1.Soil sampling.

In situ investigations Soil sampling = the taking of soil pieces in disturbed/undisturbed state, from the ground to be processed in the lab. Types of sampling: a) Surface sampling (max .! deep) " #ri$e the sample into a mold% " &ut the sample in a c$asiprismatic shape and store the sample in a protection en$elope. b) #eep sampling " h' (m"using hand augers% " h) (m"using automatic rigs * types "double coring " tube to hold the sample in natural state " tube used to bore (uses drilling slury to cool the drill and remo$e the ground material) * types of tubes " thick +all tubes " short, harpoon like retainer " thin +all tubes long, less disturbance in the sample, retains sample by friction ,n situ test: -d$antages " can be continuously performed " disturbance in soil is minimal " state of stress is the natural one #isad$antages " do not supply the mechanical caractheristics that are used in design " can not be performed +ithout proper calibration of a geotechnical bore"hole Tests: ) .eophisical test " /lectro tomography " based on the resisti$ity measurement of soil electrolites " used for cohesi$e soils " gi$es a good positioning of the ground +ater table " .round penetrating radar " measures the tra$elling time of electromagnetic impulses up to a reflecti$e target " good for capaciti$e soils (dry soils, cohesionless soils, hard rocks) " Spectral analysis of seismic mo$es " measures the tra$elling time of mechanical +a$es " gi$es information about dynamic properties of the en$ironment

*) 0echanical test " Standard penetration test

" main method for finding the density ratio of cohesionless soils " apipe type plunger is dri$en into the ground " the pipe is fixed +ith ! hits and the penetration depth of 1( hits is recorded (21() " &one penetration test " static: a cone is pushed into the ground at a constant rate and the reactions at the cone tip and side sle$e are measured " dynamic probing superhea$y " spt type test " the plunger is a cane instead of a pipe " used for coarse solis

2. Grading of soils. Screening method. Hygromoter method. Soil grading = the di$ision in percentage of mass of the solid particles of a soil into dimensional ranges. The dimensional ranges are called grading fractions. T+o standards are used in 3o * and ! (older) * and 4,1 (ne+): * and ! * and 4,1 d'(,((!=clay d'(,((*=clay (,((!'d'(.(!=silt (,((*'d'(,(41=silt (.(!'d'*=sand (,(41'd'*=sand *'d'*(=gra$el *'d'41=gra$el *('d'*((=boulders 41'd'*((=boulders *(('d=blocks *(('d'41(=blocks 41('d=large blocks Screening method (used for cohesianless soils): ) The sample is scaled and dried until a constant mass is reached 5 m total *) The sample is scaled and left to hydrate in a solution of lithium carbonate ((,*6) 1) The sample is +ashed on the (,(! or (,(41 sie$e, the +ashed material is kept for testing +ith the hydrometer method 5 m dry 7) The particles that remained on the (,(! or (,(41 si$e are dried until a constant mass is reached and scaled !) The dried particles are scree$ed through a set of sie$es (corresponding to the grading fractions and arranged in a se8uence +ith the larger diameters on top)

- mtay must be less than 6 of m total if the sample +as +ashed before sie$eing - the sum of masses left on all the sie$es and the ray must not differ +ith more than 6 than the initial mass. 4) 9or each sie$e the percentage of mass, resting on it, is computed +ith regard to the initial dry mass
md tay = mtay mtotal : ((
mp = md tay
mp * = md tay + md

md =

m : (( mtotal

.............................. mu md u = : (( mtotal

...............................
mpu = md i + mp u

;ydrometer method

"used for particles +ith d'(,(41/(,(! "based on Stoke<s la+: =the $elocity of a solid falling into a fluid dependson it<s exposed area and the $iscosity of the fluid> "for soil particles settling in +atter V =
d* , ?

