Coal From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Coal Sedimentary Rock Anthracite coal

al Composition Primary car on Secondary sulfur, hydrogen, o!ygen, nitrogen "!ample chemical structure of coal Coal is a readily com usti le lack or ro#nish$ lack sedimentary rock normally occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal eds% &he harder forms, such as anthracite coal, can e regarded as metamorphic rock ecause of later e!posure to elevated temperature and pressure% 't is composed primarily of car on along #ith varia le (uantities of other elements, chiefly sulfur, hydrogen, o!ygen and nitrogen% Contents )hide* + &ypes of coal , "arly use - .ses today -%+ Coal as fuel -%, Coking and use of coke -%- "thanol production -%/ 0asification -%1 2i(uefaction -%3 Refined coal -%4 Coal as a traded commodity -%5 Cultural usage / "nvironmental effects 1 "conomic aspects 3 "nergy density 4 Car on intensity 5 .nderground fires 6 Production trends 6%+ World coal reserves 6%, 7a8or coal producers 6%- 7a8or coal e!porters +9 See also ++ References +, Further reading +- "!ternal links Coal #as formed from layer upon layer of annual plant remains accumulating slo#ly that #ere protected from iodegradation y usually acidic covering #aters that gave a natural antiseptic effect com ating microorganisms and then later mud deposits protecting against o!idi:ation in the #idespread shallo# seas mainly during the Car oniferous period thus trapping atmospheric car on in the ground in immense peat ogs that eventually #ere covered over and deeply uried y sediments under #hich they metamorphosed into coal% 'n this manner, over time, the chemical and physical properties of the plant remains ; elieved to mainly have een fern$like species antedating more modern plant and tree species< #ere changed y geological action to create a solid material%

Coal, a fossil fuel, is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity #orld#ide, as #ell as one of the largest #orld#ide anthropogenic sources of car on dio!ide emissions% 0ross car on dio!ide emissions from coal usage are slightly more than those from petroleum and a out dou le the amount from natural gas%)+* Coal is e!tracted from the ground y mining, either underground or in open pits% )edit* &ypes of coal =elieved appro!imate position of the proto$continents to#ard the end of the Car oniferous period> the light lue represents shallo# seas #here many of todays coal deposits are found, as opposed to deeper #aters #hich gave rise to oil earing rocks derived from marine species% &he ice caps #ere kno#n to e very large, lo#ering sea levels e!tensively y locking up oceanic #aters into solid ice, though ho# large the ice caps ecame is a matter of de ate% &he position of most continental foundations in lo#er latitudes definitely created a series of successive shallo# s#amplike seas #e urn for todays coal sourced electricity%As geological processes apply pressure to dead iotic matter over time, under suita le conditions it is transformed successively into Peat, considered to e a precursor of coal, has industrial importance as a fuel in some regions, for e!ample, 'reland and Finland% 2ignite, also referred to as ro#n coal, is the lo#est rank of coal and used almost e!clusively as fuel for electric po#er generation% Jet is a compact form of lignite that is sometimes polished and has een used as an ornamental stone since the 'ron Age% Su $ ituminous coal, #hose properties range from those of lignite to those of ituminous coal are used primarily as fuel for steam$electric po#er generation% Additionally, it is an important source of light aromatic hydrocar ons for the chemical synthesis industry% =ituminous coal, dense mineral, lack ut sometimes dark ro#n, often #ith #ell$ defined ands of right and dull material, used primarily as fuel in steam$ electric po#er generation, #ith su stantial (uantities also used for heat and po#er applications in manufacturing and to make coke% Anthracite, the highest rank> a harder, glossy, lack coal used primarily for residential and commercial space heating% 't may e divided further into metamorphically altered ituminous coal and petrified oil, as from the deposits in Pennsylvania% 0raphite, technically the highest rank, ut difficult to ignite and is not so commonly used as fuel: it is mostly used in pencils and, #hen po#dered, as a lu ricant% &he classification of coal is generally ased on the content of volatiles% ?o#ever, the e!act classification varies et#een countries% According to the 0erman classification, coal is classified as follo#s:),* @ame Aolatiles B C Car on B ? ?ydrogen B C C!ygen B S Sulfur B ?eat content kJDkg =raunkohle ;2ignite< /1$31 39$41 3%9$1%5 -/$+4 9%1$- E,5/49 Flammkohle ;Flame coal< /9$/1 41$5, 3%9$1%5 F6%5 G+ E-,549 0asflammkohle ;0as flame coal< -1$/9 5,$51 1%5$1%3 6%5$4%- G+ E--6+9 0askohle ;0as coal< ,5$-1 51$54%1 1%3$1%9 4%-$/%1 G+ E-/639 Fettkohle ;Fat coal< +6$,5 54%1$56%1 1%9$/%1 /%1$-%, G+ E-1-59 "sskohle ;Forge coal< +/$+6 56%1$69%1 /%1$/%9 -%,$,%5 G+ E-1-59 7agerkohle ;@on aking coal< +9$+/ 69%1$6+%1 /%9$-%41 ,%5$-%1 G+ -1-59 Anthra:it ;Anthracite< 4$+, F6+%1 E-%41 E,%1 G+ E-1-99 Percent y #eight

