HSC Chemistry Notes Industrial Chemistry

9.5 1. Industrial chemistry processes have enabled scientists to develop replacements for natural products
1. discuss the issues associated with shrinking world resources with regard to one identified natural product that is not a fossil fuel, identifying the replacement materials used and/or current research in place to find a replacement for the named material As the human population grows, there is increasing demand on natural resources; yet the supply of raw materials is finite. Prolonged overuse of a natural resource leads to depletion or even permanent loss of the resource in the future. Recycling is an important response to the problem of shrinking world resources but it cannot solve the problem. he development of new materials is an important strategy to solve this problem. Synthetic ertilisers !ammonium nitrate"# !ecause all living things re"uires nitrogen to provide nutrients to #$A and proteins, it is an essential element of air, water and soil. $itrogen supplies are particularly important for plants and all agricultural harvests. Plants obtain their nitrogen from the soil by absorbing dissolved ammonium and nitrate ions through their roots. %arly farmers, through e&perimentation and observations of their crops, discovered that they could not continue to $row and re%use soils concurrently because the plants would absorb most of the ammonium ions and therefore drain the soil of nitrogen. 'owever, the use of clovers and guano were employed by the farmers which would replenish the nitrogen molecules in the soil. (nce reserves of guano had depleted )and because clovers were an ineffective process*, deposits of nitrate became available to be used in the development of nitrate rich fertilisers. (f course, however, these reserves of nitrate were finite and were used until the 'aber process was developed for the artificial synthesis of ammonia. he 'aber process produced ammonia from nitro$en )in the air* and hydro$en )from water or natural gas*. his ammonia could be o&idised to produce nitric acid. &hen ammonia reacts with nitric acid' a salt called ammonium nitrate is produced. his salt was an e(cellent synthetic fertiliser. NH))aq* * HN+))aq* NH,N++)aq* his 'aber process for the synthesis of ammonia became essential for the production of synthetic fertilisers when combined with nitric acid. $ot only could NH,N++ be used for the production of fertilisers so that nitrogen could be replenished in the soils , and therefore better crops , but the 'aber process was vital to -ermany throughout ../ in the production of ammonium nitrate to be used in e&plosives. (ngoing research is conducted today by environmental and analytical chemists, to discover methods which will enhance the yield of ammonia from the 'aber process ) Refer to Chemical Monitoring & Management*, however data is already determined to achieve such results from a revolutionary process. 1. identify data, gather and process information to identify and discuss the issues associated with the increased need for a natural resource that is not a fossil fuel and evaluate the progress currently being made to solve the problems identified Refer to orange dot point 1.1 above.

-. .any industrial processes involve manipulation of e/uilibrium reactions

1. e&plain the effect of changing the following factors on identified e"uilibrium reactions 0hanging e"uilibrium reactions will be affected according to le Chatelier0s principle any change will be countered to minimise that chan$e. pressure 0hanging pressure will only affect an e"uilibrium if there is at least one gas present in a reaction chamber. .hen pressure is increased, the volume occupied by the gas must try to ad1ust to this; as such the system will shift to the side which results in the least number of moles of each reactant/product.

e.g. N-)g* * )H-!g* -NH))g* 2 )production of ammonia* /n this case, if pressure were increased, the the e"uilibria would shift to the right )left has a total of 3 moles of reactants , compared to the 4 moles of product*. volume 5olume will affect a system in e"uilibrium in a similar way to pressure; however, in reverse. /f volume is increased, then pressure is decreased and as such the system will shift to the side with more moles to fill the space. /n the case above, the reaction would react toward the left, as this results in more moles of the reactants. concentration /f the concentration of a reactant or product is increased then the e/uilibrium will shift to use up the added chemical. 6imilarly if the concentration of a reactant or product is decreased then the e"uilibrium will shift to produce more of that chemical. temperature o know how heat will affect a reaction in a state of e"uilibrium, we must first know if the reaction is e(othermic )gives off heat* or endothermic )absorbs heat*. /f the reaction in "uestion were to give off heat, and we are to add heat, then the system will shift to the side that reduces heat the R'6. Accordingly with le 0hatelier7s principle. 4. interpret the e"uilibrium constant e&pression )no units re"uired* from the chemical e"uation of e"uilibrium reactions 8or any e"uilibrium reaction we can calculate a constant, called the e/uilibrium constant !1". 8or the general e"uilibrium e"uation9 a2 * b3 cC * d4 a, b, c, and d are the molar stoichiometry ratios of the substances A, !, 0, # in the e"uilibrium reaction.

K =

[ C ]c [ D ]d [ A ]a [ B ]b

:A!0#; represent the concentration of the substance at e"uilibrium. /n words, the e"uilibrium constant )<* is e"ual to the concentration of the products, divided by the concentration of the reactants. +. identify that temperature is the only factor that changes the value of the e"uilibrium constant )<* for a given e"uation he value of the e/uilibrium constant is used to $ive a /uantitative indication of the e(tent of the e/uilibrium. 5alues of K near 1 indicate that the e"uilibrium does not lie strongly to the left or the right. .hen K is very lar$e !516,", the reaction e"uilibrium strongly favours the products. .hen K is very small )=1>,3*, the reaction e"uilibrium strongly favours the reactants. he value of 1 only chan$es as the temperature chan$es. /f exothermic9 7 1 8 endothermic: 7 1 o anal se the changes and shifts of an equilibrium when concentrations are changed , at a constant temperature, we must know the reaction /uotient.