=$iscosity

"the density of the soil particles mixed +ith +ater is measured at cartone inter$als "measuring the density andkno+ing the length of the hydrometer rod the diameter of the largest particle remaining in suspension can be measured ,f the sample contains o$er !6organic materials it is oxidi@ed using 9or soils +ith ,p' (6 are used " lithium carbonate " for dispersion " sodium silicate " anti floculant

3. Grading of soils. Graphical representation of the particle size distribution

The bar chart"hystogram " percentage of mass, on each dimension, correspondent to a sie$e, +ith the dimension smaller than a pre$ious one " $ertical axis " mass rests +ith respect to the total initial mass expressed in percentage " hori@ontal maxis " decimal logarithmic representation of the diameter, in order to display the fine particles +ith respect to the large one

9re8uency cur$e " obtained by Aoining the middle of the bars of the backstage% left side of the bar chart " an open bar +ith the percentage of mass left into the tray% right side of the bar chart " an open bar sho+ing the percentage of mass left on the last sie$e .rading cur$e " cumulati$e representation of grading sho+ing for each dimension the percentage of mass of all the particles +ith the max dimension smaller than it% the grading cur$e pro$ides means for checking against errors " starts from ( if there +as nothinng left in the tray or the mass percentage on the tray " ends at mdn or ((6 if there +as nothing left on the last sie$e

Bniformity coefficient u n =

d 4( d(

a) un ! " poorly graded (uniform) b) ! u n ! " +ell graded (non"uniform) c) ! u n " $ery +ell graded (high non"uniformity) Ternary diagram " +here all the parallels intersect, +e obtain the soil description

4. olume relationship bet!een soil phases. "haracterisation of uncohesive soil state

Colume relations

Ca=$olume of air C+=$olume of +ater CS=$olume of soil CC=$olume of $oids Ct=total $olume

= the porosity: 8uantifies the $olume of $oids =

e = the $oids ration = n=
e e+

VV : (( Vt

VV VS

Sr = saturation ratio and indicates ho+ much of the $oids $olume is filled +ith +ater w s Sr = % if Sr=( " dry soil% if Sr= " saturated soil. e s &haracteristics of cohesianless soil state: cohesianless soils ha$e the natural tendency to arrange themsel$es by $ertical setting into arches to arrange the cohesioanless soils into a denser stare it is enough to load the arches in any direction The densification capacity of a sand is the capacity of a sand to reduce its $olume of $oids by compacting. C D = emax emin , emin= e in leasest state, emax= e in densest state. Defore finding emin, emax the soil is hidrated +ith lithium carbonate, +ashed on the (,(41 sie$e and dried. To find emax, the sand is poured into a cylender of kno+n dimensions and basened using a speciali@ed tool. The procedure is repeated 1 times.

weight of sand dense = Vknown

To find emin, the sand in the cylinder is $ibrated hori@ontally. The procedure is repeated 1 times.

#ensity ratio = stare of sand. e e I d = max , e = $oids ratio in natural state emax emin
( < I d < (,11 = loase sand (,11 < I d < (,44 = medium dense sand (,44 < I d <

= dense sand

#. $eight relationship bet!een soilphases. "haracterisation of uncohesive soil state.

d =
s =

Ws = ( u ) = unit +eight of the soil in completely dry state V

Ws = s g = unit +eight of the solid skeleton Vs

To find s , the picnometer is used: the picnometer is a $esel +ith calibrated $olume, a glass cork and a small opening to pre$ent too much air from getting inside the soil sample is dried, gro+nd to a po+der and scaled to find the $olume of the po+der the replacement principle is used 0 =mass of the picnometer filled +ith +ater 0*=mass of the picnometer filled +ith soil and +ater 0s=mass of soil 0+=0 E0s"0* M M Vw = w = Vs s = s s = s g w Vs
= s ( u )( + w) = unit +eight of soil in natural state

w6 =

Mw : (( = moisture content Ms

saturated = unit +eight of soil in saturated state

%. "lay minerals. $ater absorbtion of clay minerals

 clays are made of secondary minerals created from the chemical processing of +eak rocks thare are * main crystals that form clay minerals: " thetraedon of silicium dioxide SiF* " octoedron of -l and 0n hidroxide " -l/0n(F;)* inside the crystal the banding is co$alent and outside the bonding is either hydrogen band or $ar der Gaals bands

the t+o types of sheets because the distance bet+een the molecule components is the same

the +eakeer the atraction force bet+een the crystals is the more they brake and the more +ater they are able to retain clay minerals generaly ha$e negati$e faces and positi$e ends coalinite has the strongest bands, ilite is the +eakest 2aE and HE ions need to be present in order to keep the crystal structure together the mechanism of +ater retention is dependent on the mineral acti$ity as +ell as the dimension of the solid particles (larger surface bands mone +ater) the range of influence upon ions +ater dipoles is called absorbtion complex or electrical double layer

the suction cur$e describes the influence of solid clay minerals +ith regard to +ater dipoles the suction index p9 = the negati$e pressure exerted by the solid expresed in by of cm +ater column the largest $alue recorded p9= (I cm +ater column= (7 atm

strongly banded = +ater dipoles clesest to the solid surface, up to ! molecules thick, can be remo$ed at $ery high temperature +eaklt banded = the main proporties of clay: plasticity, cohesion, s+elling. &. olume relantionship bet!een soil phases.