&he middle si! grades in the ta le represent a progressive transition from the "nglish$language su $ ituminous to ituminous coal, #hile the last class is an appro!imate e(uivalent to anthracite, ut more inclusive ;the .%S% anthracite has E 3B volatiles<% Cannel coal ;sometimes called Hcandle coalH<, is a variety of fine$grained, high$ rank coal #ith a large amount of hydrogen% 't consists primarily of He!initeH macerals, no# termed HliptiniteH% )edit* "arly use Further information: ?istory of coal mining Cutcrop coal #as used in =ritain during the =ron:e Age ;,999$-999 years =C<, #here it has een detected as forming part of the composition of funeral pyres%)-* &he earliest recogni:ed use is from the Shenyang area /999 =C #here @eolithic inha itants had egun carving ornaments from lack lignite, ut it #as not until the ?an Iynasty ;,93 =C,,9 AI< that coal #as also used for fuel%)/* 'n Roman =ritain, #ith the e!ception of t#o modern fields, Hthe Romans #ere e!ploiting coals in all the ma8or coalfields in "ngland and Wales y the end of the second century AIH%)1* "vidence of trade in coal ;dated to a out AI ,99< has een found at the inland port of ?eron ridge, near Chester, and in the Fenlands of "ast Anglia, #here coal from the 7idlands #as transported via the Car Iyke for use in drying grain%)3* Coal cinders have een found in the hearths of villas and military forts, particularly in @orthum erland, dated to around AI /99% 'n the #est of "ngland contemporary #riters descri ed the #onder of a permanent ra:ier of coal on the altar of 7inerva at A(uae Sulis ;modern day =ath< although in fact easily$accessi le surface coal from #hat ecame the Somerset coalfield #as in common use in (uite lo#ly d#ellings locally%)4* "vidence of coalJs use for iron$ #orking in the city during the Roman period has een found%)5* &here is no evidence that the product #as of great importance in =ritain efore the ?igh 7iddle Ages, after a out AI +999% 7ineral coal came to e referred to as Hseacoal,H pro a ly ecause it came to many places in eastern "ngland, including 2ondon, y sea% &his is accepted as the more likely e!planation for the name than that it #as found on eaches, having fallen from the e!posed coal seams a ove or #ashed out of under#ater coal seam outcrops% &hese easily accessi le sources had largely ecome e!hausted ;or could not meet the gro#ing demand< y the +-th century, #hen underground mining from shafts or adits #as developed%)-* 'n 2ondon there is still a Seacoal 2ane and a @e#castle 2ane ;from the coal$shipping city of @e#castle< #here in the seventeenth century coal #as unloaded at #harves along the River Fleet%)6* An alternative name #as Hpitcoal,H ecause it came from mines% 't #as, ho#ever, the development of the 'ndustrial Revolution that led to the large$ scale use of coal, as the steam engine took over from the #ater #heel% )edit* .ses today Coal rail cars in Ashta ula, Chio% )edit* Coal as fuel Further information: "lectricity generation, Clean coal technology, Coal electricity, and 0lo al #arming Coal is primarily used as a solid fuel to produce electricity and heat through com ustion% World coal consumption is a out 3%, illion tons annually% China produced ,%-5 illion tons in ,993 and 'ndia produced a out //4%- million tons in ,993% 35%4B of ChinaJs electricity comes from coal% &he .SA consumes a out +%91illion tons of coal each year, using 69B of it for generation of electricity%)+9* &he #orld in total produced 3%+6 illion tons of coal in ,993%

