Temperature Dependence of Semiconductor Conductivity

(Originally contributed by Professor E.D.H. Green)

1.0 Learning Objectives
After successfully completing this laboratory worshop! including the assigned reading! the lab
bluesheets! the lab "ui##es! and any re"uired reports! the student will be able to$
Describe how semiconductor conducti%ity %aries with temperature.
Draw a band diagram for a semiconductor.
Describe how doping a semiconductor impro%es conducti%ity.
Define n&type and p&type semiconductors.
Reate the bonding type to the materials' electrical properties.
Determine the bandgap energy for a semiconductor from measured data in the intrinsic
region.
Distinguis! between intrinsic and e(trinsic temperature regimes and identify the applicable
temperature range from an e(amination of measured data.
"#press the mathematical relationships between carrier concentration and temperature in the
intrinsic! e(trinsic and ioni#ation regimes.
"#press the functional relationship between mobility and temperature in the intrinsic! e(trinsic
and ioni#ation regimes.
$.0 Resources
)allister! *aterials +cience and Engineering$ An ,ntroduction! )hapter -../&-..-0
+treetman! 1.! +olid&+tate Electronic De%ices! 2th Ed.! Prentice&Hall! -..3.
4. Pierret! +emiconductor De%ice 5undamentals! Addison 6esley! -../. )hapter 7
Online E(periment +howing 8emperature Effects on +emiconductor 4esisti%ity$
http$99materials.npl.co.u9:ew,OP94esisti%ity.html
1rittany +pear's Guide to +emiconductor Physics$ http$99www.britneyspears.ac9lasers.htm
;ni%ersity of 1uffalo's ,nteracti%e Applets on 8ransistors$
http$99<as0.eng.buffalo.edu9applets9inde(.html
+emiconductor 8utorial with *o%ies$ http$99www.%islab.usyd.edu.au9photonics9de%ices9inde(.html
*A+8 8utorial on +emiconductors$ http$99matse-.mse.uiuc.edu9=tw9sc9sc.html
%.0 &aterias 'ppications
+emiconductor materials are the heart of computers. 8he materials in this class conduct under
certain conditions and not others. 8hrough doping (the substitution of atoms)! control of
conduction can be achie%ed in locali#ed spots on a computer chip. 8his ultimately leads to the
ability to route and store electrons! the foundation of binary logic and the e(tensi%e functions of
computers.
Semiconductor Resistivity LN 8-1
(.0 T!eory
(.1 )and Structure of a Semiconductor
8he band structure of semiconductors is such that the outermost band of electrons! the %alence
band! is completely full. ,f a %oltage is applied! there is no conduction of electrons because there
are no empty spaces to allow the electrons to mo%e around. ,n order for conduction to occur!
electrons must be e(cited to the ne(t highest band! nown as the conduction band. 8he
conduction band is normally empty but is separated from the %alence band by only a small
amount of energy. (+ee )allister 5igure -..2.) >alence electrons can surmount this barrier by
absorbing a small amount of energy from heat or light. 8his then creates a free electron in the
conduction band and a hole (missing electron) in the %alence band! )allister 5igure ../.
Doping (replacing +i atoms with atoms of another element) is fre"uently used instead of
temperature to control conducti%ity. Doping can be locali#ed to certain areas whereas the affect
of temperature is a less locali#ed influence. ,f +i is replaced by elements from )olumn > of the
periodic table such as phosphorous! there will be one e(tra electron in the %alence band! )allister
5igures -..-- and -..-0. 8his electron is easily broen loose to create a free electron. +ilicon
doped with )olumn > elements in nown as p&type and the dopants are called donors. 4eplacing
+i with an element from )olumn ,,, (such as boron) creates a hole in the %alence band. (+ee
)allister 5igures -..-7 and -..-2). 8he silicon is nown as n&type and the dopants are called
acceptors.
(.$ Conductivity of a Semiconductor
8he conducti%ity of a semiconductor is gi%en by$
+ q n p
n p
( )
(1)
where ?n and ?p refer to the mobilities of the electrons and holes! and n and p refer to the density
of electrons and holes! respecti%ely. A doped semiconductor! ma<ority carriers greatly outnumber
minority carriers! so that E"uation - can be reduced to a single term in%ol%ing the ma<ority carrier.
(.% "ffects of Temperature and Doping on &obiity of a Semiconductor
)onducti%ity of a material is determined by two factors$ the concentration of free carriers a%ailable
to conduct current and their mobility (or freedom to mo%e). ,n a semiconductor! both mobility and
carrier concentration are temperature dependent. 8hus! it is important to %iew the conducti%ity as
a function of temperature which is e(pressed by$
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
[ ]
+ q T n T T p T
n p
(2)
Semiconductor Resistivity LN 8-2
8here are two basic types of scattering mechanisms that influence the mobility of electrons and
holes$ lattice scattering and impurity scattering. 6e ha%e already discussed lattice scattering in
the conte(t of metals@ we now that lattice %ibrations cause the mobility to decrease with
increasing temperature.
Howe%er! the mobility of the carriers in a semiconductor is also influenced by the presence of
charged impurities. ,mpurity scattering is caused by crystal defects such as ioni#ed impurities. At
lower temperatures! carriers mo%e more slowly! so there is more time for them to interact with
charged impurities. As a result! as the temperature decreases! impurity scattering increases! and
the mobility decreases. 8his is <ust the opposite of the effect of lattice scattering.
8he total mobility then is the sum of the lattice&scattering mobility and the impurity&scattering
mobility. 5igure - shows how the total mobility has a temperature at which it is a ma(imum. 8he
appro(imate temperature dependence of mobility due to lattice scattering is T
&790
! while the
temperature dependence of mobility due to impurity scattering is T
A790
(see 5igure -). ,n practice!
impurity scattering is typically only seen at %ery low temperatures. ,n the temperature range we
will measure! only the influence of lattice scattering will be e(pected.
T*+,
*og scae,
( ) cm V s
2
/ ?
*og scae,
-mpurity Lattice
scattering scattering
T
3
2
T
3
2
.igure1. Appro(imate temperature dependence of mobility with
both lattice and impurity scattering
(.( Temperature Dependence of Carrier Concentration
8he carrier concentration in a semiconductor is also affected by temperature. 8he intrinsic carrier
concentration is go%erned by$
n
i
T ( ) 2
2kT
h
2