"haracterization of the cohesionless soil state.

Ca= $olume of air C+= $olume of +ater Cs = $olume of solids C$ = $olume of $oids C = total $olume The phases of the soil are di$ided into separate $olumes, as sho+n in the abo$e figure: solid, +ater and air, the last * making of the $olume of $oids The porosity n is defined as n = $oids. The $oids ratio (alternati$e +ay of representation) is defined as e = non"dimensional.
VV , +hich is Vs

Vv : (( ,8uantifying the normali@ed $olume of V

Vv V Vv Vs e n n= v = = = e= V V V + Vs +e n + v Vs

The saturation ratio indicates ho+ much of the $oids $olume is filles +ith +ater and is defined as

Sr =

V w Ww W = = w Vv w e V s w

Ws s

w s e w . Sr=( " dry soil, if Sr= " saturated soil.

&ohesionless soils ha$e the natural tendency to arrange themsel$es by $ertical settling into arch shaps. The densification capacity of a sand is defined as its capacity to reduce ots $olume of $oids by compactation. C ( = emax emin . emax is e in the loosest state and emin is e in the densest state. emax obtained in natural state, after the sample has been prepared as for the grain" si@e analysis. emin obtained after hori@ontal shaking in order to break the arch type structures.

&bis. "ohesive soil shrin'age. "onsistency limits of cohesive soils

Doth soil shrinkage consistency limits are dependent on the moisture content of the soil, w =
Mw : (( (ratio bet+een mass of solid and mass of +ater). ,f a soil sample are dried Ms

or hydrated and the $olume $ariation is plotted $ersus the $ariation of moisture content, the so"called s+elling cur$e is obtained.

Ghen the soil is $ery dry, the electro"state repelling forces pre$ent the particles from going closer to one"another, the o$erall $olume keeping constant for a certain range of moisture content. Dy increasing G for a dry soil, at a certain $alue, the soil +ill darken color and +ill increase its $olume. This $alue of G is denoted by Gs and called shrinkage lmit. Jlotting the $alues of GK and GJ against the grain"si@e distribution result that the finer , the grading, the +ider +ill be the range on +hich the soil beha$es plastic.

I P = WL W P = plasticity index

9or

,J=( " cohesionless soils (non"plastic) ,J=("!6 " lo+ plasticity ,J=!" !6 " medium plasticity ,J= !"1!6 " high plasticity ,J)1!6 " $ery high plasticity

IC =

WL W =the consistency index describes the state of the soil WL WP

G=undistubed state ,&'( " li8uid ,&) " solid 9or ,&=("(,*! " soft ,&=(,*!"(,! " firm ,&=(,!"(,I! " stiff ,&=(,I!" " hard

9or both shrinkage and s+elling, the $olume $ariation foll+s the same path. ,n order to determine GS " proAection method (shado+ of a sample cast on a screen of milimeter " by drying in air it goes from plastic state to solid state).

(. )ree !ater flo!. "apillary !ater. *ermeability coefficient assessment by laboratory test

9ree +ater = +ater unaffected by electrostatic interaction +ith the solids. There are * types: capillary +ater and +ater running in gra$itational conditions (only for cohesionless soils). &apillary +ater phenomenon appears because of the +ater dipoles +hich ha$e a stronger attraction to the soil solid grains than to other dipoles, +ich results in a cro+ding together of the molecules at the interface bet+een +ater and solid (due to superficial tension force). * phenomenon appear: ) apparent cohesion of sands +hich takes place because of the de$eloping of capillary meniscii bet+een solid particles +hich keep them tied together, gi$ing the impression of cohesion (moist +ithout being saturated).

*) capillary rise occurs due to the superficial tension force, +hich depends on the a$erage empty space apperture bet+een solid particles (r).

