Passive Electronic Components

Lecture 7
Page 1 of 11
08-Jul-2019
Pulse loading of resistors

1. Resistive element temperature estimation.

2. Physical phenomena related to pulse loading.
3. Pulse-proof chip resistors.

Pulse loading of a resistor refers to short-time (commonly less than 1 second) voltage application to
the resistor terminals. Safe limit of instantaneous power dissipated by the resistor for a short time
may significantly exceed the rated steady state power dissipation. For example, steady-state power
rating of a standard 1.6mm  0.8mm (RR 1608M) thick-film chip resistor at a temperature below
70C is 0.1W. The same resistor may safely survive single pulses with power of 1W, 3W, 10W and
respectively 10ms, 1ms, 10s pulse duration.

Excessive power applied to a resistor may cause one or more of the following phenomena in
resistive element material:
• thermal decomposition,
• oxidation,
• electrical break-down,
• mechanical cracking.

1. Resistive element temperature estimation.

Let us split the span of possible pulse durations as the following:

• Long-time pulses (from several milliseconds to several

Resistive element
seconds). Significant part of generated heat escapes from
the resistor to ambiance during pulse application. Substrate
Maximum temperature in the resistor will depend mainly
PCB
on heat transfer process from resistor to ambiance.
• Short-time pulses (from several nanoseconds to several
microseconds). During pulse application almost all
generated heat remains in the resistive element because
pulse duration time is non-sufficient for significant amount
of heat to escape out of resistive element. By other words,
resistive element may be approximately regarded as
thermally isolated i.e. its heating may be regarded as
adiabatic process.
• Medium-time pulses (several milliseconds). Heat transfer
inside the resistor (for example from film resistive element
to ceramic substrate) cannot be ignored while insignificant
heat flow out of the resistor may be ignored. Heat expansion is shown in red

1.1. Long-time pulses (from several milliseconds to several seconds).

Lumped resistor model will be used for its temperature estimation. Suppose that resistor is a
uniform solid body with uniform temperature distribution. Resistor's heat transfer to the
ambiance may be described using the following parameters:
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c – specific heat capacity of resistor's material [J/(kgK)],
m – mass of the resistor [kg],
Rt – thermal resistance between the resistor and the ambiance [K/W],
P – electrical power dissipated inside the resistor starting from the moment of time t = 0 [W],
T = T (t ) –temperature rise in the resistor [K]. It is the difference between resistor temperature and
ambient temperature that depends on time t. T(0) = 0.

Thermal energy dissipated inside the resistor during short time dt is P  dt . According to the
definition of thermal resistance Rt = T P1 , where P1 is the power of heat escape to outside of
the resistor. Therefore, P1 = T Rt . Thermal energy that escaped from the resistor during time dt
will be P1  dt = (T Rt )  dt . The balance of thermal energy ensures temperature change dT in
the resistor. Differential equation that represents the energy balance in the resistor will be:

1
cm  dT = P  dt − T  dt (A)
Rt
or
dT 1
cm  + T =P
dt Rt
with initial condition
T (0) = 0 .

The solution of the above differential equation is

  
T (t ) = P  Rt 1 − exp −
t
 (B)
  cmR t 

It is applicable to all types of resistors: both having 2-dimensional resistive element (thick-film,
thin-film, foil) and resistors with 3-dimensional resistive element made of bulk material
(wirewound, metal strip, carbon composition).

When t →  the above solution transforms into T ( ) = P  Rt , i.e. into expression for
temperature rise in the case of steady-state power dissipation in the resistor (see plot below).

T (t )

P  Rt

  
T (t ) = P  Rt 1 − exp −
t

  cmR t 
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1.1.Short-time pulses (from several nanoseconds to several microseconds).
Let us consider the case of very short pulse duration time t. In this case almost all generated heat
remains inside the resistive element (adiabatic process). The above differential equation (A) and
its solution (B) may be applied to resistive element only (not to entire resistor). All physical
parameters (m, c, …) in this case will be related to resistive element. For small t values the
above solution (B) of differential equation may be linearized:

T (t ) = T (0)  t =
P (C)
t
mc

The temperature rise T(t) in resistive element is linear function of pulse duration t. The slope of
liner function is expressed through pulse power P, resistive element mass m, specific heat
capacity c of resistive element material. It should be taken into account that the shorter is pulse
duration the wider is frequency spectrum of the pulse. At that, if skin-effect may be neglected
for given thickness (diameter) of resistive element the above equation (C) is valid for both 2-
dimensional resistive element (thick-film, thin-film, foil) and 3-dimensional resistive element
(wire, strip, carbon composition).

