Creative Tourism and Cultural Events

Greg Richards
Professor, Leisure Studies at Tilburg University, The Netherlands

65
Session I

Abstract
This paper deals with the development of creative tourism as an extension of cultural tourism, and the ways in which creative tourism can be developed in the creative city, particularly through events. Cultural tourism is one of the major segments of global tourism, but it is rapidly becoming a form of mass tourism, with standardized products and increasingly lower level of consumer and resident satisfaction. What tourists increasingly seem to what is authentic, engaging experiences which involve them in the everyday life and cultural of local communities. Creative tourism has emerged as a new means of developing such experiences, because it involves offering visitors the opportunity to develop their creative potential through active participation in courses and learning experiences which are characteristic of the destination. This can be achieved in a range of ways, including the development of specific courses or taster experiences, or integrating creativity as a background which increases the attractiveness of cities. In particular, cultural events are emerging as an important source of creative development, particularly as more eventful cities spring up worldwide. A range of cases of cultural events development and creativity are provided to illustrate how cities can develop and utilize creative tourism.

Creative Tourism and Cultural Events

ecent years have seen increased attention for the creative economy of cities, of which the UNESCO Creative Cities Network is one concrete example. Most of the activity in creative cities has focused on the productive aspects of creativityhow to develop the creative industries, creative enterprises, innovation and creative clusters. However, effective creative development depends not just on the production of creativity, but also creative consumption. This paper examines two important dimensions of creative consumption in the form of tourism and events, and provides examples of how cities and regions are harnessing creativity in these areas. Just as the production of culture is an important expression of individual and collective creativity, so creative consumption has also become an important part of our everyday lives. The range of creative opportunities has also expanded beyond more formal participa-

tion in the arts towards the creative development of individual experiences. The experiences that we undergo in our daily lives, during our travels or participation in cultural events, become important creative building blocks in our own personal narratives. What we do and experience has become an important part of who we are. Even if an increasing proportion of our lives in the modern network society is spent online, most of our significant experiences still involve physical contact with others. In fact, many commentators on the role of modern communications have noted that increasing virtual contact strengthens rather than reduces our need for physical co-presence. This continuing desire to be together, to celebrate and to share experiences with others has led to the growth of what Robert Palmer and myself have called eventful cities, places that develop eventfulness as a way of meeting a range of different cultural, creative, social and economic goals (Richards and Palmer, 2010). The growth of events also has an important link with the growth of creative tourism, or the development of creative experiences for, by and with visitors. The rest of this paper examines the recent development of creative tourism and illustrates the role that cultural events can play in this development.

66

2nd Forum on UNESCO Creative Cities Network

Creative Tourism as a Development of Cultural Tourism

Growing interest in culture has arguably made cultural tourism one of the largest segments of the global tourist industry. The convergence of growing consumer demand and the desire of places worldwide to develop and promote themselves through culture served to create a cultural tourism boom from the 1980s onwards. Research by ATLAS has underlined how cultural visits have tended to grow as a proportion of tourism consumption, reaching 36% of those surveyed in 2008 (www.tram-research.com/atlas). This growth, coupled with the perception of cultural tourism as high value tourism, encouraged many countries and regions to develop specific cultural tourism programmes, and to design marketing efforts targeted at cultural tourists. As a result, the OECD (2009) has estimated that there are now around 300 million international cultural tourism trips every year. The growth of cultural tourism is related to some fundamental shifts in society. As society has developed, so the basis of human needs and wants has also changed. As we became increasingly able to satisfy our basic needs for food and shelter, we turned our attention to the satisfaction of higher order needs, such as status and self-fulfilment. Scitovsky (1976) has described this development in terms of the shift from unskilled to skilled consumption, or from outer-directed to inner-directed consumption. People are no longer just concerned to accumulate goods, but they also want to develop themselves and their own consumption skills through cultural and creative activities. At the same time, the nature of production has shifted dramatically. Pine and Gilmore (1999) have shown that the previous stages of the economy based on the production of

