MODULE 3

HEAT TRANSFER
LECTURE 2

HEAT TRANSFER BY CONDUCTION

Subject area: Energy Technology

Course code: ETG508
 HEAT FLUX DISTRIBUTION
❖ Conduction analysis is about determining the temperature distribution within a medium resulting
from conditions at its boundaries. With knowledge of the temperature distribution, the heat flux
distribution can be determined using Fourier’s law.
❖ In the previous lecture we introduced Fourier’s law, Eq. 15.1, which relates the heat flux (W/m2) in
the x-direction, per unit area perpendicular to the direction of transfer, to the product of the thermal
conductivity (W/mK) and the temperature gradient, (dT/dx), in the x-direction

(16.1)

Fourier’s law, as written above, implies that the heat flux is a directional quantity.
 HEAT FLUX DISTRIBUTION
❖ The relationship between the coordinate system, heat flow direction, and temperature gradient in
one dimension is illustrated in Fig. 16.1a. If the temperature distribution is linear, the gradient is
constant, and therefore, the heat flux is a constant: is independent of x. When the temperature
distribution is nonlinear with the x-coordinate as shown in Fig. 16.1b, the gradient is no longer a
constant, and consequently, the heat flux will be a function of the x-coordinate, 𝑞𝑥" (𝑥).
 THE HEAT EQUATION
❖ For the foregoing case of one-dimensional, transient conduction with volumetric energy generation,
the heat equation is:

(16.2)

where the temperature is a function of the x coordinate and time, T(x, t).

❖ Steady-state conditions, with volumetric energy generation

(16.3)

Steady-state conditions, without volumetric energy generation

(16.4)

where the temperature depends only on the x coordinate, T(x).

Note the appearance of the properties ρ, c, and k in the heat equation of Eq. 16.2. The product ρc
(J/m3·K) is commonly termed the volumetric heat capacity, and measures the ability of a material to
store energy.
 THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY
❖ The thermal conductivity is a transport property since it is the rate coefficient associated
with Fourier’s law. In heat transfer analysis, for transient conduction and convection, the
ratio of the thermal conductivity k to the volumetric heat capacity is an important
transport property termed the thermal diffusivity 𝑚2 /𝑠

𝑘
𝛼 = 𝜌𝑐 (16.5)
It measures the ability of a material to conduct energy relative to its ability to store
energy.
 BOUNDARY AND INITIAL CONDITIONS
• For transient conduction, heat equation is first order in time, requiring
specification of an initial temperature distribution: T ( x, t )t =0 = T ( x, 0 )
Constant Surface Temperature: • Since heat equation is second order in space,
two boundary conditions must be specified.
T ( 0, t ) = Ts Some common cases are shown here.

Constant Heat Flux:

Applied Flux Insulated Surface

T T
−k |x = 0 = qs |x = 0 = 0
x x

Convection

T
−k |x = 0 = h T − T ( 0, t ) 
x
THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Thermal Conductivity: A measure of a material’s ability to transfer thermal
energy by conduction.

Thermal Diffusivity: A measure of a material’s ability to respond to changes

in its thermal environment.

Property Tables:
Solids: find the tables in books
Gases: find the tables in books
Liquids: find the tables in books
METHODOLOGY OF A CONDUCTION
ANALYSIS
❖ Solve appropriate form of heat equation to obtain the temperature
distribution.

❖ Knowing the temperature distribution, apply Fourier’s Law to obtain the

heat flux at any time, location and direction of interest.

❖ Applications:

Find in books: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction

Find in books: Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Find in books: Transient Conduction
 PROBLEM: THERMAL RESPONSE OF A PLANE
WALL TO CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER
KNOWN: Plane wall, initially at a uniform
temperature, is suddenly exposed to
convective heating.