Calculate the value of the equilibrium constant )<* with the changed concentrations of one reactant. Calculate the value of the reaction quotient which is at any given time, which is the value before the any concentrations were altered. /f Q 9 K, reaction goes from left ri$ht until ! ? K. /f Q > K, reaction goes from ri$ht left until ! " K. /f ! " K, the reaction is at e"uilibrium.

1. identify data, plan and perform a first@hand investigation to model an e"uilibrium reaction he e&ample of people dancin$ at a party can be used to model e/uilibrium. :eople around the room represent reactants, they come together to form products )they 1oin to dance*. 6ometimes products decompose and form reactants again )dancing partners break up and become single again*. ;/uilibrium is reached when the doors are closed, so no@one else can enter or leave the room, and the number of couples dancing is constant. At any time, a couple may sit down, as long as another couple replaces them. his represents microscopic changes. Chan$es are occurrin$' but the concentration stays constant. If the doors are opened briefly and people are allowed in or out, this chan$e in concentration disturbs the e/uilibrium and a new e/uilibrium position is eventually established )with different numbers of people sitting and dancing*. 0losing off part of the room, decreasing volume and thus increasing pressure, will disturb the e"uilibrium and push more people together to make couples and a new e"uilibrium is established. 4. choose e"uipment and perform a first@hand investigation to gather information and "ualitatively analyse an e"uilibrium reaction -N+- N-+,

7emperature @ .hen the reaction was placed in hot water, it turned brown. .hen it was placed in cold water it turned colourless. his was a /ualitative observation and can be used to conclude that the reaction is e&othermic. :ressure @ .e also noticed that when we placed it in the cold water the pressure decreased, this is because the e"uilibrium has shifted to the right, and the right has less moles. .e also noticed the opposite when we placed it in hot water. Concentration @ .hen the concentration of nitrogen dio&ide gas was increased, the reaction moved rapidly toward the right and established a new e"uilibrium which was far to the right to increase the concentration of $4(3.

he gas was sealed tightly in the correct e"uipment to ensure there were no accidental concentration changes due to leaking gas. 0are was taken when dealing with gasses that will /uic<ly vaporise; masks were worn in case the flask was dropped and the to(ic gas could escape pungent odour and irritate throat. +. process and present information from secondary sources to calculate < from e"uilibrium conditions %&ample Auestion9 .hen the 'aber process is at e"uilibrium there are 3 moles of $ 4, B moles of '4 and 4 moles of $'+ in a CD vessel. 0alculate <. #ote: C = n/V 6olution9 N-)g* * )H-!g* -NH))g*

2 2 [ ] [ NH 3 ] 5 K = = 0.0488 [ N 2 ][ H 2 ]3 4 8 3 [ ][ ] 5 5
2

). Sulfuric acid is one of the most important industrial chemicals

1. outline three uses of sulfuric acid in industry =se 4ehydratin$ 2$ent >eason Concentrated '46(3 acts as an e&cellent dehydrating substance and is used to dehydrate ethanol ethylene and as a catalyst in many reactions )esterification*.

Car 3atteries .anufacture of ertilisers

Esed as the electrolyte in lead@acid batteries Esed as a catalyst in the Haber process for the synthesis of ammonia used to create ammonium sulfate for fertiliser

4. describe the processes used to e&tract sulfur from mineral deposits, identifying the properties of sulfur which allow its e&traction and analysing potential environmental issues associated with its e&traction

0ompressed air

Kolten sulfur

6uperheated water

Superheated water at 1F>G0 )under e&treme pressures* is forced down the outer of three concentric pipes into the sulfur. his melts the sulfur at 11)?C and forms an emulsion small droplets of one li"uid dispersed through another li"uid. Compressed air is blown down the inner pipe and this forces the water%sulfur emulsion up the middle pipe. he mixture cools, solid sulfur separates from li/uid water and so HH.CI sulfur is obtained.

he J$rasch %rocess& is able to operate with success because of the following properties of sulfur9 low melting point due to weak dispersion forces insoluble with water immiscible sulfur floats on more dense water inert, non-toxic' non- olatile does not need to be closely monitored and precautions taken. .hile sulfur itself is non@volatile and odourless and so does not escape into the environment, sulfur is easily o(idised to sulfur dio(ide )forming acid rain when absorbed by water* or reduced to h drogen sulfide, both of which are serious air pollutants at "uite low concentrations. 0onse"uently care is needed to prevent inadvertent o(idation or reduction of the sulfur. /n addition, the water used in the 8rasch process will most likely have a hi$h concentration of impurities and must be re%used@recycled in this process and not deposited in the environment. here can be a number of unknown and dangerous ions dissolved in the water and is not worth monitoring.