goods or services have been replaced by an economy specialised in the production of experiences. Increasing competition forces producers to differentiate their products by adding value, such as additional features or services. However, over time, competitors can reproduce these features and the value of the product, and therefore productivity, declines. This competitive spiral can also been seen in cities as well. In globalising world, one of the most important issues is creating distinction. According to Markusen and Schrock (2006), distinction may be sought in productive structure, consumption and identity: Productive distinctiveness captures relative uniqueness of a citys production factorsland, labour, capital and technology. Consumptive distinctiveness connotes the unique consumption patterns on the part of urban residents. Identity distinctiveness relates to the extent to which cities are recognised by residents and non-residents as being culturally unique. In other words, cities may be distinctive because of their economic base, the consumption of residents or their distinctive image. Examples of strategies to develop these different forms of distinctiveness in cities abound, and cultural tourism has been one of the key areas of such development. One might also argue that the creative city is a specific strategy that utilises all three dimensions of distinctiveness simultaneously, by developing the creative industries to attract the consumption of the creative class and give a distinctive, creative image to the city. In the past, it might have been sufficient to develop a creative city strategy to stand out form ones competitors. These days, however, there are many creative cities, many creative industry strategies and many creative clusters and districts. Even creative cities therefore face problems of distinctiveness, and are seeking new strategies to make themselves unique and different in terms of their production and consumption. Tourism as an industry has also undergone major transformations in line with the rise of skilled consumption and the experience economy. Tourism is of course one of the phenomena closely identified with the rise of the service industry, and in many countries it is the most important single service sector. Tourism grew rapidly in the latter half of the 20th century because the basic inputs were cheap and easy to mass-produce. The rise of mass tourism also brought about several negative impacts, such as overcrowding, environmental problems, degradation of local culture, etc. Cultural tourism, in contrast, was often viewed as a good form of tourism, which was small-scale, high-spend and low impact. Perhaps most importantly, cultural tourists themselves were perceived as desirable visitors, because they were usually wealthy, well-heeled and well-behaved. In the past, cultural tourism was largely based on cultural heritageparticularly those elements of heritage, such as museums and monuments, which can be consumed by large numbers of people. In Europe, the ATLAS research programme has shown that over 50% of cultural tourists visit museums and monuments and in Asian countries this rises to

67
Session I
Creative Tourism and Cultural Events

Richards and Raymond (2000:18) originally defined creative tourism as: Tourism which offers visitors the opportunity to develop their creative potential through active participation in courses and learning experiences which are characteristic of the holiday destination where they are undertaken. The growing trend towards creative tourism reflects the increasing desire of some consumers to use their holiday time for self-development and learning, as well as a degree of disillusion with current modes of cultural tourism. The creative tourist is usually keen to get to know a culture from the inside and meet real people and experience their everyday lives. Learning a craft or skill direct from local producers is one effective way of achieving this.
68

Creative tourism is therefore about tourists getting actively involved in the creative lives of the places they visit and meeting and interacting with local people. Active involvement in creativity makes a deeper impression on tourists, implies the need for them to stay longer in the destination and offers the opportunity to develop meaningful relationships with the local community, enhancing the likelihood they will return. Creativity also has important effects on tourism because: It creates atmosphere It feeds on peoples need for self-development It creates a direct link between the culture of the tourist and the host population It can refresh stale tourism products Utilising creative tourism also involves creativity on the part of the destination, since products need to be developed for a skilled, creative audience, often in conjunction with the consumers themselves. This means that places need to pay attention to a number of key aspects of creativity in tourism: Developing creative potential The tourist needs to be provided with the tools to develop their own creative potential, and to take something more than souvenirs home with them. Creating active involvement The consumer should be actively involved in the creative process, and this involvement creates the potential for genuine exchange and engagement with local people and local culture. Providing characteristic experiences Creativity can happen anywhere, but the important thing is to link the creative process to the destination and to anchor it in local culture, creativity and identity. This requires not just creativity on the part of the tourist, but also the destination. Developing co-creation The concept of creative tourism implies a level of co-creation, or co-makership between visitors and locals (Binkhorst, 2007).

