THERMODYNAMICS

Prepared by:

ENGR. KIM A. BENZON

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1 BASIC PRINCIPLES, CONCEPTS AND DEFINITION

Thermodynamics is that branch of physical sciences that treats various phenomena

of energy and the related properties of matter, especially of the laws of transformation of
heat into other forms of energy and vice versa.

Thermodynamics System Modes of Heat Transfer

Heat energy can be transferred from one body to the other or from one location in a
body to the other. Study of the techniques and the methods adopted to transfer heat energy
is known as “HEAT TRANSFER”. To facilitate heat transfer between two bodies must be a 2
different temperatures one higher than the other to allow heat to flow from one body to
other. This means that no heat transfers occurs between two bodies which are at the same
temperature. At the same time it is very important to note that heat only flows a body at
higher temperature to a body at a lower temperature. Although this may look obvious, this
law is very important from the point of view of thermodynamics.
Heat transfer takes place in one of the three ways namely: Conduction, Convection
and Radiation.
A. Conduction
Conduction is the method of heat transfer of heat within a body or from one
body to the other due to the transfer of heat molecules vibrating at their mean
positions. The bodies through which the heat transfer must be in contact with each
other. There is no actual movement of matter while transferring heat from one
location to the other.
Conduction occurs usually in solids where molecules in the structure are held
together strongly by intermolecular forces of attraction amongst them and so they
only vibrate about their means positions as they receive heat energy and thus pass it
to the surrounding molecules by vibrations.

B. Convection
Convection is the mode of heat transfer which occurs mostly in liquids and
gasses. In these methods, heat transfer takes place with the actual motion of matter
from one place within the body to the other. Often when we boil water we have seen
bubbles and currents develop in the water on careful observation.

C. Radiation
Radiation is another form of heat transfer. It does not require any medium
and can be used for transfer of heat in a vacuum as well. This method uses

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 electromagnetic waves which transfer heat from one place to the other. The heat
and light from the sun in our solar system reach our planet using radiation only.
In fact, radiation is the most potent method of heat transfer. In winters when
we sit near a fire we feel warm without actually touching the burning wood. This is
possible by radiation only.

Systems of Units
Newton’s law states that “the acceleration of a particular body is directly
proportional to the resultant force acting on it and inversely proportional to its
mass”.
𝒌𝑭 𝒎𝒂 𝒎𝒂
𝒂= , 𝑭= , 𝒌= ,
𝒎 𝒌 𝑭

where k is a proportionally constant

• System of units where k is unity but not dimensionless:
cgs system : 1 dyne of force accelerates 1 g mass at 1 cm/s2
mks system : 1 newton force accelerates 1 kg mass at 1 m/s2
fps system : 1 lb force accelerates 1 slug mass at 1 ft/s2

𝒈𝒎 𝒄𝒎 𝒌𝒈𝒎 𝒎 𝒔𝒍𝒖𝒈 𝒇𝒕
𝒌=𝟏 𝒌=𝟏 𝒌=𝟏
𝒅𝒚𝒏𝒆 𝒔𝟐 𝒏𝒆𝒘𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒔𝟐 𝒍𝒃𝒇 𝒔𝟐

Systems of units where k is not unity:

If the same word is used for both mass and force in given system, k is neither unity nor
dimensionless.
1 lb force accelerates a 1 lb mass at 32.174 ft/s2
1 g force accelerates a 1 g mass at 980.66 cm/s2

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 1 kg force accelerates a 1 kg mass at 9.8066 m/s2

𝒍𝒃𝒎 𝒇𝒕 𝒈𝒎 𝒄𝒎 𝒌𝒈𝒎 𝒎
𝒌 = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟏𝟕𝟒 𝒌 = 𝟗𝟖𝟎. 𝟔𝟔 𝒌 = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟎𝟔𝟔
𝒍𝒃𝒇 𝒔𝟐 𝒈𝒇 𝒔𝟐 𝒌𝒈𝒇 𝒔𝟐

Relation between kilogram force (kgf) and Newton (N)

𝒌𝒈𝒎 𝒎 𝒌𝒈𝒎 𝒎
𝒌=𝟏 𝒌 = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟎𝟔𝟔
𝒏𝒆𝒘𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒔𝟐 𝒌𝒈𝒇 𝒔𝟐

𝒌𝒈𝒎 𝒎 𝒌𝒈𝒎 𝒎
Therefore: 𝟏 = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟎𝟔𝟔
𝒏𝒆𝒘𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒔𝟐 𝒌𝒈𝒇 𝒔𝟐

1 kgf = 9.8066 N

Relation between pound mass (lbm) and slug

𝒔𝒍𝒖𝒈 𝒇𝒕 𝒍𝒃𝒎 𝒇𝒕
𝒌=𝟏 𝒌 = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟏𝟕𝟒
𝒍𝒃𝒇 𝒔𝟐 𝒍𝒃𝒇 𝒔𝟐

𝒔𝒍𝒖𝒈 𝒇𝒕 𝒍𝒃𝒎 𝒇𝒕
Therefore: 𝟏 = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟏𝟕𝟒
𝒍𝒃𝒇 𝒔𝟐 𝒍𝒃𝒇 𝒔𝟐

