LECTURE 6

13 April 2021

Heat Transfer
PPE-211
Dr Atif Javaid

atifjavaid@uet.edu.pk
Department of Polymer & Process
Engineering, UET, Lahore
 Outline
 Introduction to Conduction
 Fourier’s Law
 Boundary and Initial Conditions
 Thermophysical Properties
 Nanoscale Effects
 Learning Exercises

Theodore L. Bergman, Adrienne S. Lavine, Frank P. Incropera, David P. DeWitt, Fundamentals of

Heat and Mass Transfer, 8th Edition, Wiley, 2017. ISBN: ES8-1-119-32042-5. Ch 2
Fourier’s Law
The Heat Equation
Similar contributions for inflow and outflow through faces normal
to y and z directions

If heat generation rate per unit volume is S

Heat generated = 𝑞 dxdydz dt

Accumulation = rCp [T(t+Dt) –T(t)]dxdydz
Equating all terms, and taking limits as Dt, Dx,Dy,Dz  0 (why?)
𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝑘 + 𝑘 + 𝑘 + 𝑞 = 𝜌𝑐𝑝
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
change
in
Net transfer of thermal thermal energy thermal
energy into the control generation energy
volume (inflow-outflow) storage
Fourier’s Law
Heat Equation
• Cylindrical Coordinates:
1   T  1   T    T  T
 kr  2  k   k   q  rc p
r r  r  r     z  z  t

• Spherical Coordinates:
1   2 T  1   T  1   T  T
2 r 
kr 
 2 2  k    k sin    q  r c
 r sin      r 2 sin    
p
r  r  t
Fourier’s Law
The Heat Equation (Special Case)
• One-Dimensional Conduction in a Planar Medium with Constant
Properties and No Generation

  T  T
k   rc p
x  x  t
becomes
 2T 1 T

x 2  t
k
  thermal diffusivity of the medium  m 2 /s 
rc p  
Conduction
Boundary and Initial Conditions
• For transient conduction, heat equation is first order in time, requiring
specification of an initial temperature distribution:
• Since heat equation is second order in space, two boundary conditions
must be specified for each coordinate direction. Some common cases:
Constant Surface Temperature: • Convection:

T(0, t) = Ts

T
k |x=0= h T  T  0,t  
• Constant Heat Flux: x
Applied Flux • Insulated Surface
T
k |x=0= qs T
x |x=0= 0
x
Conduction
Thermophysical Properties
• Thermal Conductivity: Measure of a material’s ability to transfer
thermal energy by conduction.

• Thermal Diffusivity: Measure

of a material’s ability to
respond to changes in its
thermal environment.

• Property Tables:
Solids: Tables A.1 – A.3
Gases: Table A.4
Liquids: Tables A.5 – A.7
Conduction
Nanoscale Effects
• Conduction may be viewed as a consequence of energy carrier
(electron or phonon) motion. 1 Mean free path: mean
• For the solid state: 𝑘 ≈ 𝑐𝑣 𝜌𝑐𝜆𝑚𝑓𝑝 distance travelled by
3 energy carrier/molecule
Energy Carrier before experiencing
Specific heat per unit
volume Cv Mean molecular speed 𝒄 collision

• Energy carriers also collide

with physical boundaries,
affecting their propagation.
o External boundaries of a
film of material. thick film
(left) and thin film (right).
Conduction
Properties (Nanoscale Effects)
For L / mfp  1,
k x / k  1  mfp /  3L 
k y / k  1  2mfp /  3 L 
Where λmfp is the average distance traveled
before experiencing a collision with
another energy carrier or boundary (See
Table 2.1 and Equation 2.11).
o Grain boundaries within a solid
• Measured thermal conductivity of a ceramic
material versus grain size, L. mfp at T  300 K  25 nm.
• Fourier’s law does not accurately describe the finite energy carrier
propagation velocity. This limitation is not important except in
problems involving extremely small time scales.
Conduction
Typical Methodology of Conduction Analysis
• Consider possible microscale or nanoscale effects in problems
involving small physical dimensions or rapid changes in heat or
cooling rates.
• Solve appropriate form of heat equation to obtain the temperature
distribution.
• Knowing the temperature distribution, apply Fourier’s law to obtain
the heat flux at any time, location and direction of interest.
• Applications:
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Chapter 5: Transient Conduction
Learning Exercise 7
Problem 2.57: The plane wall with constant properties and no internal heat generation
shown in the figure is initially at a uniform temperature Ti. Suddenly the surface
at x = L is heated by a fluid at T∞ having a convection heat transfer coefficient h. The
boundary at x = 0 is perfectly insulated.
(a) Write the differential equation, and identify the
boundary and initial conditions that could be used to
determine the temperature as a function of position and
time in the wall.
(b) On T − x coordinates, sketch the temperature
distributions for the following conditions: initial condition
(t ≤ 0), steady-state condition (t → ∞), and two
intermediate times.
(c) On qx′′−t coordinates, sketch the heat flux at the locations x = 0, x = L. That is, show
qualitatively how q′′x (0,t) and q′′x(L,t) vary with time.
(d) Write expression for total energy transferred to wall per unit volume of wall (J/m3).
Solution
• KNOWN: Plane wall, initially at uniform temperature, is suddenly exposed to convective heating.
• FIND: (a) Differential equation and initial and boundary conditions which may be used to find the
temperature distribution, T(x, t); (b) Sketch T(x, t) for the following conditions: initial (t ≤ 0),
steady-state (t → ∞), and two intermediate times; (c) Sketch heat fluxes as a function of time at
the two surfaces; (d) Expression for total energy transferred to wall per unit volume [J / m3 ].
Learning Exercise 7
SCHEMATIC:
Solution

• ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction, (2) constant properties,

(3) No internal heat generation.
• ANALYSIS: (a) For one –dimensional conduction with constant properties,
the heat equation has the form,
 2T 1 T
=
x 2 a t
• and the conditions are:
Initial: t  0 T  x, 0  = Ti uniform temperature

Boundaries: x = 0 T / x 0 = 0 adiabatic surface

 x = L  k T /  x L = h T  L,t   T  surface convection
Learning Exercise 7
SCHEMATIC:
Solution

• (b) The temperature distributions are shown on the sketch.

• Note that the gradient at x = 0 is always zero, since this boundary is

adiabatic. Note also that the gradient at x = L decreases with time.
Learning Exercise 7
SCHEMATIC:
Solution

''
c) The heat flux, qx (x, t) as a function of time, is shown on the sketch for the surfaces
x = 0 and x = L.

• d) The total energy transferred to the wall may be expressed as


Ein =  qconv
 As dt
0

Ein = hAs 
0
T  T  L,t  dt
• Dividing both sides by A,L, the energy transferred per unit volume is
Ein h 
=  T  T  L,t  dt  J/m3 
V L 0  
 Learning Exercise 8
Problem 2.37: The steady-state temperature distribution in a semi-transparent material
of thermal conductivity k and thickness L exposed to laser irradiation is of the form
𝐴 −𝑎𝑥
𝑇 𝑥 = − 2𝑒 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑘𝑎
(a) Obtain expressions for the conduction heat
fluxes at the front and rear surfaces.
(b) Derive an expression for ˙q(x)q˙(x).
(c) Derive an expression for the rate at which
radiation is absorbed in the entire material, per
unit surface area. Express your result in terms of
the known constants for the temperature
distribution, the thermal conductivity of the
material, and its thickness.

Solution
• KNOWN: Temperature distribution in a semi-transparent medium
subjected to radiative flux.
• FIND: (a) Expressions for the heat flux at the front and rear surfaces,
(b) The heat generation rate q ( x), and (c) Expression for absorbed
radiation per unit surface area.
Learning Exercise 8
Solution
SCHEMATIC:

• ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional conduction in

medium, (3) Constant properties, (4) All laser irradiation is absorbed and can be
characterized by an internal volumetric heat generation
• ANALYSIS: (a) Knowing the temperature distribution, the surface heat fluxes are
found using Fourier’s law,

dT   A  ax 
qx = k   = k  e + B 
 dx   ka 
Front surface, x = 0: A  A 
qx  0  = k  + B  =   + kB 
 ka  a 
Rear surface, x = L:
A  A 
qx  L  = k  e  aL + B  =   e  aL + kB 
 ka  a 
Learning Exercise 8
Solution
SCHEMATIC:

(b) The heat diffusion equation for the medium is

d  dT  q d  dT 
  + = 0 or q =  k  
dx  dx  k dx  dx 
d  A  ax 
q  x  = k + e + B  = Ae  ax .
dx  ka 
(c) Performing an energy balance on the medium, Ein  Eout + E g = 0
 = qx  0  + qx  L  = + 1  e  aL  .
A
On a unit area basis Eg =  Ein
 + Eout
a
E 
Alternatively, evaluate g by integration over the volume of the medium,

Eg =  q  x dx =  Ae
L
0 0
L  ax
dx = 
A   ax  L A
a
e 
= 1  e  aL .
0 a 