The rise occurs until the +eight of th +ater column is e8ual to the superficial tension force. The permeability coefficient is one of the most important geotechnical parameters, but $ery difficult to determine. ,t may be determined through * methods:

) the constant head permeability method

*) the falling head permeability method

+. ,etermination of the permeability coefficient by in situ test. -ssessment of the critical hydraulic gradient. The main test for determining the permeability coefficient in situ is the pumping test.

The constant c can be determined using boundary conditions +hen ha$ing an extra pie@ometers +hich supllies the $alues for x ,@ and t, +hich +ill be replaced in the e8uation% or by using empirical relantionship for the dra+"do+n surface limit. ,n order to pre$ent li8uefaction, filters are used +ith the imposed conditions: and d ! > !d ?! ,$+here d ! and d?! are the diameters for the !6 and ?!6 mass percentages of the soil +hich is to be protected (this is imposed in order to pre$ent the clogging of the filter and to pre$ent the +ater from taking out the particles. icr = is critical hydraulic gradient. The safety factor to pre$ent the li8uefaction of w
max !

d min > !d !

the soil is defined as FS =

ief icr

. ,f 9S' " instability, 9S) " stability and safety, 9S= " limit

e8uilibrium. the $alue of icr is computed using the hydrodinamic flo+ as follo+s:

1.. *rinciple of effective stresses. /erzaghi0s mechanical model. "onsolidation of soils The problems studied at this point reffer only yo soils in saturated state, meaning that all the $oids are filled +ith +ater. -s the particles are considered $ery small +ith respects to the loads applied, no deformation on the particles +ill be consider but only on the o$erall configuration of the soil. Ghen applying a spherical stress on the soil, the particles tend to rearrange themsel$es, in order to better bear the load, process +hich occurs simultaneously +ith the drainage of the pore +ater. This results in a di$iding of the total applied stress in * parts: part taken directly by the solid particles and another part taken by the pore +ater +hich has a hydrostatic compression type action on the solid grains. = L L+u pore +ater pressure

Tor@aghiLs physical model best illustrates this beha$iour through a piston +ith a top acting on a cylinder +ith +ater and fitted +ith a spring connected to the bottom of the cylinder. Dy opening the top, the +ater starts to drain, decreasing the hydrostatic pressure and transfering the load to the spring. &onsolidation = the process of transfering stress from pore +ater to the solid grain. The process is go$erned by the follo+ing e8uation:

* u = CV u* t
u=settlement &C=coefficient of consolidation
!v h * " CV = = w mv t !(

w = specific +eight of +ater

mv = coefficient of $olumic compressibility = /0

0 = oedometer modulus H = permeability coefficient

11. Soil compressibility. 1edometer test &ompresibility = stress"strain beha$ior of soils under spherical(compressi$e ) stresses The response of the soil to the compressi$e spherical stress is the densification of the material in order to better bear the load .The process begins from the sedimentation moment , under the +eight of the upper layers , meaning that in the early stages (loose state"cohesionless /soft state" cohesi$e)the strains for a load step are $ery high.#ue to the densification , the strains for that load step +ould become smaller and smaller. The process of denification is due to the fact that the particles rearrange themsel$es and do not actually deform, as they are $ery strong for their fine si@e. The soil compressibility is studied in conditions of rest: - The $ertical and hori@ontal axes are principal axes - The radial strain Mr = M1 =( The conditions are fulfilled in the follo+ing situations : - The analy@ed material is part of a half space +ith a hori@ontal boundary - The load applied is symmetrical +ith respect to the $ertical axis (either gra$itational loads or distributed loads on the half"space surface). This implies that the radial strains become (. ,n order to obser$e the compressibility of soils, the oedometer test is employed. The oedometer modulus chosen for classification is bet+een *(( and 1(( kJa : 0*"1 = NJ/NM /ach M $alue is the $alue at the end of the consolidation for that particular loading step , in order to ensure that the compressibility cur$e does not include time dependant effects. ,n order to simulate the conditions of rest , the soil sample is confined in a steel ring in order to ensure that the radial strain is o, +hen testing a sample in the oedometer. &onsolidation is studied by means of an oedometer, an apparatus in +hich the soil sample is confined and subAected to a load step O , after +hich the $alues of the strain are obser$ed at different inter$als of time.