1.2.Medium-time pulses (several milliseconds).

In many cases heat capacity of 3-dimensional resistive element (wirewound, metal strip, carbon
composition) is the major part of heat capacity of the entire resistor. At that, heat transfer inside the
resistor may be neglected. By other words, temperature rise in resistive element may be estimated
using equation (C).

Thermal capacity of 2-dimensional (film or foil) resistive element is negligible when compared to
heat capacity of resistor's substrate. When pulse duration is in milliseconds range or longer there is
significant heat transfer from resistive element that generates the heat to substrate that absorbs the
heat. Therefore, the equation (C) for short-time pulses that implies adiabatic heating of resistive
element is not applicable in this case.

Let us consider temperature rise distribution in flat resistor with 2-dimensional resistive element
loaded by medium duration pulse. Suppose that a flat resistor has a uniform (non-trimmed)
resistive film layer on the surface of its substrate. The substrate is commonly much thicker than the
resistive film. Assume that the resistor dissipates a square-wave (constant voltage) pulse. Assume
also that pulse duration, pulse power and thermo-mechanical properties of the resistor substrate
(thermal conductivity, heat capacity and density) are known. Temperature rise distribution in the
resistor has to be found as a function of coordinates and time.

Proposed mathematical model is a semi-infinite (half-space) solid. Its external portion with
thickness d that has uniform heat generation capability over its volume (Fig.1). The uniformity of
the heat generation in the layer with thickness d that is model of resistive layer results in constant
temperature in each plane parallel to the surface of the semi-infinite body that is model of substrate.
It means that the substrate temperature rise may be represented as a function of two independent
variables: time t and spatial coordinate z: T = T( z, t ) . Axis Oz has its origin on external surface of
the resistive layer, and is normal to it. Assume that T( z ,0) = 0 (the initial temperature rise in each
point of the substrate is zero) and that heat generation in the layer with thickness d starts at the time
t = 0 with constant rate. Temperature rise distribution T( z , t ) has to be determined.
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Heat source layer

(resistive film)
d
0
Substrate

z
Fig.1

It may be shown that in the case of transient heat conduction process [1, p.78]

1 𝜕𝑇(𝑧, 𝑡) 𝐴(𝑡)
⃗∇2 𝑇(𝑧, 𝑡) − ∙ =− (1)
𝑎 𝜕𝑡 𝐾

where:

t - time [s],
A(t) - heat source power per unit volume [W/m3]:
A(t ) = A, t   ;
A(t ) = 0, t   .
K
a= - thermal diffusivity [m2/s],
c
K - thermal conductivity [W/(mK)],
 - density [kg/m3],
c - specific heat capacity [J/(kgK)].

The solution T( z, t ) of equation (1) that corresponds to the described condition is given in [1, p.80].

2aAt   z − d   z + d 
T( z, t ) =  f   − f .
K   2 at   2 at
(2)


where d – thickness of the heat source layer, m.

1  
f( x) = ( )
  1 + 2 x 2  erfc( x) −
2
 x  exp( − x 2 ).
4   

where:
x –dimensionless real variable.
erfc(𝑥)– complementary error function:

 exp(−  )d
2
erfc(x) = 2

 x
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Assume that the thickness of the heat source layer is infinitesimal: d→0. In this case solution (2)
can be simplified:

2 at  w   z 2   z  z  (3)
T( z , t ) =  exp −  −  erfc .
K    4at  2 at  2 at 

Here
w – surface density of heat power generation in the two-dimensional heat source layer, W/m2.

Equation (3) may be presented in the following form:

2 w at
T( z , t ) =   Θ(θ), (4)
 K
( )
Θ(θ) = exp − θ 2 −   θ erfc(θ ), (5)
z
θ( z , t ) = .
2 at

To receive temperature rise in resistive film suppose that z = 0 in (4) and (5). At that,  = 0 ,
erfc (0) = 1 , (0) = 1 . Equation (4) will transform into the following expression:

2 w at
T( 0, t ) =  . (6)
 K

It is evident from comparing (4) and (6), that function Θ(θ) = T(z, t ) T(0, t ) represents the relative
temperature rise in the substrate with respect to the surface (resistive film) temperature rise T(0, t ) .
As shown in Fig.2, Θ(θ ) is a descending function. Thus, at every instant of time maximum
temperature in the substrate is reached in its surface z = 0 .