1 slug = 32.174 lbm

Acceleration
A unit of force is one that produces unit acceleration in a body of unit mass
𝒎
𝑭= 𝒂
𝒌
1 poundal = (1 lbm)(1 ft/s2)

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Where: F is force in poundals
m/k is a mass in pounds
a is acceleration in ft/s2
𝒎
𝑭= 𝒂
𝒌

𝒍𝒃𝒇 𝒔𝟐
1 pound = (1 slug) (1 ft/s2) ; 𝟏 𝒔𝒍𝒖𝒈 = 𝟏 𝒇𝒕
Where: F is force in pounds
m/k is mass in slugs
a is acceleration in ft/s2

Mass and Weight

The mass of a body is the absolute quantity of material in it. The weight of the body
means the force of gravity Fg on the body.
𝒎 𝑭 𝑭𝒈
= =
𝒌 𝒂 𝒈
where g = acceleration produced by force Fg
a = acceleration produced by another force F
At or near the surface of the earth, k and g are numerically equal, so are m and Fg

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Problem Exercise
1. What is the weight of a 66 kgm man at standard condition?

2. The weight of an object is 50 lb. What is its mass at standard condition?

3. Five masses in a region where the acceleration due to gravity is 30.5 ft/s 2 are as
follows: m1 is 500g of mass; m2 weighs 800gf; m3 weighs 15 poundals; m4 weight
3 lbf; m5 is 0.10 slug of mass. What is total mass expressed (a) in grams, (b) in
pounds and (c) in slugs.

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4. Note that the gravity acceleration at equatorial sea level is g = 32.088 fps 2 and
that its variation is -0.003fps2 per 1000 ft ascent. Find the height in miles above
this point for which (a) the gravity acceleration becomes 30.504 fps2, (b) the
weight of a given man is decreased by 5% (c) what is the weight of a 180lb m man
atop the 29,131 ft Mt. Everest in Tibet, relative to this point?

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Specific Volume, Specific Weight and Density
The density ρ of any substance is its mass (not weight) per unit volume.
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉
The specific volume v is the volume of a unit mass.
𝑉 1
𝑣= =
𝑚 𝜌
The specific weight 𝛾 of any substance is the force gravity on unit volume.
𝐹𝑔
𝛾=
𝑉
Since the specific weight is to the local acceleration of gravity as the density is to the
standard acceleration, 𝛾 / g = ρ / k conversion is easily made;
𝛾𝑘 𝜌𝑔
𝜌= 𝑜𝑟 𝛾 =
𝑔 𝑘
At or near the surface of the earth, k and g are numerically equal, so are ρ and 𝛾.

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Problem Exercise
1. What is the specific weight of water at standard condition?

2. Two liquids of different densities (ρ1 = 1500 kg/m3, ρ2 = 500 kg/m3) are
poured together into a 100-L tank, filling it. If the resulting density of the
mixture is 800 kg/m3, find the respective quantities of liquids used. Also,
find the weight of the mixture; local g = 9.675 mps2.

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Pressure
The standard reference atmospheric pressure is 760 mm Hg or 29.92 in. Hg at 320F,
or 14.696 psia, or 1 atm.

Measuring Pressure
1. By using manometers
A. Absolute pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure

p = absolute pressure
po = atmospheric prerssure
pg = gage pressure, the prrssure due to the liquid
column hg
p = p0 + pg

B. Absolute pressure is less than atmospheric pressure

p = p0 - pg

The gage reading is called vacuum pressure or the

vacuum

2. By using pressure gages

Pressure Gage

A presure gage is a device for measuring gage pressure. This picture

shows the movement in one type of pressure gage known as the single
tube gage. The fluid enters the tube trough the threaded connection. As

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 the pressure increases, the tube with an elliptical section tends to
straighten, the end that is nearest the linkage toward the right. The
linkage causes the sector to rotate. The sector engages a small pinion
gear. The index hand moves with the pinion gear. The whole mechanism
is of course enclosed in a case, and a graduated dial, from which the
pressure is read, and is placed under the index hand.

Problem Exercise
1. A 30-m vertical column of fluid (density 1878 kg/m3) is located where g = 9.65
mps2. Find the pressure at the base of the column.

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Atmospheric Pressure
A barometer is used to measure atmospheric pressure.

Barometer

Po = 𝛾 ho

Where ho = height of column of liquid supported by atmospheric pressure Po

Problem Exercise
1. A vertical column of water will be supported to what height by standard
atmospheric pressure.

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2. The pressure of a boiler is 9.5 kg/cm2. The barometric pressure of the
atmosphere is 768 mm of Hg. Find the absolute pressure in the boiler. (ME Board
Problem – Oct. 1987)

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Absolute Pressure

P=𝛾h

where h = ho ± hg the height of column of liquid supported by absolute pressure p.

If the liquid used in the barometer is mercury, the atmospheric pressure becomes,

po = 𝛾Hg hg = (sp gr)Hg (𝛾w) (ho)

𝑙𝑏
(13.6) (62.4 ) (ℎ𝑜 𝑖𝑛)
𝑓𝑡 3
=
𝑖𝑛3
1728 3
𝑓𝑡
po = 0.491 ho lb/in2

where ho = column of mercury in inches

then. Pg = 0.491 hg lb/in2
and, p = 0.491 h lb/in2

Problem Exercise
1. A pressure gage registers 40 psig in a region where the barometer is 14.5 psia.
Find the absolute pressure in psia, and in kPa

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2. Given the barometric pressure of 14.7 psia (29.92 in. Hg abs), make these
conversions:
(a) 80 psig to psia and to atmosphere,
(b) 20 in. Hg vacuum to in. Hg abg and to psia,
(c) 10 psia to psi vacuum and to Pa,
(d) 15 in. Hg gage to psia, to torrs, and to Pa.