+. outline the steps and conditions necessary for the industrial production of ' 46(3 from its raw materials he industrial synthesis of sulfuric acid involves three steps of the contact process9 1. 0onversion of sulfur sulfur dio(ide )6(4*9 S)s* * +-)g* S+-)g*

he process begins with pure li/uefied sulfur and sprayed into a chamber of e(cess dry air. he must be in e&cess of the sulfur in order to produce the 6( 4. his is a combustion reaction; therefore the huge amounts of heat must be monitored and cooled to suitable ranges.

-. 0onversion of sulfur dio(ide sulfur trio(ide )6(+*9 -S+-)g* * +-)g* -S+))g*

he process is e&tremely difficult9 an e/uilibrium e/uation which is e(othermic. !y le 0hatelier7s principle, to increase the highest percentage of conversion the following can be done9 @ e(cess o(y$en @ hi$h pressures )since there are less moles on the right* @ low temperature )will cause the reaction to want more heat*

.ith the knowledge that to increase the yield of sulfur trio&ide, the contact process re"uires a relatively low temperature )3>>G0*; the rate of reaction is ver slow. A catalyst vanadium!A" o(ide A-+5 is re"uired to speed the reaction for suitable synthesis speed of 6( +. ). Absorption of sulfur trio(ide in water form sulfuric acid )'46(3*9 S+))g* * H-+)l* H-S+,)l* 'owever as this reaction is far to e&othermic, so instead concentrated sulfuric acid is added to the sulfur trio&ide to form oleum )H-S-+B*, water is then added to this to produce sulfuric acid. S+))g* L H4S+3)l* H4S4+M)l*

3. describe the reaction conditions for the production of 6(4 and 6(+ Refer to orange dot point !.! (above) S S+-# :ressure slightly above 166<:a ;(cess of o(y$en %&tremely e(othermic S+- S+)# Re"uires catalyst A-+5 3>> , CC>G0 for compromise between reaction rate )speed* and highest yield

C. apply the relationship between rates of reaction and e"uilibrium conditions to the production of 6( 4 and 6(+ S)s* * +-)g* S+-)g* 8rom particle theory we know that if we increase the temperature then the particles are vibratin$ more and hence collide more, thus the reaction rate is increased. his reaction is not in e"uilibrium, it goes to completion. S+-)g* * C+-)g* S+))g* his reaction is in equilibrium and so it is affected by a chan$e in temperature' pressure' concentration or volume. Also the temperature affects the rate of reaction due to particle theory, and using a catalyst increases the rate of reaction. Refer to orange dot points !.!' !.". F. describe, using e&amples, the reactions of sulfuric acid acting as9 an o&idising agent he reaction of sulfuric acid with ma$nesium results in the o&idation of magnesium into its Kg4L ions. 'ere, the sulfuric acid acts as an agent to reduce the magnesium9 .$)s* * H-S+,)l* .$S+,)l* * H-)g* a dehydrating agent Refer to %roduction of Materials orange dot point !.1. he concentrated sulfuric acid is used as an addition catal st to dehydrate ethanol. he dehydration of ethanol results in the synthesis of ethylene9 C-H5+H)aq* C-H,)aq* * H-+)l* M. describe and e&plain the e&othermic nature of sulfuric acid ionisation he ionisation of sulfuric acid occurs when it is diluted by water. he reaction taking place, causes the water to act as a base, because sulfuric acid is such a strong acid. .hen ' 46(3 is ionised this way, an immense level of heat is given off it is e&tremely e(othermic %96<D@mol. H-S+,)l* * H-+)l* HS+,%)aq* * H)+*!aq* his reaction is e(othermic due to the ener$y released due to the formin$ of the bond in the H)+*. B. identify and describe safety precautions that must be taken when using and diluting concentrated sulfuric acid