() 1

0.5

0
0 1
2
Fig. 2
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Fig. 2 demonstrates that almost all of the heat energy absorbed by the substrate is approximately
related to 0  θ  1 range. Replacement of the variable  with the variables z and t using (5), results
in:

0  z  2 at . (7)

The significance of the last result is that at any instant of time vast majority of the heat energy
absorbed by the substrate is contained in a substrate layer with thickness defined by (7). The
remaining portion of the infinitely thick substrate, 2 at  z   has negligible influence on the
temperature distribution in the layer (7). In other words, the relatively simple infinite model of the
resistor is applicable to the temperature analysis of film resistor loaded by pulse when substrate
thickness h and pulse duration  satisfy the following condition:

h  2 a , (8)

Assume, now, that a square-wave pulse of power P or energy E and duration time  is applied to a
real resistor with finite area S of its resistive element. Assume also that the resistor thickness
satisfies (8).
The power density w of two-dimensional heat source in the model (4) can be calculated as the
following:
P E
w= = . (9)
S S

Suppose that heat transfer on direction parallel to resistor’s surface plane is negligible. Then the
resistor may be regarded as a portion of infinite “resistor” that dissipates the same pulse power per
unit of surface area. Substitution of (9) into (4) yields an expression for the distribution of the
temperature rise in the substrate in terms of the given parameters:

2 P a 2 E
T( z,  ) =   Θ(θ) =   Θ(θ). (10)
 KS  cS a

Substitution of (9) into (6) yields an expression for the distribution of the temperature rise in the
resistive film (z = 0) in terms of the given parameters:

2P  2E
T( 0, ) =  = . (11)
S Kc S Kc  

All discussed models are presented in the following table.

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Type of resistor load 2-dimensional 3-dimensional Comments

resistive element resistive
element
Short-time pulse Pt Heat remains inside resistive
T (t ) =
mc element (no heat transfer to
ambiance)
Medium-time pulse  Pt Heat remains inside resistor
T( 0, ) =
2P
 T (t ) =
S Kc mc (no heat transfer to ambiance)

Long-time pulse    Heat transfer to ambiance is

T (t ) = P  Rt 1 − exp −
t
 significant
  cmR t 
Steady state T (t ) = P  Rt For comparison

2. Physical phenomena related to pulse loading.

2.1. Burnout of resistive film.

Suppose that chip resistor with bare and uniform (non-trimmed) thick-film resistive element (Fig. 3)
is loaded by square-wave pulse.

Fig.3

Suppose that resistor substrate is made of 96% alumina (typical substrate for thick-film resistor),
and, therefore, K = 24 W/(mK), c = 8.8102 J/(kgK), = 3.72103 kg/m3, a = 7.310-6 m2/s.
Suppose too that duration  of applied pulse satisfies (8) where h is resistor substrate thickness.
Some example values of  and respective minimum values of h calculated per (8) are presented in
the table below:
Minimum alumina substrate thickness
when solution (11) for infinite model is applicable
, ms h, mm

1 0.17
3 0.30
10 0.54

It follows from (11) that

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T( 0,  )  S Kc
P=  .
2  (12)

Functions P( ) or E ( ) are common characteristics of resistor’s withstandability to pulse load.

They may be found in resistor datasheets and standards.

1206 non-trimmed chip resistors (S = 1.7 mm2) were loaded at +70C ambient temperature by
10,000 square-wave pulses characterized by selected pair of P,  values. Period of pulses was
selected to keep average power much lower than rated power of the resistor. In this case steady state
temperature rise may be neglected. Observed resistance shift resulted from thermal destruction
(burnout) of resistive film. Red line plotted in Fig.4 is experimental data that represents maximum
pulse power at the given pulse duration that results in resistance shift less than 1%.

Theoretically estimated per (12) relationship was plotted on the same chart (blue line). At that, the
slope of the theoretically estimated relationship was found to suit to experimental points. The
vertical position of theoretically estimated plot was adjusted with respect to experimental plot by
variation of parameter T (temperature rise in resistive film). The value of T to accomplish this was
250C or T(0,) = 250C. Therefore, maximal absolute temperature of resistive film that results in
resistance shift less than 1% is 250C + 70C = 320C (temperature rise plus ambient temperature).
In this example the combination of theoretical and experimental methods gave way to indirect
evaluation of destructive temperature of resistive film.