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Temperature

Problem Exercise
1. Derive the relation between degrees Fahrenheit and degrees Centigrade. (EE
Board Question)

2. Show that the specific heat of a substance in Btu/(lb) (Fo) is numerically equal to
cal/(g)(Co).

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Conservation of Mass

The law of conservation of mass states that mass is indestructible.

The quantity of fluid passing through a given section is given by the formula

V=A𝜐
𝑉 𝐴𝜐
𝑚= = = 𝐴𝜐𝜌
𝑣 𝑣
where; V = volume flow rate

A = cross sectional area of the stream

𝜐 = average speed

M = mass flow rate

Applying the law of conservation of mass,

𝐴1 𝜐1 𝐴2 𝜐2
𝑚= =
𝑣1 𝑣2
A1𝜐1ρ1 = A2𝜐2ρ2

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Problem Exercise
1. Two gaseous streams enter a combining tube and leave as a single mixture.
These data apply at the entrance section:
For one gas A1 = 75 in2, 𝜐1 = 500 fps, v1 = 10 ft3/lb
For the other gas A2 = 50in2, m2 = 16.67 lb/s, ρ2 = 0.12 lb/ft3
At exit, 𝜐3 = 350 fps, v3 = 7 ft3/lb

Find

(a) the speed 𝜐2, at section 2,

(b) the flow and area at the exit section

2. A 10-ft diameter by 15-ft height vertical tank is receiving water (ρ = 62.1 lb/cu
ft) at the rate of 300 gpm and is discharging through a 6-in ID line with a
constant speed of 5 fps. At a given instant, the tank is half full. Find the water
level and the mass change in tank 15 min later

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2 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

Gravitational Potential Energy (P)

The gravitational potential energy of a body is its energy due to its position or
elevation.
𝑚𝑔𝑧
𝑃 = 𝐹𝑔 𝑧 =
𝑘
𝑚𝑔
△ 𝑃 = 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )
𝑘
△P = change in potential energy

Kinetic Energy (K)

The energy or stored capacity for performing work possessed by a moving body, by
virtue of its momentum is called kinetic energy.

𝑚 𝑣2
𝐾=
2𝑘
𝑚
△ 𝐾 = 𝐾2 − 𝐾1 = (𝑣 2 − 𝑣1 2 )
2𝑘 2
△K = change in kinetic energy

Internal Energy (U, u)

Internal energy is energy stored within a body or substance by virtue of the activity
and configuration of its molecules and of the vibration of the atoms within the molecules.

u = specific internal energy (unit mass) △u = u2 – u1

U = m u = total internal energy (m mass) △U = U2 – U1

Work (W)

Work is the product of the displacement of the body and the component of the force
in the direction of the displacement. Work is energy in transition; that is, it exists only
when a force is "moving through a distance”

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Work of a Nonflow System

The work done as the piston moves

from e to f is

dW = Fx dx = (pA)dL = pdV

which is the area under the curve e-f on the pV

plane. Therefore, the total work done as the
piston moves from 1 to 2 is
2
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑉
1

Which is the area under the curve 1-e-f-2

The area under the curve of the process on the

pV plane represents the work done during a
nonflow reversible process.

Work of Expansion

Work done by the system is positive (outflow of energy)

Work done on the system is negative (inflow of energy

Flow Work (Wf)

Flow work or flow energy is work done in pushing a fluid across a boundary, usually
into or out of a system.

Wf = FL =pAL

Wf = pV

△Wf = Wf2 – Wf1 = p2V2 – p1V1

△Wf = change in flow work

Flow Work

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Heat (Q)

Heat is energy in transit (on the move) from one body or system to another solely
because of a temperature difference between the bodies or systems.

Q is positive when heat is added to the body or system.

Q is negative when heat is rejected by the body or system.

Classification of Systems

A closed system is one in which mass does not cross its boundaries

An open system is one in which mass crosses its boundaries

Conservation of Energy

The law of conservation of energy states that energy is neither created nor
destroyed.

The first law of thermodynamics states that one form of energy may be converted
into another.

Steady Flow Energy Equation

Characteristics of steady flow system

1. There is neither accumulation nor diminution of mass within the system.

2. There is neither accumulation nor diminution of energy within the system.
3. The state of the working substance at any point in the system remains constant.

Energy Diagram of a Steady Flow System

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 Energy Entering System = Energy Leaving System

P1 + K1 + Wf1 + U1 + Q = P2 + K2 + Wf2 + U2 + W
Q = △P + △K + △Wf + △U + W
(Steady Flow Energy Equation)

Enthalphy (H,h)

Enthalpy is a composite property applicable to all fluids and is defined by

H=u+pv and h=mh=U+pV

The steady flow energy equation becomes

P 1 + K1 + H 1 + Q = P 2 + K 2 + H 2 + W
Q = △P + △K + △H + W

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Problem Exercise
1. During a steady flow process, the pressure of the working substance drops from
200 to 20 psia, the speed increases from 200 to 1000 fps, the internal energy of
the open system decreases 25 Btu/lb, and the specific volume increases from 1
to 8 ft3/lb. No heat is transferred. Sketch an energy diagram. Determine the work
per lb. Is it done on or by the substance? Determine the work in hp for 10 lb per
min (1 hp = 42.4 Btu/ min).