When coal is used for electricity generation, it is usually pulveri:ed and then urned in a furnace #ith a oiler% &he furnace heat converts oiler #ater to steam, #hich is then used to spin tur ines #hich turn generators and create electricity% &he thermodynamic efficiency of this process has een improved over time% HStandardH steam tur ines have topped out #ith some of the most advanced reaching a out -1B thermodynamic efficiency for the entire process, although ne#er com ined cycle plants can reach efficiencies as high as 15B% 'ncreasing the com ustion temperature can oost this efficiency even further%)++* Cld coal po#er plants, especially HgrandfatheredH plants, are significantly less efficient and produce higher levels of #aste heat% A out /9B of the #orldJs electricity comes from coal,)+,* and appro!imately /6B of the .nited States electricity comes from coal%)+-* Fuels for heating $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ ?eating oil Wood pellet Kerosene Propane @atural gas "lectricity Wood Coal

&he emergence of the supercritical tur ine concept envisions running a oiler at e!tremely high temperatures and pressures #ith pro8ected efficiencies of /3B, #ith further theori:ed increases in temperature and pressure perhaps resulting in even higher efficiencies%)+/* Cther efficient #ays to use coal are com ined cycle po#er plants, com ined heat and po#er cogeneration, and an 7?I topping cycle% Appro!imately /9B of the #orld electricity production uses coal% &he total kno#n deposits recovera le y current technologies, including highly polluting, lo# energy content types of coal ;i%e%, lignite, ituminous<, is sufficient for many years% ?o#ever, consumption is increasing and ma!imal production could e reached #ithin decades ;see World Coal Reserves, elo#<% A more energy$efficient #ay of using coal for electricity production #ould e via solid$o!ide fuel cells or molten$car onate fuel cells ;or any o!ygen ion transport ased fuel cells that do not discriminate et#een fuels, as long as they consume o!ygen<, #hich #ould e a le to get 39B51B com ined efficiency ;direct electricity L #aste heat steam tur ine<%)citation needed* Currently these fuel cell technologies can only process gaseous fuels, and they are also sensitive to sulfur poisoning, issues #hich #ould first have to e #orked out efore large scale commercial success is possi le #ith coal% As far as gaseous fuels go, one idea is pulveri:ed coal in a gas carrier, such as nitrogen% Another option is coal gasification #ith #ater, #hich may lo#er fuel cell voltage y introducing o!ygen to the fuel side of the electrolyte, ut may also greatly simplify car on se(uestration% ?o#ever, this technology has een criticised as eing inefficient, slo#, risky and costly, #hile doing nothing a out total emissions from mining,

processing and com ustion%)+1* Another efficient and clean #ay of coal com ustion in a form of coal$#ater slurry fuel ;CWS< #as #ell developed in Russia ;since the Soviet .nion time<% CWS significantly reduces emissions saving the heating value of coal% )edit* Coking and use of coke 7ain article: Coke ;fuel< Coke urningCoke is a solid car onaceous residue derived from lo#$ash, lo#$sulfur ituminous coal from #hich the volatile constituents are driven off y aking in an oven #ithout o!ygen at temperatures as high as +,999 C ;+,5-, F< so that the fi!ed car on and residual ash are fused together% 7etallurgical coke is used as a fuel and as a reducing agent in smelting iron ore in a last furnace% &he product is too rich in dissolved car on, and must e treated further to make steel% &he coke must e strong enough to resist the #eight of over urden in the last furnace, #hich is #hy coking coal is so important in making steel y the conventional route% ?o#ever, the alternative route to is direct reduced iron, #here any car onaceous fuel can e used to make sponge or pelletised iron% Coke from coal is grey, hard, and porous and has a heating value of ,/%5 million =tuDton ;,6%3 7JDkg<% Some cokemaking processes produce valua le y$products that include coal tar, ammonia, light oils, and Hcoal gasH% Petroleum coke is the solid residue o tained in oil refining, #hich resem les coke ut contains too many impurities to e useful in metallurgical applications% )edit* "thanol production Coal and natural gas are oth a undant in nature and availa le at a very lo# cost compared to other resources% C ;Coke< L C?/ ;@atural 0as< M C,?/ ;"thylene< C,?/ L ?,C M C,?1C? ;"thanol< Coke #hich represents a out 59B of coal reacts #ith natural gas producing ethylene gas% "thylene ?ydration provides ethanol% Product ethanol out#eighs other li(uid fuels for its availa ility and lo# cost% &he reaction itself is o vious, a simple addition reaction #here one mole of car on reacts #ith one mole of methane gas producing one mole of ethylene gas% &he reaction of coal and natural gas #as used y a 0erman manufacturer for =una ru er: Chemische Werke ?uls, at 7arl, 0ermany, and AACC Corp in the .S% Conse(uently several references had descri ed oth ?uls Arc Process and AACC rotating arc reactor )+3*)+4*% =oth reactors are of cylindrical shape and have a rotating electric arc% &he cathode is at the cylinder a!is, #hile the anode is on the circumference% As methane gas provided the highest yield, then it is forced #ith coal po#der into a vorte! passing through the electric arc for fe# milliseconds% ?uls Arc Process )+5* produced a mi!ture of acetylene and ethylene gases% &he reaction conditions can e varied to determine the needed product% 'ncreasing the Specific "nergy Re(uirement ;S"R< favor acetylene production, and lo#er S"R is for ethylene: "nthalpy Change for "thylene:)+6* M +,4%-/ kJDmol, #hile for acetylene: M -9+%/ kJDmol% As a conse(uence, recent production processes are using conventional heating instead of electric arc% ?ydration of ethylene gas producing ethanol is the most important process for