1
]
3
2
m
n
*
m
p
*
( )
3
4
exp
E
g
2kT



1
]
1
(3)
Semiconductor Resistivity LN 8-3
where the e(ponential temperature dependence dominates n
i
(T). 8o determine the total carrier
concentration! we must also consider space&charge neutrality$
n T ( ) N
D
+
T ( ) N
A

+
n
i
2
T ( )
n T ( )
and: p T ( ) N
A

T ( ) N
D
+
T ( ) +
n
i
2
T ( )
p T ( )
(4)
5or a doped semiconductor! the temperature dependence of electron concentration can be seen
in 5igure 0. At %ery low temperatures (large -9T)! negligible intrinsic electron&hole&pairs (EHPs)
e(ist (n
i
is %ery small)! and the donor electrons are bound to the donor atoms. 8his is nown as
the ionization (or freeze-out) region. As the temperature is raised! increased ioni#ation occurs
and at about -BBC all of the donor atoms are ioni#ed! at which point the carrier concentration is
determined by doping. 8he region where e%ery a%ailable dopant has been ioni#ed is called the
extrinsic (or saturation) region. ,n this region! an increase in temperature produces no increase in
carrier concentration. 4eferring to E"uation 2! this is the region where ( ) N T N
D D
+
!
( ) N T N
A A