!ecause the ionisation of sulfuric acid in water has such a lar$e heat production, adding water to )diluting* concentrated sulfuric acid is dangerous. 6afety precautions include9 &ear protective clothin$ , this is in order to protect the skin from sulfuric acid burns. 2E&2FS 244 2CI4 7+ &27;> )do what ou oughter' add the acid to the water *. his is because the reaction between acid and water is very e&othermic, meaning much heat is produced. And so if you add acid to water then only very dilute acid may boil and spit, rather than having concentrated boiling acid spit. Also when doing this you should be adding the acid slowly and stir continually, to prevent the water from boiling. Neutralise any spills with water to prevent damage being caused to the floor. 1. gather, process and present information from secondary sources to describe the steps and chemistry involved in the industrial production of ' 46(3 and use available evidence to analyse the process to predict ways in which the output of sulfuric acid can be ma&imised Refer to orange dot point !.!, !.", !.# o increase the output of sulfuric acid during the contact process a number of conditions can be altered accordingly with le 0hatelier7s principle. 0ompromises must be made between the speed of production and the yield of sulfuric acid9 *emperature , (ptimum temperature between ,66?C and 556?C %ressure , (ptimum pressure is Gust above 166<:a +x gen Concentration , he contact process re"uires a small e(cess of o(y$en, an e&tra ))H Catal st 4. perform first@hand investigations to observe the reactions of sulfuric acid acting as9 an o&idising agent Refer to orange dot point !.$. a dehydrating agent he most dramatic reaction where sulfuric acid acts as a dehydrating agent is the addition of '46(3 to ordinary sugar )sucrose C1-H--+11". he addition of sugar crystal into a small amount of concentrated sulfuric acid results in a violent reaction where the acid "uickly removes the water from the sucrose leavin$ a porous blac< carbon. he sulfuric acid does not directly react with the sucrose but simply deh drates it to leave carbon and dissolved water. C1-H--+11)s* 1-C)s* * 11H-+)dissolved in ,-.+/* +. use available evidence to relate the properties of sulfuric acid to safety precautions necessary for its transport and storage Sulfuric acid e(ists as 9IH in itJs natural concentrated form. !ecause it is almost all molecular with few ions being produced it will react with many substances and is therefore slightly difficult to transport. Duckily, '46(3 will not react with steel, iron, plastic or glass steel barrels are chosen for the most effective transport due to the greatest strength advantage which is also economical. 'owever, dilute sulfuric acid which has been ionised and therefore there are a large presence of dissolved ions will attac< and corrode any metal it contacts. 8or this reason, ionised )diluted* sulfuric acid must be stored and transported in plastic or glass containers which is e&tremely difficult when transporting large "uantities. his ionisation accumulation will produce hydro$en $as which is also inflammable and must of course be kept away from naked flame or electric spark.

,. 7he industrial production of sodium hydro(ide re/uires the use of electrolysis

1. e&plain the difference between galvanic cells and electrolytic cells in terms of energy re"uirements Jalvanic Cells# convert chemical ener$y into electrical ener$y spontaneous cathode )L* and anode )@* half cells are connected in which one undergoes o&idation and the other reduction used in batteries ;lectrolytic Cells#

use electrical ener$y to cause chemical chan$es decompose molecules into elements or simpler compounds cathode )@* and anode )L* >e/uires 4C power source is an induced reaction caused only by the presence of electrical current

/t is important to note that reduction will always occur at the cathode and o&idation always at the anode, however, in galvanic and electrolytic cells the polarities of each electrode is reversed. 4. outline the steps in industrial production of sodium hydro&ide from sodium chloride solution and describe the reaction in terms of net ionic and full formula e"uations Sodium hydro(ide is produced by the electrolysis of sodium chloride brine !sea water" . he sodium chloride )$a0l* is already present in salt water from the ocean and is a perfectly good resource for the production of $a(' for use in other industries. .hen all species are dissolved in water we have Na*, Cl% and H-+. 2t the cathode# !ecause reduction occurs at the cathode, then by referring to the standard table of potentials we are able to infer that the e"uilibria most easily reduced is9 H-+ * e% CH-)g* * +H% 2t the anode# !y observing the potentials of all reactants once again, we see that the chloride ions will be o&idised most easily. his reaction occurs for the chloride ions in the 01. state. Cl% CCl-)g* * e% he addition of these half reactions will result in the overall reaction. he sodium ions act as spectator ions and will not react in the process however will combine with the hydro(ide ion as a product to form Na+H. -NaCl)aq* L H-+)l* H-)g* L Cl-)g* * Na+H)aq* +. distinguish between the three electrolysis methods used to e&tract sodium hydro&ide9 by describing each process and analysing the technical and environmental difficulties involved in each process mercury process he mercury process uses the techni"ue of hydrolysis of a brine to create sodium hydro&ide. /n the mercury )Castner2Kellner* cell the cathode is li/uid mercury and the anode is titanium which is an e&tremely unreactive substance. #uring this process, the sodium ions dissolve in the li"uid mercury forming an amalgam. he overall reaction is as follows9 -Na*)aq* * -Cl%)aq* -Na)l* * Cl-)g* Cathode % sodium Na*)aq* * e% Na)dissolved in ,g* 2node % chlorine -Cl%)aq* Cl-)g* * -e%

he sodium dissolved in mercur will now flow from the electrol sis cell into a separate chamber containing onl water. &ithout electrical input or acceleration' the sodium ions will react with the water to form pure Na+H.

7echnical difficulties# (perational voltage is 3 @ C5, which is relatively high compared to other process. he large amount of energy to produce the high concentrations of pure sodium hydro&ide is a downfall in the process and makes the mercury process uneconomical and thus inefficient for large scale production. ;nvironmental difficulties# Kercury pollution from this process is a large concern9 it is a heavy metal which will easily pollute water ways and not break down this is a concern when it is biologically amplified in concentration as one

creature consumes the mercury it will not disappear but become more concentrated. his only occurs because the mercury is recycled in water. he threat is that humans will eventually consume the poisoned fish, resulting in ill health for humans. Kercury is to&ic. diaphragm process /n the diaphra$m process a solution of sodium chloride )$a0l* is electrolysed to produce sodium hydro&ide )$a('*. he cathode is an iron mesh while the anode is titanium. #uring this process9 Chlorine is o(idised at the anode to produce chlorine $as, which is pumped out of the cell as it is formed At the cathode, water is reduced to form hydro$en $as and sodium hydro(ide. he hydrogen is pumped out of the cell as it forms -NaCl)aq* * -H-+)l* H-)g* * Cl-)g* * -Na+H)aq* Cathode % water -H-+)l* * -e% H-)g* * -+H%)aq* 2node % chlorine -Cl%)aq* Cl-)g* * -e%