ethanol production% Aapor phase process is the preferred one ),9* in #hich ethylene and steam pass over a catalyst% Cne of the most accepted catalyst is diatomite impregnated #ith phosphoric acid% )edit* 0asification 7ain articles: Coal gasification and .nderground coal gasification Coal gasification can e used to produce syngas, a mi!ture of car on mono!ide ;CC< and hydrogen ;?,< gas% &his syngas can then e converted into transportation fuels like gasoline and diesel through the Fischer$&ropsch process% Currently, this technology is eing used y the Sasol chemical company of South Africa to make gasoline from coal and natural gas% Alternatively, the hydrogen o tained from gasification can e used for various purposes such as po#ering a hydrogen economy, making ammonia, or upgrading fossil fuels% Iuring gasification, the coal is mi!ed #ith o!ygen and steam ;#ater vapor< #hile also eing heated and pressuri:ed% Iuring the reaction, o!ygen and #ater molecules o!idi:e the coal into car on mono!ide ;CC< #hile also releasing hydrogen ;?,< gas% &his process has een conducted in oth underground coal mines and in coal refineries% ;Coal< L C, L ?,C N ?, L CC 'f the refiner #ants to produce gasoline, the syngas is collected at this state and routed into a Fischer$&ropsch reaction% 'f hydrogen is the desired end$ product, ho#ever, the syngas is fed into the #ater gas shift reaction #here more hydrogen is li erated% CC L ?,C N CC, L ?, ?igh prices of oil and natural gas are leading to increased interest in H=&. ConversionH technologies such as gasification, methanation and li(uefaction% &he Synthetic Fuels Corporation #as a .%S% government$funded corporation esta lished in +659 to create a market for alternatives to imported fossil fuels ;such as coal gasification<% &he corporation #as discontinued in +651% 'n the past, coal #as converted to make coal gas, #hich #as piped to customers to urn for illumination, heating, and cooking% At present, the safer natural gas is used instead% )edit* 2i(uefaction 7ain article: Coal li(uefaction Coal can also e converted into li(uid fuels like gasoline or diesel y several different processes% 'n the direct li(uefaction processes, the coal is either hydrogenated or car oni:ed% ?ydrogenation processes are the =ergius process,),+*, the SRC$' and SRC$'' ;Solvent Refined Coal< processes and the @.S Corporation hydrogenation process%),,*),-* 'n the process of lo# temperature car oni:ation coal is coked at temperatures et#een 359 F ;-39 C< and +,-59 F ;419 C<% &hese temperatures optimi:e the production of coal tars richer in lighter hydrocar ons than normal coal tar% &he coal tar is then further processed into fuels% Alternatively, coal can e converted into a gas first, and then into a li(uid, y using the Fischer$&ropsch process% Coal li(uefaction methods involve car on dio!ide ;CC,< emissions in the conversion process% 'f coal li(uefaction is done #ithout employing either car on capture and storage technologies or iomass lending, the result is lifecycle greenhouse gas footprints that are generally greater than those released in the e!traction and refinement of li(uid fuel production from crude oil% 'f CCS technologies are employed, reductions of 1$+,B can e achieved in C&2 plants and up to a 41B