2nd Forum on UNESCO Creative Cities Network

around 60% (Richards, 2000). However, there is a certain irony in places seeking to develop distinctiveness through cultural tourism. In fact, many places follow similar strategies in order to achieve uniqueness, which ends up making those places feel and look the same. This is the problem of serial reproduction described by Richards and Wilson (2006). They identified a number of generic cultural tourism strategies, which include: Iconic structures (e.g. the Guggenheim Bilbao) Megaevents (e.g. the World Expo) Thematization (e.g. Seoul Design City) Heritage mining (e.g. World Heritage Sties) These strategies are recognisable in cities across the globe, and the means of consuming these products are also becoming increasingly familiar: the tourist bus, the city card, the guided tour. Russo (2002) argues that for many tourist cities there is a vicious cycle related to the growth of mass cultural tourism, in which growing number of tourists begin to devalue the very experience that they came for. As Richards (2008) stated at the Santa Fe Conference on Creative Tourism: Trooping through cathedrals or museums or art galleries with hundreds of other people is increasingly being seen as an experience to be avoided rather than desired. It seems that just as cultural tourists are becoming more experienced, more sophisticated and better able to structure their own tourism experiences, so the cultural tourism product being offered is becoming more standardized, more rigid and less satisfying. The ATLAS research has indicated that the experiences enjoyed most by cultural tourists tend to be those small-scale, less visited places that offer a taste of local or authentic culture. Tourists increasingly say that they want to experience local culture, to live like locals and to find out about the real identity of the places they visit. These trends mean that there is increased demand for authentic, high quality cultural experiences on the part of both city residents and visitors. Supplying such experiences provides significant challenges for cities across the globe. The following sections of the paper examine the phenomenon of creative tourism and provide some case studies of how creative tourism and events can be developed.

69
Session I
Creative Tourism and Cultural Events

The Challenge of Creative Tourism

Faced with these changes in the nature of experience production and consumption, destinations could continue offering the same mass cultural tourism products they always have, but they do this at the risk of losing an opportunity to develop tourism creatively and to develop what we have termed creative tourism.

Creative tourism can take many different formsin fact, the range of creative tourism possibilities are only limited by the creative imaginations of the cities and their visitors. Our research on the relationship between tourism and creativity suggest that there are a number of ways in which they can be linked in order to enhance the tourism product and the visitor experience.

Types of Creative Tourism Experiences

Creative tourism covers a range of different types of experiences, ranging from more active involvement in more formal settings (such as educational courses and workshops), through to more passive forms of creative consumption, such as cultural itineraries or designer shops. Cultural and creative events are a particularly useful vehicle for the development of creative tourism, because they involve a range of different stakeholders and can also encompass a range of experiences catering to different consumer and producer needs. As Sedita (2008) has suggested, events can also act as a catalyst to bring different networks together, exploiting the structural holes that exist to develop new forms of collaboration and new products and experiences.

70

2nd Forum on UNESCO Creative Cities Network

MODELS OF CREATIVE TOURISM

Creativity as activity

Creativity as background

Experiences and products Learning Workshops, courses Tasting Experiences Open ateliers