7echnical difficulties# he operational voltage for the diaphragm cell is similar to that of the mercury cell, however slightly lower around +.C , 35. his voltage is still hard to maintain and re"uires large amperage to operate. he production of sodium hydro&ide in the process is also very inefficient with appro&imately a yield of C>I as the end result which is due to the reduction of brine when chlorine gas is released in the process. he industrial production of $a(', it is simply not fast enough and too costly. ;nvironmental difficulties# /n addition, the diaphragm which separates the catholyte and anolyte compartments was previously made from asbestos which is e&tremely haNardous to humans and causes respiratory problems. Asbestos was used because is could withstand the anions and cations in solution, however, recently changes have been made to implement better and environmentally cleaner diaphragms. membrane cell he membrane cell produces sodium hydro&ide with a salt impurity of only >.>4I. he membrane cell is similar to the diaphragm cell. he cathode is made of stainless steel mesh and the anode is made of activated titanium. Chloride and hydro(ide Ion diffusion often occurs in the the cells' so a porous polymer membrane coated in anionic $roups' is used to repel the anions in the sodium chloride solution. his way, the hydro&ide ions cannot flow to the chloride ions, forming hypochlorite ions which reduce the yield of sodium hydro&ide. -NaCl)aq* * -H-+)l* H-)g* * Cl-)g* * -Na+H)aq* Cathode % water -H-+)l* * -e% H-)g* * -+H%)aq* 2node % chlorine -Cl%)aq* Cl-)g* * -e%

7echnical difficulties# he operational voltage for the membrane cell is not as much of concern compared to the above cells and re"uires between + and +.C5 this makes it much more favourable in industry being the cheapest process to run and initially establish. ;nvironmental difficulties# here are no apparent or immediate environmental concerns for the membrane process of e&tracting sodium hydro&ide from solution. here is, of course, the problem of selecting a suitable location for the plant to be set up and transporting of goods however pollution from transport and operating the plant is kept minimal and in compliance with %PA guidelines.

1. identify data, plan and perform a first@hand investigation to identify the products of the electrolysis of sodium chloride Refer to orange dot point ".% :roducts# 0hlorine gas, 0l4 'ydrogen gas, '4 6odium hydro&ide, $a(' 4. analyse information from secondary sources to predict and e&plain the different products of the electrolysis of a"ueous and molten sodium chloride he electrolysis of molten sodium chloride is a dangerous process and because there is no water involved, there are different products in the end result. .hen electrolysing molten $a0l, the sodium cations are reduced and the chloride anions are o&idised )in the gaseous state*. Cathode % sodium Na*)l* * e% Na)l* he overall reaction is9 -Na*)l* * -Cl%)l* -Na)l* * Cl-)g* 2node % chlorine -Cl%)l* Cl-)g* * -e%

he products by electrolysis of molten are molten sodium and chlorine $as. he products by electrolysis of a"ueous are hydro$en $as, chlorine $as and sodium hydro(ide

5. Saponification is an important or$anic industrial process

1. describe saponification as the conversion in basic solution of fats and oils to glycerol and salts of fatty acids Saponification is the chemical reaction in which fatty esters !fats or oils" are hydrolysed in al<aline solution to produce soap. 6aponification is the reaction between a fat/oil and a basic solution )often sodium hydro&ide* to form an alcohol and a carbo(ylate anion. &at/oil ' base gl(cerol ' salt(soap)

Jly c erol

4. describe the conditions under which saponification can be performed in the school laboratory and compare these with industrial preparation of soap School Eaboratory# !ecause most esters and li"uids are insoluble in water there must be a form of catalyst to initiate a reaction. 3oilin$ the ester mi(ture with sodium hydro(ide, #a+,, base will cause the ester to brea< down into a sodium carbo(ylate and an alcohol )depending on the ester involved*. .ith knowledge of esters and alcohols, we know that they are very volatile and the process of saponification is conducted in a similar apparatus for the making of an ester with a reflux condenser. he alternative is a beaker with a clock glass on top, using a heat plate. he water%fat@sodium hydro(ide mi(ture should be left to boil for appro(imately )6 minutes at the end there should be no visible fat in the solution.