! and ( ) n T N N
i D A
<< . At high temperatures! the thermally generated intrinsic
carriers outnumber the dopants (n
i
D N N
D A
). ,n this intrinsic region! carrier concentration
increases with temperature as shown in E"uation 7 because n
i
has become the dominant term of
E"uation 2.
0 $ ( / 0 10 1$
"#trinsic
-ntrinsic
-oni1ation
10002T *+,
31
10
11
10
1%
10
1$
10
14
10
1/
10
15
10
1(
n
0
*cm
31
,
.igure $. )arrier concentration %s. reciprocal temperature for silicon doped with -B
-3
donors9cm
7
(.5 Temperature Dependence of Conductivity for a Semiconductor
4emember that E"uation - showed that conducti%ity depends on both carrier concentration and
mobility! so there are a %ariety of possible temperature dependencies for conducti%ity. 5or
instance! at fairly low temperatures (less than 0BBC)! the dominant scattering mechanism might
be impurity scattering ( T
790
) while the carrier concentration is determined by e(trinsic doping
Semiconductor Resistivity LN 8-4
(n E N
D
+
)! therefore! conducti%ity would be seen to increase with temperature ( T
790
). Other
possibilities! depending on the material! doping! and temperature will show different temperature
dependence of conducti%ity. One particularly interesting case occurs at high temperatures (abo%e
2BBC or higher) when carrier concentration is intrinsic (E"uation 2) and mobility is dominated by
lattice scattering ( T
&790
). ,n such cases! the conducti%ity can easily be shown to %ary with
temperature as$
exp
E
g
2kT