Seeing Itineraries

Buying Shop window

Increasing involvement Forms of delivery

Events

Networks

Partnerships

Creative entrepreneurs

The Role of Events

This networking quality of events is one reason why cities around the world have become more interested in using events to achieve a range of desired cultural, social and economic outcomes. As Richards and Palmer (2010) have argued, cities are increasingly developing cultural and other events because there is a widespread feeling that: Events are more flexible than certain types of fixed physical infrastructure. Events can help to differentiate physical environments threatened by serial reproduction. Events have greater ability to offer spectacle and atmosphere. Events generally meet the need for co-presence and the feeling of being there. Events can cost less and achieve greater impact in the short-term. The development of eventfulness can help cities to become more attractive places for residents and visitors alike. At the same time, they can also strengthen the stakeholder networks and orgware which is so important in supporting the creative potential of cities. Cultural events can function as structural holes in the social fabric of the city. They are a special window in time which opens up new possibilities for creative development by unfreezing existing relationships and forging new ones. Events attract attention, and they focus that attention onto the creation of new possibilities. Many cities have therefore seized on the catalytic nature of major events as a means of transforming the cityincluding Seoul, Shanghai, Montreal, Glasgow, Lille and Liverpool. But even small scale events can create change and produce positive creative outcomes for places. However, simply staging events is not enough. There needs to be creative vision and overall management of the event portfolio to achieve maximum effectiveness. The key factors in developing a programme for a successful eventful city are in our view: Context: the city must develop a programme that is appropriate for the city at the time. Each city may be at a different phase of its historical, cultural, social and economic development, and this context must be taken into consideration. Local involvement: the engagement and ownership by the local population needs to be managed in an appropriate and effective manner. Partnerships: the development of partnerships with many different stakeholders is of primary importance, and these may include event-driven cultural institutions, local independent associations and groups, business and tourism sectors and social services/community organizations. Long-term planning: both advance planning of the event programme and legacy planning are essential. Clear objectives: clearly defined aims and objectives must be developed. Strong content: the programme should be unique and visible with a balance of different types of projects. Political independence and artistic autonomy: the event programmes should

71
Session I
Creative Tourism and Cultural Events

not be influenced by political interests, and the operational structure should have artistic or programming autonomy. Good communication and marketing: a clearly defined communication strategy is indispensable. Sufficient funds: a confirmed budget should be in place as early as possible in the preparation phase. Strong leadership and committed team: an independent director with an international vision and leadership skills to head a team of committed staff should be recruited. Political will: the project needs political support to ensure sustainable impact.
72

These basic critical success factors are important in the development of any eventful city. But the effective deployment of creativity in the eventful city requires particular attention for three issues: the involvement of local citizens, the co-creation of events with different partners and the willingness to take risks. The examples of creative tourism and events provided in the following section illustrate the importance of these factors in creating successful creative projects.

2nd Forum on UNESCO Creative Cities Network

Case Studies of Creative Tourism and Event Development

The key to developing creative tourism is to start from your own creative strengths. In this sense, every place has different potential and challenges. I will therefore run through a few different examples to give an idea of the range of different types of creative tourism products and events that can be developed.

Craft Tourism
The concept of creative tourism actually sprang from the EUROTEX craft project (Richards, 1999), and this is also one sector in which a wide range of different types of creative tourism have been developed. Contemporary craft production faces a number of challenges, including: How to valorize the skill content of craft How to distinguish craft products from mass produced goods High levels of competition How to develop quality By providing direct experience of the creative process, creative tourism can help to address these issues. By seeing the creative process for themselves, creative tourists can appreciate the true value of craft production and the different skills involved. This also creates a bond between producer and consumer, which leads to a higher propensity to purchase and greater satisfaction with the experience. In Santa Fe, for example, the conference on Creative Tourism organized with the UNESCO

Creative Cities Network help to stimulate a wide range of new craft-based creative tourism products, including pottery, weaving, jewelry-making, glass-making and weaving. The Creative Tourism New Zealand network (see below) is also heavily craft-based, with weaving, bone carving, felt making, pottery and wood turning. These experiences can have real impacts on the craft producers and their business. In Portugal the number of craft producers participating in craft routes established by EUROTEX increased from 35 in 1998 to 60 in 2001. Sales of crafts through tourist offices increased five-fold between 1999 and 2002. An evaluation of the project carried out in 2006 indicated that over 60% of crafts producers thought that the crafts promotion was successful and that sales through tourist offices were effective in expanding the market (Richards, 2010). Although such craft-based projects may open up new opportunities, they also bring their own challenges. One of the implications of craft-based creative tourism has been that local craft producers not only need to learn new marketing skills, but that they also need to learn how to deal with and relate to visitors. This is not just a question of marketing, but involves the whole process of service design, which is crucial in the ability of enterprises to deliver high quality creative experiences (Miettinen, 2009).
73
Session I
Creative Tourism and Cultural Events