Single Pulse Load

of 1206 Non-Trimmed Chip Resistor
Pulse power, W

Calculated (T=250K)
Experimental

1.E-07 1.E-05 1.E-03 1.E-01

Pulse duration, s

Fig.4

3.2. Substrate cracking.

Failure analysis of the resistors failed after application of single pulse always reveals burnt resistor
film (Fig.5a) but sometimes substrate cracking is observed too (Fig. 5b).

The theory of substrate cracking phenomenon is disclosed in [2].

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Fringe area

a) b)
Fig.5

In qualitative level it may be explained as the following. Substrate fringes are substrate surface
areas not covered by resistive film (see Fig.5). Short time of pulse load is insufficient for
appreciable substrate fringes heating. Nevertheless, the fringes are forced to follow thermally
induced expansion of central part of the resistor. This situation produces significant tensile stresses
in the fringes that may result in substrate cracking. It was shown both theoretically and
experimentally in [2] that cracking takes place when pulse duration is about 1ms and longer.

3.3. Fatigue cracking of soldering joints.

There are many applications where chip resistors are subjected to a series of pulses. There is
specific effect related to multiple pulses impact - fatigue cracking of soldering joints.

Fig.6

It commonly happens when pulse duration  is close to time of heat propagation all way through the
substrate thickness. As it follows from (8)

ℎ2
𝜏≈ . (13)
4𝑎

Pulse duration (13) results in mechanical “actuation” of the substrate that is more efficient
compared to longer or shorter pulses because temperature gradient is high all way through substrate
thickness as shown in Fig.2. Thermal expansion of substrate material results in about spherical
shape of its top and bottom surfaces (see Fig.6). At that, PCB remains flat therefore high level of
mechanical stress is induced in solder joints of the resistor. A solder is known to be plastic material
susceptible to fatigue fracture when mechanical stress is applied repeatedly multiple times.
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Fatigue cracking of solder joins may result from ambient temperature changes and TCE mismatch
between chip component and PCB too. Anyhow, crack development may take months or years
because common period of ambient temperature cycles is several hours. In the case of pulse loading
of resistor temperature cycle duration may be seconds or less. That is why crack development in the
case of pulse load may happen after several hours.

3. Pulse-proof chip resistors.

Pulse-proof chip resistor may withstand significantly higher electrical pulse load when compared to
standard chip resistor of the same size. Pulse withstanding capability is achieved by the following
means.

3.1.Non-trimmed resistors. Resistive element without laser trimming has no areas with high
current density (hot spots).

Chip with laser trim Chip without laser trim

(Red lines – direction of electrical current)
Fig.7

3.2.Cylindrical chips (MELF. It follows from (11) that resistive film temperature is reversely
proportional to its surface area. Cylindrical chip (Fig.8a) has  times more resistive film area
than flat chip resistor (Fig.8b) that has the same dimensions in projection.

a) MELF chip resistor b) Flat chip resistor

Fig.8

3.3.Symmetrical chip with 2 resistive elements. Chip resistor shown in Fig.9 has twice more
resistive element area than flat chip resistor having the same dimensions in projection and
respectively has twice lower film temperature at the same pulse load. Symmetrical
construction prevents thermally induced bending of chip (see Fig.6) and significantly
increases withstanding of solder joints to fatigue cracking.
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Resistive element 1

Substrate

Resistive element 2

Fig.9

Literature

1. Carslaw H.S., Jaeger J. C., Conduction of heat in solids. Oxford at the Clarendon Press,
1959.
2. Belman M., Fillion P., Safe pulse loading of thick-film chip resistors. CARTS 2002 (22nd
Capacitor and Resistor Technology Symposium) Proc., pp. 43-51.
3. Belman M., Kadim Y., and Akhtman L., Reliable Operation of Thick-Film Chip Resistors
under Pulsed Conditions. CARTS 2003 (23rd Capacitor and Resistor Technology
Symposium) Proc., pp. 117-123.
4. Belman M., Kadim Y., and Akhtman L., Surpassing Design of Surge Current Chip Resistor.
CARTS- EUROPE 2004 (18th European Passive Components Conference) Proc., pp. 182-
187.