reduction is achieva le #hen co$gasifying coal #ith commercially demonstrated levels of iomass ;-9B iomass y #eight< in C=&2 plants%),/* For most future synthetic fuel pro8ects, Car on dio!ide se(uestration is proposed to avoid releasing it into the atmosphere% Se(uestration #ill, ho#ever, add to the cost of production% Currently all .S and at least one Chinese synthetic fuel pro8ects are including se(uestration in their process designs%)citation needed* )edit* Refined coal 7ain article: Refined coal Refined coal is the product of a coal upgrading technology that removes moisture and certain pollutants from lo#er$rank coals such as su $ ituminous and lignite ; ro#n< coals%)+* 't is one form of several pre$com ustion treatments and processes for coal that alter coalJs characteristics efore it is urned% &he goals of pre$com ustion coal technologies are to increase efficiency and reduce emissions #hen the coal is urned% Iepending on the situation, pre$com ustion technology can e used in place of or as a supplement to post$com ustion technologies to control emissions from coal$fueled oilers% )edit* Coal as a traded commodity &he price of coal has gone up from around O-9 per short ton in ,999 to around O+19%99 per short ton as of Septem er ,3, ,995% As of Ccto er -+, ,995, the price per short ton has declined to O+++%19%),1* 'n @orth America, a Central Appalachian coal futures contracts are currently traded on the @e# Pork 7ercantile "!change ;trading sym ol Q2<% &he trading unit is +,119 short tons ;+,/+9 t< per contract, and is (uoted in .%S% dollars and cents per ton% Since coal is the principal fuel for generating electricity in the .nited States, coal futures contracts provide coal producers and the electric po#er industry an important tool for hedging and risk management%),3* 'n addition ;Rotterdam< &he trading also (uoted to the @P7"R contract, the 'ntercontinental"!change ;'C"< has "uropean and South African ;Richards =ay< coal futures availa le for trading% unit for these contracts is 1,999 tonnes ;1,199 short tons<, and are in .%S% dollars and cents per ton%),4*

)edit* Cultural usage Coal is the official state mineral of Kentucky and the official state rock of .tah% =oth .%S% states have an historic link to coal mining% Some cultures uphold that children #ho mis ehave #ill receive only a lump of coal from Santa Claus for Christmas in their stockings instead of presents% 't is also customary and lucky in Scotland to give coal as a gift on @e# PearJs Iay% 't happens as part of First$Footing and represents #armth for the year to come% )edit* "nvironmental effects 7ain article: "nvironmental effects of coal Aerial photograph of Kingston Fossil Plant coal fly ash slurry spill site taken the day after the event&here are a num er of adverse environmental effects of coal mining and urning, specially in po#er stations% &hese effects include:

Release of car on dio!ide, a greenhouse gas, #hich causes climate change and glo al #arming according to the 'PCC% Coal is the largest contri utor to the human$made increase of CC, in the air%),5* 0eneration of hundred of millions of tons of #aste products, including fly ash, ottom ash, flue gas desulfuri:ation sludge, that contain mercury, uranium, thorium, arsenic, and other heavy metals Acid rain from high sulfur coal 'nterference #ith ground#ater and #ater ta le levels Contamination of land and #ater#ays and destruction of homes from fly ash spills such as Kingston Fossil Plant coal fly ash slurry spill 'mpact of #ater use on flo#s of rivers and conse(uential impact on other land$uses Iust nuisance Su sidence a ove tunnels, sometimes damaging infrastructure)citation needed* Coal$fired po#er plants #ithout effective fly ash capture are one of the largest sources of human$caused ackground radiation e!posure Coal$fired po#er plants shorten nearly ,/,999 lives a year in the .nited States, including ,,599 from lung cancer%),6* Coal$fired po#er plant releases emissions including mercury, selenium, and arsenic #hich are harmful to human health and the environment%)-9* )edit* "conomic aspects Coal li(uefaction is one of the ackstop technologies that could potentially limit escalation of oil prices and mitigate the effects of transportation energy shortage that #ill occur under peak oil% &his is contingent on li(uefaction production capacity ecoming large enough to satiate the very large and gro#ing demand for petroleum% "stimates of the cost of producing li(uid fuels from coal suggest that domestic .%S% production of fuel from coal ecomes cost$competitive #ith oil priced at around -1 .SI per arrel,)-+* ; reak$even cost<% With oil prices ack at around .SI /9 per arrel in the .%S% as of Iecem er +1, ,995, li(uid coal has currently lost much of its economic allure in that country% Among commercially mature technologies, advantage for indirect coal li(uefaction over direct coal li(uefaction are reported y Williams and 2arson ;,99-<% 'ntensive research and pro8ect developments have een implemented from ,99+% &he World C&2 A#ard is granted to personalities having rought eminent contri ution to the understanding and development of Coal li(uefaction% &he ,996 presentation ceremony #ill take place in Washington IC ;.SA< at the World C&2 ,996 Conference ;,1$,4 7arch, ,996<% )edit* "nergy density 7ain article: "nergy value of coal &he energy density of coal, i%e% its heating value, is roughly ,/ mega8oules per kilogram%)-,* &he energy density of coal can also e e!pressed in kilo#att$hours for some unit of mass, the units that electricity is most commonly sold in, to estimate ho# much coal is re(uired to po#er electrical appliances% Cne kilo#att$hour is -%3 7J, so the energy density of coal is 3%34 kWhDkg% &he typical thermodynamic efficiency of coal po#er plants is a out -9B, so of the 3%34 kWh of energy per kilogram of coal, -9B of that,%9 kWhDkgcan successfully e turned into electricity> the rest is #aste heat% So coal po#er plants o tain appro!imately ,%9 kWh per kilogram of urned coal% As an e!ample, running one +99 #att computer for one year re(uires 543 kWh ;+99 W

 ,/ hDday -31 Sdays in a yearT M 543999 Wh M 543 kWh<% Converting this po#er usage into physical coal consumption: 't takes /-5 kg ;633 l < of coal to po#er a computer for one full year%)--* Cne should also take into account transmission and distri ution losses caused y resistance and heating in the po#er lines, #hich is in the order of 1+9B, depending on distance from the po#er station and other factors% )edit* Car on intensity Commercial coal has a car on content of at least 49B% Coal #ith a heating value of 3%34 kWh per kilogram as (uoted a ove has a car on content of roughly 59B, #hich is , #here + mol e(uals to @A ;Avogadro @um er< atoms% Car on com ines #ith o!ygen in the atmosphere during com ustion, producing car on dio!ide, #ith an atomic #eight of ;+, L +3 , M // kgDkmol<% &he CC, released to air for each kilogram of incinerated coal is therefore % &his can e used to calculate an emission factor for CC, from the use of coal po#er% Since the useful energy output of coal is a out -9B of the 3%34 kWhDkg;coal<, the urning of + kg of coal produces a out , kWh of electrical energy% Since + kg coal emits ,%6- kg CC,, the direct CC, emissions from coal po#er are +%/3 kgDkWh, or a out 9%/94 kgD7J% &he .%S% "nergy 'nformation AgencyJs +666 report on CC, emissions for energy generation,)-/* (uotes a lo#er emission factor of 9%63- kg CC,DkWh for coal po#er% &he same source gives factor for oil po#er in the .%S% of 9%55+ kg CC,DkWh, #hile natural gas has 9%136 kg CC,DkWh% "stimates for specific emission from nuclear po#er, hydro, and #ind energy vary, ut are a out +99 times lo#er, see environmental effects of nuclear po#er% )edit* .nderground fires &here are hundreds of coal fires urning around the #orld%)-1* &hose urning underground can e difficult to locate and many cannot e e!tinguished% Fires can cause the ground a ove to su side, their com ustion gases are dangerous to life, and reaking out to the surface can initiate surface #ildfires% Coal seams can e set on fire y spontaneous com ustion or contact #ith a mine fire or surface fire% A grass fire in a coal area can set do:ens of coal seams on fire%)-3*)-4* Coal fires in China urn +96 million tons of coal a year, emitting -39 million metric tons of CC,% &his contradicts the ratio of +:+%5- given earlier, ut it amounts to ,$-B of the annual #orld#ide production of CC, from fossil fuels, or as much as emitted from all of the cars and light trucks in the .nited States%)-5*)-6* 'n Centralia, Pennsylvania ;a orough located in the Coal Region of the .nited States< an e!posed vein of coal ignited in +63, due to a trash fire in the orough landfill, located in an a andoned anthracite strip mine pit% Attempts to e!tinguish the fire #ere unsuccessful, and it continues to urn underground to this day% &he Australian =urning 7ountain #as originally elieved to e a volcano, ut the smoke and ash comes from a coal fire #hich may have een urning for over 1,199 years%)/9* At Kuh i 7alik in Pagno Aalley, &a8ikistan, coal deposits have een urning for thousands of years, creating vast underground la yrinths full of uni(ue minerals, some of them very eautiful% 2ocal people once used this method to mine ammoniac% &his place has een #ell$kno#n since the time of ?erodotus, ut "uropean