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2. Steam is supplied to a fully loaded 100-hp turbine at 200 psia with u1 = 1163.3
BTU/lb, v1 = 2.65 ft3/lb and 𝜐1 = 400 fps. Exhaust is at 1 psia with u2 = 925
BTU/lb, v2 = 294 ft3/lb and 𝜐2 = 1100 fps. The heat loss from the steam in the
turbine is 10 BTU/lb. Neglect potential energy change and determine
(a) the work per lb steam and
(b) the steam flow rate in lb/h.

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3. An air compressor (an open system) receives 272 kg per min of air at 99.29 kPa
and a specific volume of 0.026 m3/kg. The air flows steady through the
compressor and is discharged at 689.5 kPa and 0.0051 m3/kg. The initial
internal energy of the air is 1594 J/kg; at discharge, the internal energy is 6241
J/kg. The cooling water circulated around the cylinder carries away 4383 J/kg of
air. The change in kinetic energy is 896 J/kg. Sketch an energy diagram. Compute
the work.

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4. A centifugal pump operating under steady flow conditions delivers 2,270 kg/min
of water from an initial pressure of 82,740Pa to a final pressure of 275,800 Pa.
The diameter of the inlet pipe to the pump is 15.24 cm and the diameter of the
discharge pipe is 10.16 cm. What is the work?

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5. A turbine operates under steady flow conditions, receiving steam at the
following state: pressure 1200 kPa, temperature 1880C, enthalpy 2785 kJ/kg,
speed 33.3 m/s and elevation 3 m. The steam leaves the turbine at the following
pressure 20 kPa, enthalpy 2512 kJ/kg, speed 100 m/s and elevation 0 m. Heat is
lost to the surroundings at the rate of 0.29 kJ/s. If the rate of steam flow through
the turbine is 0.42 kg/s, what is the power output of the turbine in kW?

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3 THE IDEAL GAS

An ideal gas is ideal only in the sense that it conforms to the simple perfect gas
laws.

Boyle’s Law
If the temperature of a given quantity of gas is held constant, the volume of the gas
varies inversely with the absolute pressure during a change of state.
1 𝐶
𝑉∞ 𝑜𝑟 𝑉 =
𝑝 𝑝
𝑝𝑉 = 𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝑝1 𝑉1 = 𝑝2 𝑉2

Charles’ Law
If the pressure on a particular quantity of gas is held constant, then, with any change
of state, the volume will vary directly as the absolute temperature.
𝑉 ∞ 𝑇 𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = 𝐶𝑇
𝑉
𝑇
𝑉1 𝑉2
= 𝐶 𝑜𝑟 =
𝑇1 𝑇2
If the volume of a particular quantity of gas is held constant, then, with any change
of state, the pressure will vary directly as the absolute temperature.
𝑝 ∞ 𝑇 𝑜𝑟 𝑝 = 𝐶𝑇
𝑃 𝑝1 𝑝2
= 𝐶 𝑜𝑟 =
𝑇 𝑇1 𝑇2

Equation of State or Characteristic Equation of a Perfect Gas

Combining Boyle’s and Charles’ Law
𝑝1 𝑉1 𝑝2 𝑉2
= = 𝐶, 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑇1 𝑇2
𝑝𝑉
= 𝑚𝑅
𝑇

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 𝑝𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇
𝑝𝑉 = 𝑅𝑇
(unit mass)

where
p = absolute pressure
V = volume
v = specific volume
m = mass
T = absolute temperature
R = specific gas constant or simply gas constant

Problem Exercise
1. A drum 6 in. in diameter and 40 in. long contained acetylene at 250 psia and
900F. After some of the acetylene was used, the pressure was 200 psia and the
temperature was 850F,
(a) What proportion of the acetylene was used?
(b) What volume would the used acetylene occupy at 14.7 psia and 800F? R
for acetylene is 59.35 ft.lb/lb 0R.

PV = mRT
Volume = 0.6545 ft3

m1 = 0.7218197936 lb

PV = mRT
m2 = 0.5827535302 lb

m3 = m1 - m2
= 0.1390661834 lb

% acetylene used = m3/m1 * 100

=19.266055054 %

b) PV = mRT
V = 2.10452551 ft3

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The volume of a 6 x 12-ft tank is 339.3 cu ft. It contains air at 200 psig and 850F. How many
l-cu ft drums can be filled to 50 psig and 800F if it is assumed that the air temperature
remains at 850F? The drums have been sitting around in the atmosphere which is at 14.7
psia and 800F.

30
2. It is planned to lift and move logs from almost inaccessible forest area by means
of balloons. Helium at atmospheric pressure (101.325 kPa) and temperature
21.10C is to be used in the balloons. What minimum balloon diameter (assume
spherical shape) will be required for a gross lifting force of 20 metric tons?