FIND: (a) Differential equation and initial and boundary conditions which may be used to find
the temperature distribution, T(x,t); (b) Sketch T(x,t) for the following conditions: initial (t 
0), steady-state (t → ), and two intermediate times; (c) Sketch heat fluxes as a function of
time at the two surfaces; (d) Expression for total energy transferred to wall per unit volume
(J/m3).
SCHEMATIC:
PROBLEM: THERMAL RESPONSE OF A PLANE
WALL TO CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction, (2) Constant properties, (3) No internal
heat generation.
ANALYSIS: (a) For one-dimensional conduction with constant properties, the heat equation
has the form,

 2T 1  T
=
2   t  Initial, t  0 :
x T ( x,0 ) = Ti uniform temperature

and the  Boundaries: x=0  T/ x)0 = 0 adiabatic surface

conditions are:
 x=L − k T/ x)L = h  T ( L,t ) − T  surface convection
(b) The temperature distributions are shown on the sketch.

Note that the gradient at x = 0 is always zero, since this boundary is adiabatic. Note also that
the gradient at x = L decreases with time.
 PROBLEM: THERMAL RESPONSE OF A PLANE
WALL TO CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER
bg
c) The heat flux, q x x, t , as a function of time, is shown on the sketch for the surfaces x = 0 and x =
L.

d) The total energy transferred to the wall may be expressed as


Ein =  qconv As dt
0

Ein = hAs 
0
( T − T ( L,t ) )dt
Dividing both sides by AsL, the energy transferred per unit volume is

Ein h 
T − T ( L,t ) dt  J/m3 
V L 0 
=
 
 METHODOLOGY OF A CONDUCTION
ANALYSIS
❖ Specify appropriate form of the heat equation.

❖ Solve for the temperature distribution.

❖ Apply Fourier’s Law to determine the heat flux.

Simplest Case: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction with No thermal energy

Generation.

❖ Common Geometries:

➢ The Plane Wall: Described in rectangular (x) coordinate. Area

perpendicular to direction of heat transfer is constant
(independent of x).
➢ The Tube Wall: Radial conduction through tube wall.

➢ The Spherical Shell: Radial conduction through shell wall.

 THE PLANE WALL
❖ Consider a plane wall between two fluids of different temperature:

❖ Boundary Conditions: T ( 0 ) = Ts ,1, T ( L ) = Ts ,2

(
❖ Temperature Distribution: T ( x ) = Ts ,1 + Ts ,2 − Ts ,1 ) Lx (16.11)
 THE PLANE WALL
❖ Now that we have the temperature distribution, we can use Fourier’s law, Eq. 16.1, to
PLANE WALL (CONT.)

determine the conduction heat flux 𝑤/𝑚2 .That is:

= (Ts ,1 − Ts ,2 )
dT k
qx = −k (16.12)

dx L
❖ For the plane wall, A is the area of the wall normal to the direction of heat transfer and is a
constant independent of x, so that the conduction heat rate (W) is

qx = −kA
dT kA
dx
=
L
( Ts ,1 − Ts ,2 ) (16.13)

❖ Equations 16.12 and 16.13 indicate that both the heat flux and the heat rate are constants,
independent of x.
 THE PLANE WALL
PLANE WALL (CONT.)  T 
❖ Thermal resistances  t
R =  and thermal circuits:
 q 

Conduction in a plane wall: (16.14)

Convection: (16.17)

Thermal circuit for plane wall with adjoining fluids:

(16.18)

In terms of the overall temperature difference, T∞,1 - T∞,2 and the total T ,1 − T ,2
qx = (16.19)
thermal resistance, Rtot , the heat transfer rate can also be expressed as: Rtot
1 L 1
Because the conduction and convection resistances are in series and may Rtot = + + (16.20)
be summed, it follows that the total thermal resistance is: h1 A kA h 2 A
 THE PLANE WALL
PLANE WALL (CONT.)
❖ Thermal Resistance for ❖ Radiation Resistance:
Unit Surface Area:
L 1 1 1
Rt,cond = Rt,conv = Rt , rad = Rt, rad =
k h hr A hr
Units: Rt  W/K Rt  m 2  K/W
(
hr =  (Ts + Tsur ) Ts2 + Tsur
2
)
❖ Contact Resistance:

TA − TB Rt,c
Rt,c = Rt ,c =
qx Ac

Values depend on: Materials A and B,

surface finishes, interstitial conditions, and
contact pressure (SEE TABLES IN BOOKS)
 THE COMPOSITE WALL
❖ Composite Wall with Negligible
Contact Resistance:

T ,1 − T ,4
qx =
Rtot

1  1 LA LB LC 1  Rtot 
Rtot =  + + + +  =
A  h1 k A k B kC h4  A

❑ Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (U) :

A modified form of Newton’s Law of Cooling to encompass multiple resistances

to heat transfer.
qx = UAToverall (16.25)

(16.27)
THE COMPOSITE WALL
THE COMPOSITE WALL
ONE-DIMENSIONAL RADIAL SYSTEMS
❖ Cylindrical and spherical systems often experience temperature gradients in the radial
direction only, and may therefore be treated as one-dimensional. A common configuration is
the hollow cylinder whose inner and outer surfaces are exposed to fluids at different
temperatures. For steady-state conditions with no energy generation, the temperature
distribution in the radial (cylindrical) coordinate system is

(16.29)
ONE-DIMENSIONAL RADIAL SYSTEMS
❖ The appropriate form of Fourier’s law for the radial (cylindrical) coordinate system is

(16.30)

where 𝐴𝑟 = 2𝜋𝑟𝐿 is the area normal to the direction of heat transfer. By applying an energy
balance on a cylindrical control surface at any radius, we conclude that the conduction heat
transfer rate (not the heat flux) is a constant in the radial direction.
If the temperature distribution, Eq. 16.29, is now used with Fourier’s law, Eq. 16.30, we
obtain the expression for the heat transfer rate

(16.31)

From this result it is evident that for radial conduction, thermal resistance in a cylindrical
wall is of the form

(16.32)
ONE-DIMENSIONAL RADIAL SYSTEMS

❖ Consider now the composite cylindrical system of Fig. 16.9. Recalling how we treated the
composite plane wall and neglecting any interfacial contact resistances, the heat transfer rate
may be expressed as

(16.33)
ONE-DIMENSIONAL RADIAL SYSTEMS
❖ The foregoing result may also be expressed in terms of an overall heat transfer coefficient.
That is

(16.34)

If U is defined in terms of the inside area, 𝐴1 = 2𝜋𝑟1 𝐿, Eqs. 16.33 and 16.34 may be equated
to yield

(16.35)

This definition is arbitrary, and the overall coefficient may also be defined in terms of 𝐴3 or
any of the intermediate areas. Note that
(16.36)

and the specific forms of 𝑈2 and 𝑈3 can be inferred from Eqs. 16.33 and 16.34.
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL RADIAL SYSTEMS
PROBLEM EXAMPLE
A thick-walled tube of stainless steel (18% Cr, 8% Ni, k=19 W/m.ºC) with 2 cm inner diameter
(ID) and 4 cm outer diameter (OD) is covered with a 3 cm layer of asbestos insulation (k=0.2
W/m.ºC). If the inside wall temperature of the pipe is maintained at 600 ºC, calculate the heat loss
per meter of length and the tube-insulation interface temperature.