geographers misinterpreted the Ancient 0reek descriptions as the evidence of active volcanism in &urkestan ;up to the +6th century, #hen the Russian army invaded the area<% &he reddish siltstone rock that caps many ridges and uttes in the Po#der River =asin ;Wyoming<, and in #estern @orth Iakota is called porcelanite, #hich also may resem le the coal urning #aste HclinkerH or volcanic HscoriaH%)/+* Clinker is rock that has een fused y the natural urning of coal% 'n the Po#der River =asin appro!imately ,4 to 1/ illion tons of coal urned #ithin the past three million years%)/,* Wild coal fires in the area #ere reported y the 2e#is and Clark "!pedition as #ell as e!plorers and settlers in the area%)/-* )edit* Production trends Coal output in ,991 A coal mine in Wyoming, .nited States% &he .nited States has the #orldJs largest coal reserves%'n ,993, China #as the top producer of coal #ith -5B share follo#ed y the .SA and 'ndia, reports the =ritish 0eological Survey% )edit* World coal reserves At the end of ,993 the recovera le coal reserves amounted around 599 or 699 gigatons% &he .nited States "nergy 'nformation Administration gives #orld reserves as 6-9 illion short tons)//* ;e(ual to 5/- gigatons< as of ,993% At the current e!traction rate, this #ould last +-, years%)/1* ?o#ever, the rate of coal consumption is annually increasing at ,$-B per year and, setting the gro#th rate to ,%1B yields an e!ponential depletion time of 13 years ;in ,931<%)/3* At the current glo al total energy consumption of +1%4 tera#atts,)/4* there is enough coal to provide the entire planet #ith all of its energy for -4 years ;assuming 9B gro#th in demand and ignoring transportationJs need for li(uid fuels<%)original researchN* &he 6-9 illion short tons of recovera le coal reserves estimated y the "nergy 'nformation Administration are e(ual to a out /,++3 ==C" ; illion arrels of oil e(uivalent<%)citation needed* &he amount of coal urned during ,994 #as estimated at 4%941 illion short tons, or +--%+46 (uadrillion =&.Js)/5*% 'n terms of heat content, this is a out 14 million arrels of oil e(uivalent per day% =y comparison in ,994, natural gas provided 1+ million arrels of oil e(uivalent per day, #hile oil provided 51%5 million arrels per day% =ritish Petroleum, in its annual report ,994, estimated at ,993 end, there #ere 696,93/ million tons of proven coal reserves #orld#ide, or +/4 years reserves$to$ production ratio% &his figure only includes reserves classified as HprovenH> e!ploration drilling programs y mining companies, particularly in under$e!plored areas, are continually providing ne# reserves% 'n many cases, companies are a#are of coal deposits that have not een sufficiently drilled to (ualify as HprovenH% ?o#ever, some nations havenJt updated their information and assume reserves remain at the same levels even #ith #ithdra#als% .S coal regionsCf the three fossil fuels coal has the most #idely distri uted reserves> coal is mined in over +99 countries, and on all continents e!cept Antarctica% &he largest reserves are found in the .SA, Russia, Australia, China, 'ndia and South Africa% @ote the ta le elo#%