31
3. Two vessels A and B of different sizes are connected by a pipe with a valve.
Vessel A contains 142 L of air at 2,767.92 kPa, 93.330C. Vessel B, of unknown
volume, contains air at 68.95 kPa, 4.440C. The valve is opened and, when the
properties have been determined, it is found that pm = 1378.96 kPa, tm = 43.330C.
What is the volume of vessel B?

32
Specific Heat
The specific heat of a substance is defined as the quantity of heat required to change
the temperature of unit mass through one degree.
In dimensional form,
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 (𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠)
C
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒)
In differential quantities,
𝑑𝑄
𝐶= 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐𝑑𝑇
𝑚𝑑𝑇
and for a particular mass m,
2
𝑄 = 𝑚 ∫ 𝑐𝑑𝑇
1
(the specific heat equation)

If the mean or instantaneous value of specific heat is used,

2
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐 ∫ 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑚𝑐 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
1
(constant specific heat)
Constant Volume Specific Heat (cv)
QV =△U
QV = mcV (T2 – T1)
Relation Between cp and cv
From h = u + pv and pv = RT
dh =du + RdT
cp = cV + R
𝑅
𝑐𝑣 =
𝑘−1
𝑘𝑅
𝑐𝑝 = 𝑘−1

33
Problem Exercise
1. .For a certain ideal gas R = 25.8 ft lb/lb 0R and k = 1.09.
(a)What are the values of cp and cv?
(b) What mass of this gas would occupy a volume of 15 cu ft at 75 psia and
80 F?
0

(c) lf 30 Btu are transferred to this gas at constant volume in (b), what are
the resulting temperature and pressure?

Cp = Rk/k-1
= 312.466667 ft lb/lb R
= 0.40162801.. BTU/lb R
Cv =R/k-1
= 286.66667 ft lb
= 0.3684661525 BTU /lb R

b) PV = mRT
m = 11.626790698 lb

c) Q = mcv(T2 – T1)
=547 R

P1/T1 = P2/T2
P2 = 75.9725 psia

2. For a certain gas R =320 J/kg K and cv = 0.84 kJ/kg K0

(a) Find cp and k.

34
 (b) If 5 kg of this gas undergo a reversible non flow constant pressure
process from V1 = 1.133 m3 and p1 = 690 kPa to a state where t2 = 5550C, find △U
and △H.

35
36
RECITATION:
1. An automobile tire is inflated to 35 psig at 54F, after being driven, the temperature
rise to 80F. Determine the final gage pressure assuming volume remains constant.
2. 5 kg of water enters the heater at 25C and leaves the hater at 180F Determine the
heat added in Kw
3. Air in a closed piston cylinder device arranged to maintain a pressure of 400 kpa is
heated from 27C to 227 C . Initially the volume of the air is one liter, what is the final
air volume?
4. If the initial pressure of ideal gas at 110 kpa is compressed to one half its original
volume and to twice its original temperature, what is the final pressure?

37
Entropy (S, s)
Entropy is that property of a substance which remains constant if no heat enters or
leaves the substance, while it does work or alters its volume, but which increases or
diminishes should a small amount of heat enter or leave.
The change in entropy of a substance receiving (or delivering) heat is defined by:
2
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑄
𝑑𝑆 = 𝑜𝑟 ∆𝑆 = ∫
𝑇 1 𝑇

where
dQ = heat transferred at the temperature T
△S = total change of entropy
2
𝑚𝑐𝑑𝑇
∆𝑆 = ∫
1 𝑇
2
𝑑𝑇 𝑇2
∆𝑆 = 𝑚𝑐 ∫ = 𝑚𝑐 ln
1 𝑇 𝑇1
(constant specific heat)

Temperature – Entropy Coordinates

dQ = TdS
2
𝑄 = ∫1 𝑇𝑑𝑆

The area under the curve of the process on the TS

plane represents the quantity of heat transferred during
the process.

38
Other Energy Relations

𝟐
− ∫ 𝑽𝒅𝒑 = 𝑾𝒔 + ∆𝑲
𝟏

(Reversible steady flow, △P = 0)

The area behind the curve of the process

on the pV planes represents the work of a steady
flow process when △K = 0, or it represents △K
when Ws = 0.

Any process that can be made to go in the reverse direction by an infinitesimal

change in the conditions is called a reversible process. Any process that is not reversible is
irreversible.

39
4 PURE SUBSTANCE

Pure Substance
A substance that has a fixed chemical composition throughout is called pure
substance. Water, helium carbon dioxide, nitrogen are examples. It does not have to be a
single chemical element just as long as it is homogeneous throughout, like air. A mixture of
phases of two or more substance is can still a pure substance if it is homogeneous, like ice
and water (solid and liquid) or water and steam (liquid and gas).

Phases of a Pure Substance

There are three principle phases – solid, liquid and gas, but a substance can have
several other phases within the principle phase. Examples include solid carbon (diamond
and graphite) and iron (three solid phases). Nevertheless, thermodynamics deals with the
primary phases only.
In general:
• Solids have strongest molecular bonds.
• Solids are closely packed three dimensional crystals.
• Their molecules do not move relative to each other.
• Intermediate molecular bond strength.
• Liquid molecular spacing is comparable to solids but their molecules can float about
in groups.
• There is molecular order within the groups.
• Weakest molecular bond strength.
• Molecules in the gas phases are far apart, they have no ordered structure.
• The molecules move randomly and collide with each other.
• Their molecules are at higher energy levels, they must release large amounts of
energy to condense or freeze.

