in an accident, over time that area in the somatosensory cortex becomes responsive to stimulation of the fingers ad%acent to the missing finger area Plasticity doesn7t only occur to compensate for missing digits or limbs1 an extraordinary amount of stimulation of one finger can result in that finger. ta(ing over. the representation of the part of the cortex that usually represents fingers that are ad%acent to it

III. Th E)ol(t"o# o$ N ')o(s Syst -s !. )volutionary <evelopment of the ;entral 8ervous System 1. )ven the simplest animals have sensory and motor neurons a. Single9celled proto4oa have systems for sensing and moving to'ard food ,nvertebrates 2e.g., %ellyfish and flat'orms3 developed simple nervous systems b. 'ith commissures and ganglia . The first -real. central nervous system appeared in flat'orms /. Gertebrates developed differently than invertebrates 0igher parts of the brain developed to deal 'ith more complex behaviors than a. lo'er parts of the brain 5. <ifferent vertebrates have different levels of complexity in the forebrain a. The forebrains of frogs consists only of small clusters of neurons b. Birds rely on a highly developed striatum c. Mammals have a developed striatum and more developed cerebral cortex d. :orebrain development has so far reached its pea( in humans =. Primates7 brains, particularly humans, have evolved more rapidly than other mammals, partially because of gene mutations 2changes in a gene7s <8!3 that resulted in adaptation >. 6enes also guide the development of an individual and the development of a species B. 6enes and the )nvironment 1. 6ene unit of hereditary transmission, built from <8! 2deoxyribonucleic acid3 ;hromosomes strands of <8! 'ound around each other in a double9helix a. configuration . There is considerable variability in the genes that individual offspring receive <egree of +elatedness the probability of sharing genes 2e.g., you share =DJ of a. your genes 'ith each parent3 Mono4ygotic T'ins 2identical t'ins3 share 1DDJ of genes because they came b. from one fertili4ed egg T'in studies are often used to help determine the amount of a behavior, trait, or disorder /. that can be attributed to genes a. Asually, these studies are conducted on t'ins 'ho 'ere raised in the same household so the impact of their environment remains relatively constant 5. !n example 'ould be that the li(elihood of a mono4ygotic t'in of person 'ho has schi4ophrenia is =DJ 'hile the li(elihood for a di4ygotic t'in of such a person is @J a. But although genetics may contribute to the development ofschi4ophrenia, the environmental context also has to be ta(en into account 0eritabilityIa measure of the variability of behavioral traits among individuals that can be accounted for by genetic factors a. ;alculated as a proportion and reported as a number from D to 1.D >. 0eritability of .=D for intelligence tells us that =DJ of intelligence is accounted for by genes, but not 'hich genes might be controlling that =DJ @. Though heritability has helped scientists understand the relative genetic and environmental =.

influences on behavior, there are four important "ualifications 0eritability is an abstract concept1 it tells us nothing about the specific genes a. that contribute to a trait b. 0eritability is a population concept1 it tells us nothing about the individual c. 0eritability is dependent on the environment1 it occurs 'ithin certain contexts 0eritability is not fate1 circumstances can change the li(elihood of behaviors or d. pathologies IV. I#) st"g!t"#g th ,'!"# !. Fearning about Brain Brgani4ation by Studying the <amaged Brain ! lot of research about brain function has come from studying mindbugs in behavior relative to 1. specific brain damage a. Paul Broca described a patient 'ho had lost the capacity to produce spo(en language due to damage in a small area in the frontal lobe 2Broca7s area3 b. ;arl #ernic(e described a patient 'ith impaired language comprehension associated 'ith damage to the upper9left temporal lobe 2#ernic(e7s area3 The /motional -unctions of the -rontal 0obes ! famous case 'as that of Phineas 6age, 'hose accident, essentially separated his frontal lobes 1. from the rest of his brain +esearch on 6age resulted in an understanding that the frontal lobes are critical for maintaining . emotional stability The 1istinct Roles of the 0eft and Right *emispheres 1. Split9brain procedure surgical severing of the corpus callosum a. The procedure sho'ed that 'ithout an intact corpus callosum, there is not 'ay for information from one hemisphere to reach the other +obert Sperry pioneered 'or( investigating the independent functions of the cerebral . hemisphere Split9brain studies allo'ed understanding of ho' some behaviors are relegated to only one /. hemisphere 2e.g., language is usually handled in the left hemisphere3 B. Fistening to the Brain* Single 8eurons and the ))6 )lectroencephalograph 2))63 a device used to record electrical activity in the brain, usually 1. detected by electrodes on the scalp Patterns of activity from groups of neurons can indicated sleep, arousal, and certain a. perceptions +ecording from single neurons has sho'n us ho' cells in some parts of the brain respond to . stimuli 2e.g., occipital neurons, or feature detectors, respond to dots or lines on a screen3 /. ! variety of features are detected by sensory neurons. :or example, some visual processing neurons in the temporal lobe are activated only 'hen detecting faces ;. Brain ,maging* #atching the Brain in !ction 8euroimaging techni"ues use advanced technology to produce images of living, healthy brain 1. tissue and activity . ;omputeri4ed !xial Tomography 2;T3 consists of x9rays ta(en from many angles to produce a composite of the different densities of the brain

a. ;T7s are often used to detect lesions or tumors in the brain /. Magnetic +esonance ,maging 2M+,3 involves images that result from brief but po'erful magnetic pulses being applied to the brain and interpreting ho' cells in the tissue react to the pulses 5. :unctional Brain9,maging allo's scientists to 'atch the brain in action during some behavior, based on increased blood flo' in active regions !n example is Positron )mission Tomography 2P)T3 i. ii. :unctional Magnetic +esonance ,maging 2fM+,3is the most 'idely used functional9brain9imaging techni"ue currently used