Creative Tourism Networks

One of the important lessons from the development of creative craft tourism is that collaboration and networking between producers is extremely important. The principle of networking is now being applied to creative tourism development in general. The most developed creative tourism network can be found in New Zealand, where Creative Tourism New Zealand has been established as a network of creative businesses offering products to tourists (www.creativetourism.co.nz). The network provides a wide range of creative experiences, including bone carving, Maori language classes, weaving, felting and woodwork and New Zealand gastronomy. The focus is very much on learning experiences, with a range of hands-on workshops being run by local tutors (Raymond 2007). Originally located in the small city of Nelson, this network now has national coverage and is frequently featured in guide books on the country. Creative Tourism Barcelona (www.barcelonacreativa.info) takes a slightly different approach, acting as an intermediary to link creative producers in the city with people from other parts of the world who want to engage in creative activities there. This more artistic approach to the development of creative tourism provides a platform through which potential creative tourists can indicate the types of creative activities they are interested in, and they are then put in touch with local creative sector actors who can provide the facilities or resources to make it happen. As their website says, they provide: Customized solutions to meet the specific requests of tourists and artists wishing to discover our city creatively or to exert their talents. More recently, Creative Tourism Barcelona has also been developing more specific creative activities with creative producers which can be offered to groups of creative tourists on demand.

Creative Tourism Barcelona has also begun to develop international collaboration through partnerships with cities such as Paris and Rome. In the future, they hope to expand these activities still further to create an international network for creative tourism, which is planned to be launched at a conference in Barcelona in December 2010.

Cultural and Creative Events

Interestingly, many of the current UNESCO Creative Cities are also strongly featured as good examples of cultural event development in our book on Eventful Cities, particularly Edinburgh, Montreal, Melbourne, Glasgow and Berlin. This illustrates an important point about cultural eventsthey will often thrive in cities which take culture seriously. If the cultural ecology of the city is strong, its cultural events will be strong, and they in turn will contribute to a positive cultural climate. Rather than use these relatively well-known examples, however, I will draw on other places from which there may be lessons to be learned. In the Dutch City of Den Bosch, the creativity of the painter who took his name from the city, Hieronymus Bosch, is being used as the inspiration for a series of creative events to mark the 500th anniversary of his death in 2016 (www.bosch500.nl/). Bosch was a highly creative painter whose fantasy-rich depictions of paradise and hell have inspired generations of artists, including Pieter Bruegel, Goya, Salvador Dali and other Surrealists. An interesting challenge for the city of Den Bosch is that they do not have any paintings by the artist himselfthey all hang in important art museums elsewhere in the world. So instead of organizing the usual blockbuster exhibition, the city has taken a much more creative approach to the celebrations, developing events which involve the local population in themes linked to the painter. Such events include a Bosch Parade or procession along the river that runs through the centre of city, with boats or floating artworks inspired by Bosch. There is also a Bosch Young Talent Show, bringing together young artists whose work is inspired by Bosch. A Bosch diner was held for 500 people in the market square in the centre of the city, bringing together cooking teams from different neighbourhoods in a Palio-style cooking competition themed on the medieval culture of the city. The event is being developed in partnership between the city, the cultural sector, educational institutions and the local community. The city and a range of sponsors are investing some 36 million in a multiannual programme which is expected to attract hundreds of thousands of visitors and create an economic impact in excess of 100 million. The event programme is supported by an international network of cities which house artworks by Bosch, including Rotterdam, Ghent, Brussels, Vienna, Madrid, Lisbon, Paris, London, Berlin, Washington and New York. In order to stage a Bosch exhibition in 2016 a major restoration project is being planned, where cities in the network will have their Bosch paintings restored in return for their loan for the exhibition. Interestingly this event also makes it clear that there are considerable advantages to be gained from cities working in collaboration on a global basis, rather than concentrating on the competitive aspects of globalization. Creativity is not just the preserve of great painters or the contemporary creative sector.

