HEAT TRANSPORT

FOURIER'S LAW OF HEAT CONDUCTION

(MOLECULAR ENERGY TRANSPORT)
Consider a slab of solid material of
area A located between two large
parallel plates a distance Y apart.
We imagine that initially:

(i) for time t < 0; the solid material is

at a temperature T0 throughout.

(ii) At t = 0; the lower plate is

suddenly brought to a slightly
higher temperature T1 and
maintained at that temperature.

As the time proceeds, the

temperature profile in the slab
changes, and ultimately a linear
steady-state temperature
distribution is attained (as Fig. 1. Development of the steady-state
shown in Fig.1). temperature profile for a solid slab
between two parallel plates.

When this steady-state condition has been reached, a constant rate of heat
flow Q through the slab is required to maintain the temperature difference
ΔT = T1 – T0.

It is found then that for sufficiently small values of ΔT the following relation
holds:

(1)
That is, the rate of heat flow per unit area is proportional to the
temperature decrease over the distance Y. The constant of proportionality k
is the thermal conductivity of the slab.

Eq.1 is also valid if a liquid or gas is placed between the two plates, provided
that suitable precautions are taken to eliminate convection and radiation.

The local rate of heat flow per unit area (heat flux) in the positive y direction is
designated by qy. In this notation Eq. 1 becomes
 (2)
This equation, which serves to define k, is the one-dimensional form of
Fourier's law of heat conduction. It states that the heat flux by conduction is
proportional to the temperature gradient,

If the temperature varies in all three directions, then we can write an

equation like Eq. 2 for each of the coordinate directions:

(3)
If each of these equations is multiplied by the appropriate unit vector and the
equations are then added, we get

(4)
which is the three-dimensional form of Fourier's law of heat conduction.
This equation describes the molecular transport of heat in isotropic media. By
"isotropic" we mean that the material has no preferred direction, so that heat is
conducted with the same thermal conductivity k in all directions.

In addition to the thermal conductivity k, defined by Eq. 2, a quantity known

as the thermal diffusivity α is widely used. It is defined as

(5)
Here Cp is the heat capacity at constant pressure. The thermal diffusivity α has
the same dimensions as the kinematic viscosity υ namely, (length)2/time.
When the assumption of constant physical properties is made, the quantities v
and Cp occur in similar ways in the equations of change for momentum and
energy transport.

Their ratio υ/ α indicates the relative case of momentum and energy transport
in flow systems. This dimensionless ratio is called the Prandtl number.

(6)
Another dimensionless group that we will encounter in subsequent chapters is
the Peclet number: Pe = Re*Pr.
 SHELL ENERGY BALANCES AND BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

The problems discussed herein will be set up by means of shell energy balances.

We select a slab (or shell), the surfaces of which are normal to the direction of
heat conduction, and then we write for this system a statement of the law of
conservation of energy.

For steady-state (i.e., time-independent) systems, we write

(Rate of thermal - (Rate of thermal + (Rate of thermal =0 (1)

energy in) energy out) energy production)

The energy production term in Eq. 1 includes

(i) the degradation of electrical energy into heat,
(ii) the heat produced by slowing down of neutrons and nuclear fragments
liberated in the fission process,
(iii) the heat produced by viscous dissipation, and
(iv) the heat produced in chemical reactions.

The commonest types of boundary conditions are:

a. The temperature may be specified at a surface.

b. The heat flux normal to a surface may be given

c. At interfaces the continuity of temperature and of the heat flux normal to

the interface are required.

d. At a solid-fluid interface, the normal heat flux component may be

related to the difference between the solid surface temperature T0 and the
"bulk" fluid temperature Tb:

q = h (T0 – Tb) (2)

This relation is referred to as Newton's law of cooling. It is not really a "law"

but rather the defining equation for h, which is called the heat transfer
coefficient.
 HEAT CONDUCTION WITH AN ELECTRICAL HEAT SOURCE

The first system we consider is an electric

wire of circular cross section.

Let
R = radius of electric wire, cm
ke = electrical conductivity, ohm-1 cm-1
I= current density, amp/cm2
Se = rate of heat production per unit volume
qr = Heat flux i.e. heat flow/ (area)*(time)
L= length of wire, cm

The transmission of an electric current is

an irreversible process, and some electrical
energy is converted into heat (thermal
energy).
The rate of heat production per unit Fig. 2. An electrically heated wire,
volume is given by the expression showing the cylindrical shell over
which, the energy heat balance is
made.
(3)
The quantity Se (= heat gen./vol) is the heat
source resulting from electrical
dissipation.

Assumptions:
1. Steady state

2. the temperature rise in the wire is

not so large that the temperature
dependence of either the thermal or
electrical conductivity need be
considered.

The surface of the wire is maintained at

temperature To.
We now show how to find the radial temperature distribution within the wire.

For the energy balance we take the system to be a cylindrical shell of thickness
Δr and length L (see Fig. 2). Since v = 0 in this system, the only contributions
to the energy balance are:

Rate of heat in across cylindrical surface at r ; (2πrLqr)|r (4)

Rate of heat out across cylindrical surface at r + Δr ; (2πrLqr)|r+ Δr (5)

Rate of thermal energy production by electrical dissipation; (2πrΔrL) Se (6)

We now substitute these quantities into the energy balance of Eq. 1. Division
by 2πLΔr and taking the limit as Δr goes to zero gives.

(7)
The expression on the left side is the first derivative of rq r with respect to r, so
that Eq. 7 becomes;

(8)

This is a first-order differential equation for the energy flux, and it may be
integrated to give:

(9)
B.C. 1: at r = 0, qr is not infinite implies C1 = 0

Hence the final expression for the heat flux distribution is;

(10)

This states that the heat flux increases linearly with r.

Now, to get the temperature distribution, we now substitute Fourier's law in

the form
 qr = -k(dT/dr) (11)

(12)
When k is assumed to be constant, this first-order differential equation can be
integrated to give:

(13)
B.C. 2: at r = R, T=To (14)

Using B. C. 2 in eq. 12, we get, C2 = (Se R2/4k) + T0.

Putting in Eq. 12, we, get

(15)

Eq. 14 gives the temperature rise as a parabolic function of the distance r from
the wire axis.

Once the temperature and heat flux distributions are known, various
information about the system may be obtained:

(i) Maximum temperature rise (at r = 0)

(16)
(ii) Average temperature rise;

(17)

Thus, the temperature rise, averaged over the cross section, is half the
maximum temperature rise.
 (ii) Heat outflow at the surface (for a length L of wire)

(18)
This result is not surprising, since, at steady state, all the heat produced by
electrical dissipation in the volume πR2L must leave through the surface r = R.

When you compare this problem with flow in circular tube, you will find the
following similarity:

i. That is, when the quantities are properly chosen, the differential
equations and the boundary conditions for the two problems are
identical, and the physical processes are said to be "analogous."
ii. Not all problems in momentum transfer have analogous in energy and
mass transport.
iii. However, when such analogies can be found, they may be useful in taking
over known results from one field and applying them in another.

iv. For example, the reader should have no trouble in finding a heat
conduction analogous for the viscous flow in a liquid film on an inclined
plane.
v. There are many examples of heat conduction problems in the electrical
industry.'
vi. The minimizing of temperature rises inside electrical machinery
prolongs insulation life.
vii. One example is the use of internally liquid-cooled stator conductors in
very large (500,000 kw) AC generators.