he soap can now be separated from the mi&ture by either using knowledge of boiling points and using fractional distillation or add saturated salt )that is, a salt that has all single bonds*. he saturated salt will Jsalt outJ the soap in the mi&ture formin$ a crude soap curd on the surface of the mi(ture. he soap curd@scum can be removed usin$ a li$ht vacuum filtration and simply washing with water to remove any traces of sodium hydro&ide still in the soap curd. the e&tracted soap can now be tested. Industrial :reparation# he industrial preparation of soap is similar to the process used in the laboratory e&cept it is used on a large scale9 6aponification is conducted in large tanks which a mi&ture of the fats and sodium hydro&ide are boiled. :roducts from previous saponifications are left in these tan<s as they promote emulsification )the mi&ing of the fats in the water*. Hi$h pressure and steam are added durin$ the process to stir the mi(ture to ensure that the mi& of fats and oils are dissolving into the water. he soap is Jsalted outJ using saturated salt, however, the $lycerol is removed and purified rather than still having traces of glycerol in the laboratory soap. he soap is separated into a separate fatty layer using an acid of the industryJs choice. ra$rances are added at the end step. +. account for the cleaning action of soap by describing its structure Soap is able to act as a cleaning agent because it contains both a polar and non%polar section. 6oapJs general structure contains a non@polar h drocarbon tail which has little affinity for water and is considered hydrophobic. 'owever, soapJs polar &head& is considered hydrophilic and as a result will lather with the water. .hen soap comes in contact with water it will act as a surfactant# a substance that decreases the surface tension of water and disperses dirt and grease as small particles throughout the water. )ost dirt can ar( between polar and non-polar for this reason, when soap is mi&ed with water to create a lather and act as a surfactant it can remove both polar and non@polar dirt by allowing it to break away from skin or clothing and float around in the water.

Hy droc arbon tail Ne$ative soap anion

3. e&plain that soap, water and oil together form an emulsion with the soap acting as an emulsifier he grease layer starts to lift off the material when soap molecules come into contact with oil in a water medium. 7hese droplets become stabilised in the water by the formation of micelles @ which are the negatively charged ends of the soap chain when they root into an oil drop. 7his stabilised mi(ture of $rease' water and soap is called an emulsion. he surface of these grease droplets is covered with the negatively charged head groups of the soap. 7he ne$ative droplet surfaces repel one another so the $rease droplets do not tend to coalesce or Goin to$ether a$ain. he soap here, acts as an emulsifier and causes the dirt/oil to separate from each other not wanting to re1oin. he soap stabilises the emulsion by suspendin$ the oil particles in the water. ;mulsion , the mi&ture of two or more immiscible li"uids

C. distinguish between soaps and synthetic detergents in terms of9 Soap Synthetic deter$ents

Structure of molecule

Ne$ative polar head and a non2 polar h drocarbon tail Sodium or :otassium salts of long chain fatty acids refer to orange dot point #.1 #oes N+7 lather

*
0an have polar or non%polar head. hus it can be L, @ or non%ionic. 'ydrocarbon with sulfate end Dathers easily

Chemical composition ;ffect in hard water

structure of the molecule Soaps# are a polar anionic surfactant )negative head* with a non@polar hydrocarbon tail 4eter$ents# are either anionic, cationic or non@ionic and do not need to have a charge. hey have a non@ polar hydrocarbon tail. chemical composition 6ome deter$ents have been synthesised from the raw petroleum products, while others have been created using natural fats and oils. All detergents are composed of a sulfate. 'owever, soaps are always composed of sodium or potassium salts that were derived from larger chained fatty acids. effect in hard water Soap does not lather in hard water due to precipitation of fatty acid anions. #etergents will lather perfectly fine in hard water which has an excess presence of calcium or magnesium ions in the water. F. distinguish between anionic, cationic and non@ionic synthetic detergents in terms of9 chemical composition uses 2nionic synthetic detergents !%" Cationic synthetic detergents !*" Non%ionic synthetic detergents ! "

*
Chemical composition 'ave a anion )negativel charged ion* for the head/micelle. Esually contains sulfate )S+,-%* #ish@washing li"uids Eaundry deter$ents 'ave a cation )positivel charged ion* for the head/micelle. Esually contains an ammonium salt abric Softeners Antiseptics =nchar$ed polar $roups throughout the hydrocarbon molecule.

=ses

Combined with other detergents and car wash

Kany of the detergents are obtained from petroleum he non%ionic synthesised deter$ents are not ions but in fact lon$ chain molecules that have numerous cleaning purposes similar to those of the anionic detergents.

1. perform a first@hand investigation to carry out saponification and test the product /n a first@hand investigation to carry out saponification we mi(ed )6ml fat@oil with )6ml concentrated Na+H in a bea<er with water. his mi(ture was boiled for about )6mins while stirring constantly and topping it up with water the amount of water is not necessary to know and only needed for boiling. (nce there was only one layer visible, it was cooled and salt was added to produce a white solid soap. En@reacted $a(', salt and glycerol were washed off leaving soil soap behind. he product was tested by mi(in$ it with water in a test tube and sha<en . /f it was soap then a froth formed.