74

2nd Forum on UNESCO Creative Cities Network

Increasingly cities are realizing that the biggest source of creativity lies in the local population. In the Swedish city of Umea, for example, the bid to stage the European Capital of Culture in 2014 is being run on an open source principle. Instead of the programme being designed by experts in the cultural sector the event is being planned and programmed with direct involvement of local people. For example, local schoolchildren created a blog which was used as the basic script for an opera performance to which they were later invited. By extending this open source or co-creation concept to the national and international arena, this also becomes a strategy to develop creative tourism. The audience is not there simply to consume, but also to take an active part in producing the experience. Co-creation can also be the basis for local events in the city. The Festes de Grcia is a local festival in a district of Barcelona which has developed into a major celebration for the whole city. The key element of this event is the decoration of local streets by residents, using recycled materials. Each street is themed, and there is a high level of creativity involved in creating a totally new space from discarded items such as water bottles and milk cartons. The event attracts some 2 million visits a year, at a time when much of the life of the city is on hold because of the intense summer heat. In Brussels, local creative energy has been harnessed in a similar way by the Zinneke Parade in Brussels This parade loops around the inner ring road of the city and then converges in the centre to bring different districts of the city together in a future urban ritual. Each group works on their own costumes and floats within the overall theme of the year, and the development of ideas and materials is devolved to a series of open workshops around the city. The 2008 edition attracted more than 23,000 parade participants, boosting the creative capacity of the local community and providing support for local artists. The Zinneke Parade was one of about 30 major cultural projects stimulated by Brussels 2000 European Capital of Culture, emphasising the long-lasting cultural impact of this event. Co-creation can be a basis for even smaller, locally-based events. Ceolas is a week-long music school that was established on the island South Uist in Scotland in 1996 by the Gaelic Arts Agency (McLean, 2006). During the week-long programme, a wide range of events, concerts and activities are organised, and the number of people attending Ceolas events has varied between 2,000 and 3,500, almost as many as the total population of the island (4,000). The event fills all the available beds in South Uist for a week, boosts visitor spending and helps to develop interest in local culture. The festival has increased pride in local culture among residents and raised social cohesion. In spite of the isolated location of the island, many of the participants come from abroad. The development of social events and the house ceilidhs have integrated the visitor into the life of the island and cleverly transformed the visitor, who may think of themselves as an outsider, into someone who is part of the life of the islandeven if it is only for one week in the year.
75
Session I
Creative Tourism and Cultural Events