_
,
(5)
,n this case! conducti%ity depends only on the semiconductor bandgap and the temperature. ,n
this temperature range! measured conducti%ity data can be used to determine the semiconductor
bandgap energy! Eg.
5.0 "#perimenta 6rocedure
,n this e(periment we measure the resisti%ity of a germanium (Ge) sample as a function of
temperature! from about FB C up to about 3FBC! using a cryostat with a heating stage. A cryostat
is an enclosure which can be cooled to %ery low temperature. 8he system is %ery easy to use and
should wor perfectly if you follow a few simple steps. 1elow is an outline to how the apparatus
wors! what you should e(pect to measure! and how to do it. 8he results will show the saturation
region (e(trinsic) region and the intrinsic region of conducti%ity. 8he temperature will not be low
enough to obser%e the ioni#ation region.
5.1 T!e Cryostat
8he apparatus consists of a micro&miniature refrigerator ( inside the small metal %acuum
enclosure! which contains a window through which you can see the semiconductor sample)! a
tan of high pressure nitrogen for the refrigerating fluid! and a %acuum pump and manifold. 8he
apparatus uses the Goule&8hompson e(pansion of a high pressure gas to achie%e enough cooling
to li"uefy the gas in a small reser%oir underneath the sample mount. 8he refrigerator is made up
of a laminated set of glass slides! each of which has micro&channels etched into it! pro%iding a
serpentine path for the gas to proceed through a heat e(changer.
8he sample is mounted on a cold mount at the end of the refrigerator with thermal grease! which
maes e(cellent thermal contact between the sample and the refrigerator. 8he sample can be
cooled to FB C from room temperature in about -B minutes. 8he refrigerator also has a heater
built in (thin wires) with which we can heat the sample or control the temperature stability.
Semiconductor Resistivity LN 8-5
5.$ 6rocedure
Please use the instruction manual located ne(t to each station@ the instructions may ha%e
changed after this edition of the Hab:otes was printed.
-. )lose all %al%es >-! >0! >7! >2! on manifold. (+ee drawing located near instrument).
0. +witch on bacing pump. (,t may be on already.)
7. )onnect %acuum meter to power.
2. )onnect temperature controller to power.
3. Open %al%e >- (this begins pumping on cryostat).
/. 6atch the reading on %acuum meter. 8he pressure will begin to fall.
I. 6hen the pressure drops to about 0B millitorr! pass pure :0 at 3BB psi to purge the system for
about -B minutes.
F. 6hile purging! mae the electrical connections. )onnect the two leads at one end of Ge
sample to terminals - J 2 of the terminal bo(! the other two leads at the other end of the
sample to terminals 0 J 7.
.. 8o measure the resistance of the sample connect - J 2 to high input terminals of the
resistance meter! with 0 J 7 connected to the low input terminals of the meter. *eter will
display resistance in Ohms ().
-B. 6hen the pressure in the system is close to 0B millitorr! increase the :0 pressure to -FBB psi.
8his starts the sample cooling down to FB C.
--. 8o control and read the sample temperature use the )ommand bo(. ,t has the following
commands$
TS - Enter - will display the sensor used and temperature range covered
Press TE - Enter - will display the current temperature of the sample
Press Skxx - Enter - will bring the sample to the requested temperature (where xx is the temperature you
entered)
Press MO1 - Enter - will display the sample temperature every second
-0. +et the temperature to FBC! record the sample resistance
-7. +et the temperature to -BBC and record resistance
-2. 4epeat the measurement e%ery 0B C until 32B C is reached. Do not e#ceed 5/0 +7
-3. 8o stop the e(periment
-/. Press +CB & Enter
-I. +top the gas flow (close main %al%e of :0 cylinder
-F. Hea%e the bacing pump ON
-.. 8urn on %acuum meter and resistance meter
0B. 8o calculate the resistivity from the resistance! you need the sample dimensions from your
instructor.
Semiconductor Resistivity LN 8-6
Temperature Dependence of Semiconductor Conductivity
)L8"S9""T
Date +ection 9 Day +ection 9 8ime
Cey *ember
Graphics Analyst
Data Analyst
Data *anager
,n this e(periment you will measure the resisti%ity of a semiconductor as it is heated from FBC to
about 3BBC. Kour ob<ecti%e is to measure the bandgap of the sample (germanium) from the
intrinsic region as well as to obser%e its beha%ior in the e(trinsic region.
:ou may answer t!e foowing ;uestions even before you !ave ta<en any data=
-. How will you con%ert your raw data (either > and ,! or 4) into conducti%ityL
0. 6hat should you use for the a(es of your scatter plotL
7. Plot the sample data on the ne(t page.
2. 6hich part of the data is intrinsic! and which is e(trinsicL
3. 6hat is the meaning of the slope and interceptL
>ow? after t!e e#periment? answer t!e foowing ;uestions=
/. 6hat beha%ior did you obser%e in terms of temperature dependence of mobility and carrier
concentration in the different regions of temperature. ,dentify the intrinsic! e(trinsic! and
ioni#ation regions! if they appear. Plot the conducti%ity on a log or natural log scale. (6hyL)
I. 5rom the temperature of the transition between e(trinsic and intrinsic beha%ior! estimate the
dopant concentrations in the sample.
F. 5rom the appropriate portion of your plot! calculate the bandgap energy (E
g
) for germanium
and compare to the published %alues.
.. )omment upon the accuracy of the results! cite and estimate possible sources of error.
Semiconductor Resistivity LN 8-7
8(C) 4()
-7B -0BB
-73 -003
-2B -03B
-23 -0IB
-3B -0.B
-33 -703
-/B -7/0
-/3 -7FB
-IB -20B
-I3 -22.
-FB -2F3
-F3 -3B.
-.B -37I
-.3 -3/3
0BB -3.B
0B3 -/70
0-B -//0
0-3 -/F/
00B -I0B
003 -I/B
07B -I.7
073 -F00
02B -F/3
023 -F.0
03B -.0B
033 -.27
0/B -.I3
0/3 -.F/
0IB 0BBB
0I3 0B07
0FB 0B2/
0F3 0B3/
0.B 0B//
0.3 0B/F
7BB 0B/B
7B0 0B7I
7B2 0B00
7B/ 0BBB
7BF -.IF
8(C) 4()
7-B -.33
7-3 -F//
70B -IF-
703 -/7B
77B -3BB
773 -20-
72B -7F2
723 -7BB
73B -0B/
733 --B2
7/B -BB-
7/3 .-7
7IB F-B
7I3 I2B
7FB /3.
7F3 3F0
7.B 2FF
7.3 2/I
2BB 272
2B3 7.2
2-B 723
2-3 7-B
20B 0F/
203 0/3
27B 02B
273 0-/
22B -.2
223 -IF
23B -//
233 -23
2/B -BF
2/3 -BB
2IB .2
2I3 FF
2FB F0
2F3 I3
2.B IB
2.3 /I
3BB /3
Semiconductor Resistivity LN 8-8