4. gather, process and present information from secondary sources to identify a range of fats and oils used for soap@making 0oconut oil Animal fat 5egetable oil (live oil +. perform a first@hand investigation to gather information and describe the properties of a named emulsion and relate these properties to its uses here are two types of emulsions9 +il%in%water emulsions , consist of oil colloidal particles which are suspended throughout the water mi&ture. A simple and known emulsion is mil< which contains the naturally occurring emulsifier casein, a milk protein. he oil droplets in the a"ueous milk mi&ture are stabilised by the casein which also acts as a surfactant. &ater%in%oil emulsions , consist of colloidal particles of water suspended throughout a predominantly oil substance. (il emulsions which contain small amounts of water which are stabilised by an emulsifier include lipstic< and many creams. Kany water@in@oil emulsions have useful properties because of a thicker consistency and are often used in creams, cosmetics and sunscreens. hese emulsions are applied directly to the skin and will penetrate into the skinJs pores. ;mulsifiers prevent the oil or water in an an emulsion from separatin$ into differentiable layers due to the densit and immiscible properties of oil3fats compared with water. 3. perform a first@hand investigation to demonstrate the effect of soap as an emulsifier A bea<er was filled with a lar$e amount of soap fla<es and another with a li/uid soap and both were lathered so micelles formed and would act as a surfactant. A small drop of a mixture of fats' oils and dirt was dropped onto the top of each bea4er initially the drop of oil was suspended on top, however, as time passed the drops of oils gradually dissolved and were suspended throughout the water. 7he emulsion of the oil was evident by a thic<er mi(ture of water which was dirty. his showed soap acting as an emulsifier. C. solve problems and use available evidence to discuss, using e&amples, the environmental impacts of the use of soaps and detergents Soaps9 Pose no real threat to the environment when are or$anic. 0omposed of naturally occurring products including fats and oils which are easily broken down by bacteria in the environment biode$radable However' some soaps have chemical additions to them in the form of fra$rances and disinfectants which are e(tremely harmful to the waterways and can cause animal birth defects and liver dama$e. his problem is evidenced by intestinal and liver issues associated with numerous fish in local river systems. 6ome anti@bacterial soaps have been seen to contain *riclosan which is registered as a dangerous pesticide with the %nvironmental Protection Agency )%PA*; damages fragile ecosystems. 4eter$ents# Kost detergents are composed of phosphates or sulfates which promote eutrophication in local waterways leading to a decrease in dissolved o&ygen, decreased temperature and eventual stagnation of the water. 6pecified chemicals, surfactants, antibacterials, fragrances are 1ust some e&tras added into detergents to provide an easier cleaning e&perience for the customer. 'owever these additives are e(tremely detrimental to the environment. he use of sodium hydro&ide in both the production of soaps and detergents is an e&tremely caustic substance which re"uires great monitoring and have been instances in America, Australia and 0hina of $a(' leaks into the water ways resulting in a plethora of a"uatic deaths.

K. 7he Solvay process has been in use since the 1IK6s

1. identify the raw materials used in the 6olvay process and name the products he Solvay process is a method for making sodium carbonate )+a%C,!*. 2nhydrous sodium carbonate is commonly referred to as soda ash and is a very important industrial chemical , it is a white, odourless crystalline substance and readily soluble in water. 6odium carbonate e&ists also as a variety of hydrated salts, the most common being sodium carbonate decahydrate. he raw materials used in the 6olvay process are9 Sodium chloride )$a0l* , (btained from brine )salt water* 2mmonia )$'+* , his is reused during the process so it is not a raw material , it is synthesised. he ammonia is added during the process to saturate the brine Calcium Carbonate )0a0(+* , (btained from limestone in the ground he overall reaction is given by9 CaC+))s* * -NaCl)aq* Na-C+))aq* * CaCl-)aq* he products of the 6olvay process are sodium carbonate and calcium chloride , which is considered a waste product of the process. 'owever, there are a plethora of steps in the 6olvay process. 4. describe the uses of sodium carbonate Jlass manufacture , the sodium carbonate acts as a flu( in the manufacture and shaping of glass to lower the melting point of silicon dio&ide and glass/plastic constituents. Soap and deter$ent manufacture , $a40(+ can be used to replace stronger al4alis used, such as sodium hydro&ide. Softenin$ hard water , the carbonate ions will precipitate the magnesium and calcium ions in the water. hus some detergents contain sodium carbonate for this purpose. +. identify, given a flow chart, the se"uence of steps used in the 6olvay process and describe the chemistry involved in9