Implications for the Creative City

What are the important points that cities need to consider in developing creative tourism and events? Firstly, there is a need for a holistic approach. Very often, creativity, tourism or event strategies are developed in isolation, with a minimum of linkage with other sectors or between production and consumption related issues. Cities need to achieve a very difficult balancing act in terms of creativity, which is to plan carefully for spontaneity. Planned spontaneity leaves room for creative risk-taking, innovation and co-creation, but at the same time provides a secure framework in which stakeholders are happy to collaborate. Cultural events are important in this process, because they represent windows of opportunity or structural holes in the urban network where new combinations of stakeholders, events and resources be developed. Castells (2009) has recently underlined the important role of key actors or switchers who can link and acts as an intermediary between different urban networks. This is the essence of creativity in the modern networked city, and events and creative tourism can act as conduits for such creative exchange. Exchanging ideas with others and borrowing and adapting concepts from elsewhere are important sources of innovation. But in relying too heavily on such external creativity can bring dangers, for example in the circulation of tired concepts and the development of metoo products. Rather than relying on external creativity, it is important to stimulate local, home-grown creativity as well. The important thing is to be yourself and to maintain a distinct way of working which leads to a clear identity. Authenticity is a much abused word, particularly in the world of tourism, and there is not much agreement about what authenticity really is. But there is little doubt that authenticity is something that people are increasingly looking for, and they will not find it in copy-cat festivals or cookie-cutter mega events. Co-creation is one important strategy that can help cities to develop their endogenous creativity. By working with local talent each concept can be given a unique home-grown feel, which avoids many of the problems of serial reproduction. The problem in tourism terms is that you also need to communicate your creative products clearly to outsiders as well. So ways must be found of making your culture familiar, by providing links with other cultures as well as emphasising the unique features of your own creativity. Successful creative tourism and creative event development therefore requires the city to develop a range of new skills which hopefully will help in many other areas of cultural and tourism development as well. Creative tourism can help destinations to rethink and refit cultural tourism in interesting and innovative ways. in doing so, places can not only increase their potential to attract creative tourists, but can also increase their general creative potential, helping to address broader cultural, social and economic problems. At a very basic level, for example, the recognition of minority cultures as a source of creativity and skills rather than tradition or cultural objects immediately places these groups in a

76

2nd Forum on UNESCO Creative Cities Network

new position vis a vis the mainstream economy, the tourism industry, the tourists and society as a whole. Individuals who possess unique creative skills are placed in a new position of power as the purveyors of knowledge and the teachers of skills. The tourist is also transformed from an insensitive individual who is ignorant about local culture into a pupil and a colleague who is there to receive and exchange knowledge with their hosts.

REFERENCES
Binkhorst, E., (2007) Creativity in tourism experiences, a closer look at Sitges. In G. Richards and J. Wilson (eds.) Tourism, creativity and development, Routledge, Oxon, 125-145. McLean, M. (2006) Developing cultural and creative tourism in the Scottish Highlands. The case of Proiseact Nan Ealan, the Gaelic Arts Agency. Miettinen, S. (2009) Prototyping Social Design in Finland and In Namibia Service Design as a Method for Designing Services for Wellbeing, In IASDR 2009 Proceedings. International Association of Societies Of Design Research 2009, Oct 18-22.2009 Coex, Seoul, Korea, www.iasdr2009.org OECD (2009) The Impact of Culture on Tourism. Paris: OECD Pine, B.J. and Gilmore, J.H. (1999) The Experience Economy. Boston: Harvard University Press. Raymond, C. (2007) Creative Tourism New Zealand: The practical challenges of developing creative tourism. In Richards G. and Wilson, J. (eds) Tourism, Creativity and Development. London: Routledge, pp. 145-157. Richards, G. (1999) Developing and Marketing Crafts Tourism. ATLAS, Tilburg. Richards, G. (2000) Cultural Tourism in Europe (Korean Translation). Baek San Publishing Co., Seoul. Richards, G. (2008) Creative tourism and local development. Paper presented at the conference Creative Tourism: A global conversation. Santa Fe, September 2008. Richards, G. (2010) EUROTEX: Trans-national Partnership Linking Crafts and Tourism. In: World Tourism Organization (ed.) Joining ForcesCollaborative Processes for Sustainable and Competitive Tourism. UNWTO: Madrid, pp. 83-89. Richards, G. and Raymond, C. (2000) Creative Tourism. ATLAS News, no. 23, 16-20. Richards, G. and Palmer, R. (2010) Eventful Cities. Elsevier: Oxford. 516pp. Richards, G. and Wilson, J. (2006) Developing Creativity in Tourist Experiences: A Solution to the Serial Reproduction of Culture? Tourism Management 27, 1209-1223. Russo, A.P. (2002) The vicious circle of tourism development in heritage cities. Annals of Tourism Research Volume 29, Issue 1, January 2002, Pages 165-182 Scitovsky, T. (1976) The Joyless Economy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
77
Session I
Creative Tourism and Cultural Events