M( 5 found at the middle of the distance bet+een M for t = !P and M7 for t7 = min. M (( 5 found at the intersection of the middle 8uasilinear part of the graph +ith the end 8uasilinear part of the graph. M (( " limit of the short term consolidation 5 used for buildings of normal importance. 9or settlement 5 sensiti$e structures, the secondary consolidation must also be taken into consideration. 12. "ompressibility characteristics 2 e3 43 53 av 3 mv . 1ver consolidation of soils.

The deformation beha$iour of soils is ne$er linear , the term of linear deformation modulus / = 0*"1 x 0( is preffered , replacing QoungsPs modulus. 0( is a undimensional coefficient dependingon the soil type and 0*"1 is the oedometer modulus. The radial strain is ( , +hich means that no cross"sectional $ariation may appear. VV V( h V (VV V( ) (VP + VS ) VS VS e e( e = = = = = = V h( V( VV ( + VS + e( + e( + V( VS Dy kno+ing these initial conditions of the soil , a change of coordinates may be performed from M into e, +hich results in a flattening of the compressibility cur$e and changing the $ertical axis up+ards. The hori@ontal axis remains logarithmic.

aV =

m = V ( + e( ) + e(

a$ 5 the slope of the e"logO cur$e abd it is called compressibility coefficient m$ 5 $olumic compressibility coefficient : m$ = /0 -s the soil densifies +hen subAected to loading , upon remo$ing the load , the soil +ill not loosen but +ill ha$e only a brief elastic relaxation. (The soil has memory storing the maximum laod e$er applied on it). The first part of the loading in the oedometer test is a reloading to the last state of stress in the field. Jg 5 geological stress = sum of geological loads from the moment of sampling % Jg = R Si x ki Jc " preconsolidation stress = maximum stress applied on the soil in the geological past 5 found by extending * line in the porosity" stress cur$e : the reloading path and the $irgin loading path.

Jc/Jg = o$er 5consolidation ratio(F&3)

F&3 = 5 normally consolidated soil (ne$er subAected in the past to a higher stress le$el than in the present) F&3' 5 under 5 consolidated soil F&3 is bet+een and * 5 easy o$er 5 consolidated (loaded in the past more than in the present ) F&3 is bet+een * and 7 5 moderately o$er"consolidated F&3 ) 7 9or F&3 ) 7 , microcracking due to the tension failure from unloading is to be expected(structural clays) ,n cohesionless soils"perfect elastic reco$ery, $ery seldom ha$e high $alues of F&3. -ll the soils on the $irgin loading path are normall consolidated for that state of stress, thus the cur$e +ill be referred to as primary consolidation cur$e.

1. Gater 5 sensiti$e soils : expansi$e soils and collapsible soils.

Gater sensiti$e soils are soils that modify their mechanical beha$iour from unsaturated state +hen flooded. "ollapsible soils are mainly soils +ith a fin grading (sandy"silt to silty clay) ha$ing eolian origin ad settled in a dry en$ironment. -fter sedimentation , cementation bonds de$elop bet+een the particles , generally through a +ater soluble salt , +hich maintains a loose structure of the soil. This type of soil is generally refered to as loess . Soils +ith some of these characteristics or lo+ collapsibility are kno+n as loessial soils. Ghen placed in contact +ith +ater, the soil collapses because of remo$ing the binding agent. ,n order to determine the collapsibility of a soil, * samples are tested in the oedometer, one in dry and one in saturated state. iu1 = M1((i " M1(( (M1(( " the strain for 1((kJa loading in dry state M1((i " the strain for 1((kJa loading in saturated state)

iu1 ) *6 " the soil is collapsible 56pansive soils (fat clays or clays) 5 shrink or s+ell +hen loosing or gaining +ater(due to the adsorption complex). The effect is important up to 7 meters, maximum depth of penetration of rain +ater. ,n order to determine the s+elling pressure a sample is loaded +ith the contact pressure O = *.! kJa in the oedometer, then flooded. -fter the s+elling stops (radial strains are no longer recorded) the sample is loaded in normal conditions. The $alue of O for +hich the sample retains a ( strain le$el is considered to be the s+elling pressure. ,mportant to kno+ for raft foundations, +here the pressure of the structure may be smaller than the s+elling pressure. This could lead to the lifting of the raft in the points +here +ater infiltrates, or breaking the piles for the case of pile foundations. Solutions : remo$ing clay or mixing it +ith sand and lime building a foundation +ith isolated supports reinforcing the piles pro$iding a cohesionless soil cushion to allo+ s+elling

7. State of stress. 0ohrPs circle pole

- random hal"space is considered loaded in a point 0 of infinitesimal are, on a plane of angle T. The resultant force 3 +ill introduce a pair of O T " MT stresses.