 brine purification he brine used in the 6olvay process is salt water that has been made by the addition of salts from fields and the addition of water. 'owever, this brine is not pure and contains a range of ions and salts that will cause the water to act as hard water. Calcium ions are precipitated by adding sodium carbonate )$a40(+* to the brine. .a$nesium ions are precipitated out by the addition of sodium hydro(ide )('@ ions*. Ca-*)aq* * C+)-%)aq* CaC+))s* .$-*)aq* * -+H%)aq* .$!+H"-)s* A flocculant is added to the brine mi&ture so that the precipitates stick together and can be easily filtered out and removed from the brine. hydrogen carbonate formation At this stage, the purified brine )$a0l*, carbon dio(ide )0(4* from the lime 4iln process and ammonia $as )$'+* are dissolved in solution forming ammonium chloride )$' 30l* and sodium hydrogen carbonate )$a'0(+*. he sodium hydro$en carbonate ionises in water to form sodium ions in solution alon$ with a hydro$en carbonate formation. he ionisation of the $a'0(+ is a simple process that occurs once water is added to the solution. NaCl)aq* * C+-)g* * NH))g* * H-+)l* NH,Cl)aq* * NaHC+))aq* formation of sodium carbonate Sodium hydro$en carbonate decomposes to produce anhydrous sodium carbonate' water vapour and carbon dio(ide. 'eat is added to the sodium hydrogen carbonate in order to speed this decomposition process which was originally derived from the addition process above which occur in the carbonator. /n this kiln, the sodium hydrogen carbonate is heated in a filter using high pressured steam, resulting in the desired $a40(+. -NaHC+))aq* Na-C+))s* * C+-)g* * H-+)g* ammonia recovery he ammonia recovery process is a way of reusin$ the ammonia from one section of the 6olvay process )in producing the sodium hydrogen carbonate* by the reaction of combined ammonia molecules. he recovery essentially re@synthesises ammonia. #uring the lime kiln stage, calcium o&ide Ca+)s* is produced b the decomposition of limestone CaC+5)s*. he calcium o(ide solid is then dissolved in water to form calcium hydro(ide. Ca+)s* * H-+)l* Ca!+H"-)s* he ammonium chloride that was formed during the formation of sodium hydrogen carbonate is reacted with the calcium hydro(ide to form calcium chloride )considered waste* and ammonia gas. he ammonia gas is recycled in the process in order to create more hydrogen carbonate in the 6olvay Process. Ca!+H"-)s* * NH,Cl)aq* CaCl-)aq* * NH))g* * H-+)l* 3. discuss environmental issues associated with the 6olvay process and e&plain how these issues are addressed here are no ma1or pollution or environmental issues associated with the 6olvay process because it uses naturally occurring substances. #isposal methods of any waste products have been developed and improved over time so that any possible damage is very minimal. Calcium Chloride % At the end of the 6olvay process, a slurry of calcium chloride' mil< of lime and suspended lime particles are disposed of as waste from the process. he calcium chloride solution in the slurry is only very slightly acidic )p' F.C* but the presence of the mil< of lime !calcium hydro(ide" ma<es the slurry sli$htly al<aline overall .

Calcium' sodium and chloride ions do not affect the environment or cause any si$nificant dama$e to the environment as they already e(ist in hi$h concentrations in the oceans where the 0a0l4 is disposed of in Australia the only 6olvay plant being on the coast of 6outh Australia where the slurry is dispelled into the water on the shoreline. #isposal of calcium chloride in overseas countries is far more difficult as it may be disposed of in other waterways than the ocean and this would significantly alter the salinity levels and may help lead to hard water and eutrophication. 6oil salinity can also be affected which results in the death of nearby plants.

2mmonia % he ammonia used in the 6olvay process could potentially contaminate the environment but industrial techni/ues are so efficient that virtually no ammonia is lost durin$ recyclin$ . 7hermal :ollution % hermal pollution is a possible threat to the environment since the 6olvay process re"uires an overall heat of 95%166?C of which most is collected and recycled by large cooling towers. Kuch of the heat is transferred into nearby water ways' however' do not lead to decreased o(y$en level or promote al$al blooms because the water has cooled significantly. Eimestone % Dimestone used in the 6olvay process is mined from open cut mines in various places of Australia and have a number of environmental issues and pollutions, however, are not a direct pollution of the 6olvay process and dealt with e&ternally. he <iln used to decompose the limestone is not 1>>I efficient and particulates escape. #espite this, they are eliminated and controlled by scrubbers and electrostatic precipitators. 1. perform a first@hand investigation to assess risk factors and then carry out a chemical step involved in the 6olvay process identifying any difficulties associated with the laboratory modelling of the step Refer to 6xcel Chemistr and Macquarie Chemistr ,.C *extboo4s for a description and anal sis . 4. process information to solve problems and "uantitatively analyse the relative "uantities of reactants and products in each step of the process Re"uires working with moles, masses and alwa(s use the given e"uation or one that you must establish to evaluate the production of materials in a molar stoichiometric ratio. +. use available evidence to determine the criteria used to locate a chemical industry using the 6olvay process as an e&ample actors influencin$ location :ro(imity of raw materials Solvay :rocess e(ample +sborne' S2

Coastal location allows easy access to sea water @ pumped into ponds for purification O crystallisation. A limestone quarry in the Barossa Valley sends a trainload of limestone to (sborne each day. Provides supplies to the Australia region Eimestone is transported by train. 3B >>> tonnes of sodium bicarbonate and +4C >>> tonnes of sodium carbonate transported annually throughout Australia by road, rail and sea. (sborne is a western suburb of Adelaide which provides these facilities. Entil recently dischar$ed into the :ort >iver, uses are now being found e.g. for land2fill.

:ro(imity to mar<et 2vailability to transportation raw material product 2vailability of housin$ for wor<ers' shops and families acilities for waste disposal