40
Phase – Change Processes of Pure Substances
At this point, it is important to consider the liquid to solid phase change process. Not
so much solid to liquid because thermodynamics deals only with liquid to gases (or vice
versa) to generate power.
Consider water at room temperature (20°C) and normal atmospheric pressure (1
atm) in a piston-cylinder device. The water is in liquid phase, and it is called compressed
liquid or subcooled liquid (not about to vaporize).

If we add heat to water, its temperature will increase; let us say until 50°C. Due to the
increase in temperature, the specific volume v will increase. As a consequence, the piston
will move slightly upward therefore maintaining constant pressure (1 atm).

Now, if we continue to add heat to the water, the temperature will increase further until
100°C. At this point, any additional addition of heat will vaporize some water. This specific
point where water starts to vaporize is called saturated liquid. (Point 2)

41
If we continue to add heat to water, more and more vapor will be created, while the
temperature and the pressure remain constant (T = 100°C and P = 1 atm). The only
property that changes is the specific volume. These conditions will remain the same until
the last drop of liquid is vaporized. At this point, the entire cylinder is filled with vapor at
100°C. This state is called saturated vapor (Point 4). The state between saturated liquid
(only liquid) and saturated vapor (only vapor) where two phases exist is called saturated
liquid-vapor mixture. (Point 3)

After the saturated vapor phase, any addition of heat will increase the temperature of the
vapor, this state is called superheated vapor (Point 5)

42
 T-v diagram representing phase change for water at constant pressure.

This concept can be applied to pure substance other than water.

Saturation Temperature and Saturation Pressure

Recall that during a phase change, pressure and temperature are not independent
intensive properties. As a consequence, the temperature at which water starts boiling
depends on the pressure. In other words, water starts boiling at 100 ºC but only at 1 atm.
At different pressures, water boils at different temperatures.
At a given pressure, the temperature at which a pure substance changes phase is
called the saturation temperature (Tsat).
Likewise, at a given temperature, the pressure at which a pure substance changes
phase is called the saturation pressure (Psat).

43
Property Diagrams for Phase Change Processes T-v Diagram
If we increase the pressure of water in the piston-cylinder device, the process from
compressed liquid to superheated vapor will follow a path that looks like the process for P
= 1 atm, the only difference is that the width of the mixture region will be shorter.
Then, at a certain pressure, the mixture region will be represented only by one
point. This point is called the critical point. It is defined as the point at which the saturated
liquid and saturated vapor states are identical.
At the critical point, the properties of a substance are called critical properties
(critical temperature (Tcr), critical pressure (Pcr) and critical specific volume (vcr)).

Example Water
Pcr = 22.09 MPa
Tcr = 374.148°C = 647.298 K
vcr = 0.003155 m3/kg
Air
Pcr = 3.77 MPa
Tcr = 132.5°C = 405.65 K
vcr = 0.0883 m3/kg

44
 T-v diagram

If we connect all the points representing saturated liquid we will obtain the
saturated liquid line. If we connect all the points representing saturated vapor we will
obtain the saturated vapor line. The intersection of the two lines is the critical point.

45
 T-v diagram and saturation lines.

If we consider the pressure-cylinder device, but with some weights above the
piston, if we remove the weights one by one to decrease the pressure, and we allow a heat
transfer to obtain an isothermal process, we will obtain one of the curves of the P-v
diagram.

46
 P-v diagram.
The P-v diagram can be extended to include the solid phase, the solid liquid and the
solid-vapor saturation regions. As some substances, as water, expand when they freeze,
and the rest (the majority) contracts during freezing process, we have two configurations
for the P-v diagram with solid phase.

P-v diagram for a substance that contracts during freezing (left) and for a
substance that expends during freezing (right).

47
Triple Point
Until now, we have defined the equilibrium between two phases. However, under
certain conditions, water can exist at the same time as ice (solid), liquid and vapor. These
conditions define the so called triple point. On a P-T diagram, these conditions are
represented by a point.

Example
Water
T = 0.01°C = 273.16 K and P = 0.6113 kPa

P-T diagram and the triple point.

The P-T diagram is often called the phase diagram since all three phases are
separated by three lines.
Solid → vapor sublimation
Solid → liquid melting
Liquid → vapor vaporization

48
P-T-v diagram for a substance that contracts during freezing (left) and for a substance
that expends during freezing (right).

In addition to the temperature, pressure, and specific volume data, tables contain
data for the specific internal energy u, the specific enthalpy h, and the specific entropy s.
In thermodynamics analysis, we will encounter the combination of properties U +
PV frequently. For simplicity this combination is defined as a new property called enthalpy.
H = U + PV (kJ)
The enthalpy per unit mass is
h = u + Pv (kJ/kg)

Quality and Saturated Liquid-Vapor Mixture

Now, let’s review the constant pressure heat addition process for water shown in
Figure 3. Since state 3 is a mixture of saturated liquid and saturated vapor, how do we
locate it on the T-v diagram? To establish the location of state 3 a new parameter called the
quality x is defined as:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑔
𝑥= =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑓 + 𝑚𝑔

49
 The quality is zero for the saturated liquid and one for the saturated vapor ( 0  x 
1). The average specific volume at any state 3 is given in terms of the quality as follows.
Consider a mixture of saturated liquid and saturated vapor. The liquid has a mass m f and
occupies a volume Vf. The vapor has a mass mg and occupies a volume Vg.