,f an infinity of loading planes are considered +ith different angles by plotting all the pairs of O 5 M stresses a circle is obtained ha$ing the center on the ("O axis . This results in the fact that the state of stress may be described by * points 5 7 $alues , +hich can further simplified by choosing * perpendicular loading planes =) U@x = Ux@ . The state of stress can be rebuilt, in this manner, by kno+ing only 1 $alues. The simple representation is that +hen choosing the reference axis as being the one +hen U = ( , +hich means that the circle is described by the principal stresses (O 1 , () and (O , ()

The circlePs Jole = the intersection point of the circle +ith a line passing through a stress combination inclined +ith the angle of the loading plane(uni8ue for any gi$en state of stress) The pole can be used for determining the combination of stresses acting on a certain direction or $ice $ersa

!. 0ohrPs failure en$elope.0ohr"&oulomb failure criterion. Shearing strength of soils.

0ohrPs failure en$elope Dy experiment , 0ohr noticed that putting in a O"M graph all the states of stress(circles) loading to failure by shearing of the gi$en material they +ill describe a $ery slightly cur$ed surface kno+n as 0ohrPs en$elope.

-ll the circles leading to failure are tangent to the failure en$elope and the combination of stresses O f" Mf measured on the failure surface represents a tangency point since no more that one pair may rach the failure condition.

0ohrPs failure criterion Dy putting in the O"M graph all the states of stress +hich lead to failure a slightly cur$ed surface +ill be obtained (0ohrPs failure en$elope). 9or simplifying 0ohrPs criterion, &oulomb approximated the cur$ed shape of the failure en$elope by a linear e8uation : U = OtanV E &, +here V is the internal friction angle and & is the cohesion. (shearing strength parameters)

1 situations can be obser$ed for a state of stress : " no combination O"M is found both on the circle and the line =) the failure criterion is not fullfiled.

*"

pair of O"M fulfills the failure criterion , +hich means that the en$elope is tangent to the respecti$e state of stress(circle)

1" -lthough theoretically impossible , there are fe+ cases +hen, due to the cur$ature of the actual failure surface, the circle o$erpasses the line.

4. Shearing stress paths . Transformation of shearing strength from V and c to W and d

Dy transforming the O"M coordinate system into an s"t coordinate system, the state of stress is transformed into a point, from a circle, meaning that +e can study the e$olution of stress states in a point. The $ariation of stress states is called stress path. /xamples of stress paths.

,n the O"M coordinate system, the principal stresses O "O1 are used for depicting the shearing strength. Deing spherical stresses , they are rather difficult to use, thus a change of coordinates is used , +ith the principal stresses being combined into in$ariants. The simplest case and closest to 0ohrPs representation is the representation in 0.,.T. coordinates : s = (O E O1)/* " spherical stress t = (O " O1)/* " de$iatoric stress

Doth e8uations ha$e the same physical meaning , namely the failure surface, thus , the parameters ha$e to be a on match.

There are * paths of stress , from the point of $ie+ of consolidation : isotropic and k (. The isotropic one stands for a hydrostatic type of loading , +hich implies that O =O1 .. ,n the O"M coordinates , the stress state is a circle +ith radius ( , mo$ing on the hori@ontal axis . The k( anisotropic consolidation is practically the same type of consolidation naturally occurring on the sample (Mr = () , meaning that the $olumetric strain $ariation is e8ual to the axial strain $ariation.