Proved recovera le coal reserves at end$,993 ;million tonnes ;teragrams<<)/6* Country =ituminous U anthracite Su =ituminous U lignite &C&A2 Share .SA +++,--5 +-1,-91 ,/3,3/- ,4%+ Russia /6,955 +94,6,, +14,9+9 +4%China 3,,,99 1,,-99 ++/,199 +,%3 'ndia 69,951 ,,-39 6,,//1 +9%, Australia -5,399 -6,699 45,199 5%3 South Africa /5,419 9 /5,419 1%/ .kraine +3,,4/ +4,546 -/,+1- -%5 Ka:akhstan ,5,+1+ -,+,5 -+,,46 -%/ Poland +/,999 9 +/,999 +%1 =ra:il 9 +9,++- +9,++- +%+ 0ermany +5- 3,113 3,4-6 9%4 Colom ia 3,,-9 -5+ 3,3++ 9%4 Canada -,/4+ -,+94 3,145 9%4 C:ech Repu lic ,,96/ -,/15 1,11, 9%3 'ndonesia 4/9 /,,,5 /,635 9%1 &urkey ,45 -,695 /,+53 9%1 0reece 9 -,699 -,699 9%/ ?ungary +65 -,+16 -,-14 9%/ Pakistan 9 -,-99 -,-99 9%=ulgaria / ,,+5- ,,+54 9%, &hailand 9 +,-1/ +,-1/ 9%+ @orth Korea -99 -99 399 9%+ @e# Vealand -- 1-5 14+ 9%+ Spain ,99 --9 1-9 9%+ Vim a #e 19, 9 19, 9%+ Romania ,, /4, /6/ 9%+ Aene:uela /46 9 /46 9%+ &C&A2 /45,44+ /-9,,6- 696,93/ +99%9 Recent discoveries in the &har region of Pakistan have given rise to a discovery of nearly +51 illion tonnes% )-* )edit* 7a8or coal producers &he reserve life is an estimate ased only on current production levels for the countries sho#n, and makes no assumptions of future production or even current production trends% Production of Coal y Country and year ;million tonnes<)/6* Country ,991 ,993 Share Reserve 2ife ;years< China +4,,%9 +66,%- ,,9/%4 ,-59%9 -5%/ B /5 .SA 64,%- +995%6 +9,3%1 +91-%3 +4%9 B ,-/ 'ndia -41%/ /94%4 /,5%/ //4%- 4%, B ,94 Australia -1+%1 -33%+ -45%5 -4-%5 3%9 B ,+9 Russia ,43%4 ,5+%4 ,65%1 -96%, 1%9 B 195 South Africa ,-4%6 ,/-%/ ,//%/ ,13%6 /%+ B +69 0ermany ,9/%6 ,94%5 ,9,%5 +64%, -%, B -/ 'ndonesia ++/%- +-,%/ +/3%6 +61%9 -%+ B ,1 Poland +3-%5 +3,%/ +16%1 +13%+ 69 &otal World 1+54%3 1151%- 1553%4 3+61%+ +99 B +/, See also: 2ist of countries y coal production ,99,99,99/

)edit* 7a8or coal e!porters "!ports of Coal y Country and year ;million short tons<)19*)1+* Country ,99/ ,991 Share Australia ,-5%+ ,/4%3 ,14%3 %-,9

'ndonesia +94%5 +-+%/ +/4%3 %+-/ China +9-%/ 61%1 46%9 %965 South Africa 45%4 4/%6 44%1 %963 Russia /+%9 11%4 3,%- %944 .SA /-%9 /5%9 /6%6 %93, Canada ,4%4 ,5%5 -+%9 %9-6 Poland +3%/ +3%- +3%/ %9,9 Aietnam @DA +9%- +/%+ %9+5 &otal 4+-%6 43/%9 59/%, + )sho#*v d e2ists of countries

y energy rankings

Conventional sources Coal @atural gas @uclear po#er Cil ;consumption e!ports imports production< .ranium Rene#a le energy production ?ydroelectric Wind "lectricity Consumption "!ports 'mports Production Cther Consumption 'ntensity 2ists of countries 2ists y country 2ist of international rankings

)edit* See also "nergy portal A iogenic petroleum origin Asphaltene Australian Coal Alliance =iochar Car ochemistry Car on se(uestration Charcoal Clean coal Coal assay Coal dust Coal in China Coal 7easure ;stratigraphic unit< Coal 7ine Safety and ?ealth Act of +636 ;in the .S< Coal mining Coal phase out Coal$tar "nergy value of coal Fluidi:ed ed com ustion 0asification ?istory of coal mining 7a8or coal producing regions 7ountaintop removal mining &he Coal Question .nderground Coal 0asification World Coal 'nstitute