We note:
V = Vf + Vg`
m = mf + mg
V = mv ; Vf = mf vf ; Vg = mgvg
mv = mf vf + mgvg
𝑚𝑓 𝑣𝑓 𝑚𝑔 𝑣𝑔
𝑣= +
𝑚 𝑚

Using the definition of quality x

𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔
𝑣= =
𝑚 𝑚𝑓 + 𝑚𝑔

Then
𝑚𝑓 𝑚 − 𝑚𝑔
= =1−𝑥
𝑚 𝑚

50
 Note, quantity (1- x) is often given the name moisture. The specific volume of the
saturated mixture becomes
v = (1− x) vf + x vg
The form that we use most often is
v = vf + x (vg − vf)
It is noted that the value of any extensive property per unit mass in the saturation
region is calculated from an equation having a form similar to that of the above equation.
Let Y be any extensive property and let y be the corresponding intensive property, Y/m,
then
𝑦
𝑦= = 𝑦𝑓 + 𝑥(𝑦𝑔 + 𝑦𝑓 )
𝑚
y = yf +x yfg
where yfg = yg - yf

The term yfg is the difference between the saturated vapor and the saturated liquid
values of the property y; y may be replaced by any of the variables v, u, h, or s. We often use
the above equation to determine the quality x of a saturated liquid-vapor state. The
following application is called the Lever Rule:
𝑦 − 𝑦𝑓
𝑦=
𝑦𝑓𝑔

The Lever Rule is illustrated in the following figures.

51
Problem Exercise:
1. Two kilograms of water at 25°C are placed in a piston cylinder device under 100 kPa
pressure as shown in the diagram (State (1)). Heat is added to the water at constant
pressure until the piston reaches the stops at a total volume of 0.4 m3 (State (2)).
More heat is then added at constant volume until the temperature of the water
reaches 300°C (State (3)). Determine (a) the quality of the fluid and the mass of the
vapor at state (2), and (b) the pressure of the fluid at state (3).

52
53
54
5 PROCESSES OF IDEAL GASES

Constant Volume Process

An isometric process is a reversible constant volume process. A constant volume

process may be reversible or irreversible.

Isometric Process

• Relation between p and T:

𝑇2 𝑝2
=
𝑇1 𝑝1

• Nonflow work:
2
𝑊𝑛 = ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑉 = 0
1

• Change in internal energy:

∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )

• Heat transferred:
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )

55
• Change in enthalpy:
∆𝐻 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )

• Change of entropy:
𝑇2
∆𝑠 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 𝑙𝑛
𝑇1

• Reversible steady flow constant volume

o Q = △U + △K + △Wf + Ws + △P
Ws = - (△Wf + △K + △P)
Ws = - △Wf = V(p1 – p2)

2
o − ∫1 𝑉𝑑𝑝 = 𝑊𝑠 + ∆𝐾
- V(p2 – p1) = Ws + △K
V(p2 – p1) = Ws + △K
V(p2 – p1) = Ws

• Irreversible nonflow constant volume

Q = △U + Wn

56
Problem Exercises:

1. Ten cu ft of air at 300 psia and 400oF is cooled to 140oF at constant volume. What
are
(a) the final pressure,
(b) the work
(c) the change in internal energy
(d) the transferred heat
(e) the change in enthalpy
(f) the change of entropy

𝑇2 𝑝2
a) =
𝑇1 𝑝1
= (140 + 460) / (400 + 460) = P2 / 300
= 209 psia

b) W = O

c) ∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )

PV = mRT
300 (144) (10) =

57
2. There are 1.36 kg of gas, for which R = 377 J/kg k and k = 1.25, that undergo a
nonflow constant volume process from p1 = 551.6 kPa abd T1 = 60oC, p2 = 1655
kPa. During the process, the gas is internally stirred and there are also added
105.5 kJ of heat. Determine
(a) T2
(b) The work input
(c) The change of entropy

58
3. A group of 50 persons attended a secret meeting in the room which is 12 meters
wide by 10 meters long and a ceiling of 3 meters. The room is completely sealed
off and insulated; each person gives off 150 kcal per hour of heat and occupies
volume of 2 cubic meter. The room has an initial pressure of 101.3 kPa and
temperature of 16oC. Calculate the room temperature after l0 minutes. (ME
Board Problem – April 1984 )

59
4. A l-hp stirring motor is applied to a tank containing 22.7 kg of water. The stirring
action is applied for 1 hour and the tank loses 850 kJ/hr of heat. Calculate the
rise in temperature of the tank after I hour, assuming that the process occurs at
constant volume and that cv for water is 4.187 kJ/(kg) (oC)

60
5. A closed constant-volume system receives 10.5 kJ of paddle work. The
system contains oxygen at 344kpa, 278 K and occupies 0.06 cu m. Find the
heat (gain or loss) if the final temperature is 400 K.

61
Isobaric Process

An isobaric process is an internally reversible proccess of substance during which

the pressure remains constant.