I. Types of tests for finding the shearing strength(V and c). #irect shearing test. Triaxial test.

There are * main tests for determining the shearing strength parameters 5 the first one controlling only the stress on the failure surface(direct shearing test) and the second one in +hich the full state of stress is controlled(tri"axial compression test). Doth of the tests imply a consolidation phase and a shearing phase. The samples tested may be either drained or undrained. Dased on consolidation and drainage of the sample, +e may obser$e 1 types of tests for determining the shearing parameters each +ith its o+n implications : consolidated and drained shearing, consolidated and undrained shearing and unconsolidated 5 undrained shearing. T+o types of beha$iour can be obser$ed in soils +hen subAected to shearing based on their degree of consolidation : one specific to o$er 5 consolidated soils or dense sands(dilatancy) and one to normally consolidated soils or loose sands(contractancy). Koose sands(2& soils) 5 contractancy

,n the case of loose sands , the particles tend to clump together around the shearing surface +hen it de$elops. This is due to the tendency of the particles to rearrange themsel$es into arch structures in order to better bear the loads. This implies the reaching of a so called residual strength. -t global le$el, the cro+ding is e8ui$alent to a reduction of $olume =) contractancy #ense sands (F& soils) 5 dilatancy

,n the case of dense sands, the strong and stiff particles must pop out of interlocking in order to allo+ the de$elopment of the shearing surface. This results in supplementary shering stress called peak stress.-t global le$el this implies a $olume increase =) dilatancy /$entually the particles rearrange around the failure surface in a pattern similar to the pre$ious case reaching U residual

The rearrangement of particles results in a frictional type of beha$iour , +hich implies lo+ riction angles and no cohesion for the residual case and cohesion in the case of F& soils

,irect shearing test aims to find the shearing strength parameters by setting a fixed $alue of O and increasing U +ith an imposed rate of strain until the sample fails.

The sample is installed in a steel box made of * hal$es , upper half linked to a force reading de$ice, lo+er half acted upon by a constant strain rate pressure. The axial load is apllied through the porous plates to allo+ drainage. Dy submerginf the box in +ater, saturation can be obtained +ithout the need of $erification. -ll samples must be saturated, apart from cases +hen the shearing strength of loess or clays is desired for the natural state. The test is comprised of * phases : ) &onsolidation =) allo+ing the sample to onsolidate under the applied axial load. This process may or may not be allo+ed to take place , in +hich case the shearing phase begins immediately after the axial loading. This depends on +hether the structure +hich +ill be built induces static loads or not. *) Shearing =) may be applied +ith a high or lo+ strain rate , depending on +heter the soil +ill or +ill not ha$e time to drain in the field. 1 tests ha$e to be carried out in order to ensure the consistency and accuracy of the results.

/ria6ial /est consists of loading a cylindrical soil sample (h/d=*) in compression by means of * mechanisms : a hydrostatic compression load applied by means of a fluid(air"lo+ and medium streses, +ater" medium and high stresses, oil"$ery high stresses) and a piston +hich axially loads the sample +ith the difference bet+een the proposed stress and the hydrostatic pressure

Soil sample of cylindrical shape for better fitting the load pattern, isolated from the cell en$ironment by the membrane kept tight by the F rings. 0embrane confines cohesionless soils until the cell pressure is high enough to keep the sample tight #rainage attained by imposing back +ater pressure(DJ) and measuring at the top drain. Jorous stones to pre$ent clogging and ensuring uniform distribution of pore pressure &ell pressure applied by the &J line and $ertical loading the piston

Saturation of the sample is achie$ed by apllying pressure in the DJ line +hile the BT line is connected to a burette for measuring the +ater $olume $ariation. ,n order to pre$ent +ater from infiltrating in the slee$e , a &J $alue , larger +ith about ("*( kJa than the DJ that is imposed. Ghen saturation is reached , SkemptonPs D test may be performed. The sample pore pressure is reduced to ( and both pressure lines are connected to a pressure gauge . &J is increased and the increment in pore pressure is measured. D = N(DJEBT)/N&J Theoretically, if the sample is perfectly saturated in undrained conditions , the spherical stress should be e8ual to u. D should be e8ual to . ,n reality, for sands D ) (.X , for silts (.I"(.?, for clays (.!"(.4 is accepted. "onsolidation : * types (isotropic or anisotropic) ,sotropic 5 nostress applied on the piston +hile the cell pressure goes from ( to the desired $alue.(hydrostatic loading =)O = O1). DJ line is open and preferably connected to a burette for measuring the $olume $ariation. Fnly type a$ailable for imposed strain and measured stress e8uipment , the disad$antage being that it modifies the strain state of the sample. -nisotropic 5 maintains the strain state of the sample +hen it is at rest. This type occurring naturally on the sample. -$ailable only for imposed stress and measured strain e8uipment 5 both &J and CK ha$e to be modified . Doth axial displacement and $olume change must be measured. ,2 order to simulate the state of rest, NM r=( =) NM- = NMC