Heat flow is given by;

q
q 2  (T1 − T3 ) 2  (600 − 100)
T3=100 ºC = = = 680 W / m
L ln (r2 / r1 ) / k S + ln (r3 / r2 ) / k A ln (2 / 1) / 19 + ln (5 / 2) / 0.2

This Heat Flow is used to calculate the tube-insulation

R1 T2
interface temperature as;
R2 q (T2 − T3 )
T1=600 ºC = = 680 W / m
L ln (r3 / r2 ) / 2  k A
R3

Stainless Steel  T2 = 595.8 ºC

Asbestos
SPHERICAL SHELL
❖ Consider the spherical shell, whose inner and outer surfaces are maintained
at 𝑇𝑠,1 and 𝑇𝑠,2 , respectively. For steady-state conditions with no energy
generation, the temperature distribution is

(16.37)

❖ The appropriate form of Fourier’s law for the radial (spherical) coordinate system may be
expressed as
(16.38)

where 𝐴𝑟 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 is the area normal to the direction of heat transfer. Applying an energy
balance on a spherical control surface at any radius, we find that the conduction heat transfer
rate (not the heat flux) is a constant in the radial direction.
SPHERICAL SHELL
❖ If the temperature distribution, Eq. 16.37, is used with Fourier’s law, Eq.
16.38, we obtain the expression for the heat transfer rate

(16.39)

❖ From this result it is evident that for radial conduction, the thermal resistance in a spherical
wall is of the form

(16.40)
SPHERICAL SHELL PROBLEM EXAMPLE
SPHERICAL SHELL PROBLEM EXAMPLE
SPHERICAL SHELL PROBLEM EXAMPLE
SPHERICAL SHELL PROBLEM EXAMPLE
 CONDUCTION WITH ENERGY
GENERATION
❖ Consider the plane wall of Fig. 16.11a, in which there is uniform energy generation
per unit volume ( 𝑞ሶ is constant) and the surfaces are maintained at 𝑇𝑠,1 and 𝑇𝑠,2 . For
constant thermal conductivity k, the appropriate form of the heat equation, Eq. 16.3,
is
 CONDUCTION WITH ENERGY
GENERATION
❖ The general solution for the temperature distribution is

(16.43)

where 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are the constants of integration. By substitution, it may be verified

that Eq. 16.43 is indeed a solution to the heat equation. For the prescribed boundary
conditions shown in Fig. 16.11a

The constants can be evaluated and are of the form

 CONDUCTION WITH ENERGY
GENERATION
❖ Then the temperature distribution for the asymmetrical boundary conditions case,
Fig. 16.11a, is
(16.44)

The preceding result simplifies when both surfaces are maintained at a common
temperature, 𝑇𝑠,1 = 𝑇𝑠,2 = 𝑇𝑠 as shown in Fig. 16.11b. The temperature distribution
is then symmetrical about the midplane, and is given by

(16.45)

The maximum temperature exists at the midplane, 𝑥 = 0

(16.46)
 CONDUCTION WITH ENERGY
GENERATION
❖ The temperature distribution, Eq. 16.45, may be expressed alternatively

(16.47)

" "
The surface energy balance, Eq. 15.14, has the form 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 , and substituting
the appropriate rate equations

(16.48)

Substituting from Eq. 16.45 to obtain the temperature gradient at 𝑥 = 𝐿, it follows that
(16.49)

Hence 𝑇𝑠 may be computed from knowledge of 𝑇∞ , 𝑞,ሶ L and h.

 CONDUCTION WITH ENERGY
GENERATION
❖ Equation 16.49 may also be obtained by applying an overall energy balance to the
plane wall of Fig. 16.11b or 16.11c. For Example… relative to a control surface about
the wall of Fig. 16.11c, the rate at which energy is generated within the wall must be
balanced by the rate at which energy leaves via convection at the boundary. Equation
15.11a reduces to
(16.50)

or, for a unit surface area

(16.51)
EXAMPLE: ENERGY GENERATION IN A
PLANE WALL
EXAMPLE: ENERGY GENERATION IN A
PLANE WALL
EXAMPLE: ENERGY GENERATION IN A
PLANE WALL
EXAMPLE: ENERGY GENERATION IN A
PLANE WALL
 END OF LECTURE 2
➢ 16.1, 16.3, 16.4, 16.6, 16.7, 16.14, 16.15 , 16.18, 16.22 , 16.23, 16.24,
16.28, 16.32.