,n order to ensure this, the $ariation of M- and MC is monitored and plotted , a line +ith a 7! degree angle is to be obtained. The loading must be applied in small steps and corrected according to the angle : ) 7! 5 CK too large % ' 7! 5 &J too large -fter the proper ratio is achie$ed, ko can be computed : ko=O1 / O The stress path is the ko line and its slope is denoted as T ko

Shearing 7 Simplest test is the one +ith imposed strain 5 only possible shearing path is 7! degrees loading Thepore +ater pressure does not affect de$iatoric stresses , only spherical ones(O=OPEu) This principle is $alid for s and t as +ell. The results of this is that the effect od the pore +ater pressure is simply to displace the state of stress. Fnly the applied stresses are controlled in the tri"axial e8uipment +hich means that for drained shearing +here u=( and s=sP. ,n the case of an undrained shearing the controlled $alue is s =) the pore +ater pressure must be measured in order to determine sP. 9or a consolidated undrained test , the pore +ater pressure stars from ( and builds up during the shearing , since no drainage is allo+ed. The higher the consolidation stress , the higher +ill be the failure stress, and the more pore pressure build up. u, 'u,,'u,,,

18. The effect of soils upon structures. Coulomb theory of active thrust. Culmann graphical method.

For both bearing structures and for foundations interacting with the soil ocmmon reaction forces develop: - active thrust when the soil pushes the structure - passive resistance when the soil is pushed by the structure

Pa - active thrust Pp - passive resistance

- concrete soil friction

- structure's displacement

Both active thrust and passive resistance require a certain displacement in order to mobilize

Coulomb model for active thrust retaining wall pushed by the thrust generated by a cohesionless soil wedge is considered as follows:

! " own weight of the wedge pushing the wall P " interaction force between wall and wedge # " interaction force between wedge and the rest of the soil mass

" angle of friction between concrete and soil

" interval friction angle

" failure surface angle

" retaining wall bac$face angle

#eactive friction forces are induced by the displacement occuring along the failure surface %due to decompression&'

P $ # sin ( ) = = P=# sin ( ) sin sin ( ?( + ) sin ( + )

(olutions: )& differentialing P% & with respect which the derivative canals' *& Culmann's graphical method +& using #an$ine's hypothesis for simplifying the system

and search for the value of

for

Culmann graphical method

 " angle between support line and orientation line

ssumed failure surface i - the own weight ! i and i are computed %for each assumed surface&' ,he envelope is drawn' -n the point of tangency with the origin of the support line. the actual failure surface is obtained'

19. The effect of soils upon structures. Coulomb theory of active thrust. Rankine model in active and passive case

For both bearing structures and for foundations interacting with the soil ocmmon reaction forces develop: - active thrust when the soil pushes the structure - passive resistance when the soil is pushed by the structure

Pa - active thrust

Pp - passive resistance

- concrete soil friction

- structure's displacement

Both active thrust and passive resistance require a certain displacement in order to mobilize

Coulomb model for active thrust retaining wall pushed by the thrust generated by a cohesionless soil wedge is considered as follows:

! " own weight of the wedge pushing the wall P " interaction force between wall and wedge # " interaction force between wedge and the rest of the soil mass

" angle of friction between concrete and soil

" interval friction angle

" failure surface angle

 " retaining wall bac$face angle

#eactive friction forces are induced by the displacement occuring along the failure surface %due to decompression&'

P $ # sin ( ) = = P=# sin ( ) sin sin ( ?( + ) sin ( + )

(olutions: )& differentialing P% & with respect which the derivative canals' *& Culmann's graphical method +& using #an$ine's hypothesis for simplifying the system

and search for the value of

for

,he #an$ine model is a simplified model of the Coulomb one. obtained by using the following hypothesis: - the wall bac$face is vertical % "/0& - the soil surface is horizontal % "0& - the friction between concrete and soil is neglected - only uniform distributed loads are allowed on the wedge

1ertical and horizontal directions are principal in state of rest' By preserving them. the pole of the 2ohr circle can be found for any point on the wall bac$face' 2 belongs to the bac$face and results that vertical-horizontal principal directions and to the failure surface and results failure critical tangent to 2ohr's circle' Pole coincident with + %vertical and horizontal directions are principal directions and also the directions of the loads&'