Isobaric Process

• Relation between p and T:

𝑇2 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑉1

• Nonflow work:
2
𝑊𝑛 = ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑉 = 𝑝(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
1

• Change in internal energy:

∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )

• Heat transferred:
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )

• Change of enthalpy:
∆𝐻 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )

62
• Change of entropy:
𝑇2
∆𝑠 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 𝑙𝑛
𝑇1

• Steady flow isobaric:

o Q = △P + △K + △H + Ws
Ws = - (△K + △P)
Ws = - △K

2
o − ∫1 𝑉𝑑𝑝 = 𝑊𝑠 + ∆𝐾
0 = Ws + △K
Ws = -△K

63
Problem Exercises

1. A certain gas, with cp = 0.529 Btu/lb Ro and R = 96.2 ft lb/lb Ro, expands from 5
cu ft and 800F to 15 cu ft while the pressure remains constant at 15.5 psia.
Compute
(a) T2
(b) △H
(c) △U and
(d) △s
(e) For an internally reversible nonflow process, what is work?

64
2. A perfect gas has a value of R=319.2 kJ/kg.K and k=1.26. If 120 kJ are added to
2.27 kg of this gas at constant pressure when the initial temperature is 32.2 ̊C,
find:
a) T2
b) ΔH
c) ΔU
d) Work for a nonflow process

65
Isothermal Process

An isothermal process is an internally reversible constant temperature process of a

substance.

• Relation between p and V:

𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2

• Nonflow work:
2 2
𝐶𝑑𝑉 𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑊𝑛 = ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑉 = ∫ = 𝐶𝑙𝑛 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑙𝑛
1 1 𝑉 𝑉1 𝑉1

• Change in internal energy:

∆𝑈 = 0

• Heat transferred:
𝑉2 𝑃1
𝑄 = 𝑊𝑛 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛
𝑉1 𝑃2

• Change of enthalpy:
∆𝐻 = 0
• Change of entropy:
𝑄 𝑃1
∆𝑠 = = 𝑚𝑅𝑙𝑛
𝑇 𝑃2

66
 • Steady flow isothermal:
o Q = △P + △K + △H + Ws
Ws = Q - △K - △P
Ws = Q
(△K=0, △P=0)
2
o − ∫1 𝑉𝑑𝑝 = 𝑊𝑠 + ∆𝐾

−𝑃𝑑𝑉
From PV=C, PdV + VdP=0, dP=
𝑉

2 2 2
𝑃𝑑𝑉
− ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑝 = − ∫ 𝑉 (− ) = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉
1 1 𝑉 1

𝑉2
P1V1 ln = Ws + △K
𝑉1

Ws = Wn
△K=0

67
Problems:

1. During an isothermal process at 88 ̊F, the pressure on 8 lb of air drops from 80 psia to 5
psig. For an internally reversible process, determine
a) ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑉 and the work of a nonflow process
b) - ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑝 and the work of a steady flow process during which ΔK=0
c) Q
d) ΔU and ΔH
e) ΔS

68
2. During a reversible process there are abstracted 317 kJ/s from 1.134 kg/s of a certain gas
while the temperature remains constant at 26.7 ̊C. the this gas, cp=2.232 and cv=1.713
kJ/kg.K. The initial pressure is 586 kPa. For both nonflow and steady flow (ΔP=0, ΔK=0)
process, determine
a) V1, V2 and P2
b) The work and Q
c) ΔS and ΔH

69
3. Air flows steadily through an engine at constant temperature, 400K. Find the work per
kilogram if the exit pressure is one-third the inlet pressure and the inlet pressure is 207
kPa. Assume that the kinetic and potential energy variation is negligible.

70
Isentropic Process

An isentropic process is a reversible adiabatic process. Adiabatic simply means no heat. A

reversible adiabatic is one of constant entropy.

• Relation between p, V and T:

a) Relation between P and V
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑘 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑘 = 𝐶
b.) Relation between T and V
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃 𝑉
From 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑘 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑘 and = 2 2, we have
𝑇1 𝑇2
k-1
T2
T1
= [V ]
V1
2

c.) Relation between T and p

𝑘−1
T2
T1
= [P ]
P2
1
𝑘

• Nonflow work:
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑃𝑉 𝑘 = 𝐶, 𝑃 = 𝐶𝑉 𝑘
2 2 2
𝑊𝑛 = ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑉 = ∫ 𝐶𝑉 𝑑𝑉 = 𝐶 ∫ 𝑉 𝑘 𝑑𝑉
𝑘
1 1 1
Integrating and simplifying,
𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑚𝑅(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝑊𝑛 = =
1−𝑘 1−𝑘
• Change in internal energy:

71
 ∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )

• Heat transferred:
𝑄=0

• Change of enthalpy:
∆𝐻 = 𝑚𝑐𝑃 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
• Change of entropy:
∆𝑠 = 0

• Steady flow isentropic:

o Q = △P + △K + △H + Ws
Ws = - △K - △P - △H
Ws = -△H
(△K=0, △P=0)
2
o − ∫1 𝑉𝑑𝑝 = 𝑊𝑠 + ∆𝐾
1 1
Let C= P 𝑘 V or V=C P 𝑘
1
2
𝑘
− ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑝 = ∫ 𝐶 𝑃 𝑑𝑃
1

Integrating and simplifying,

2 2
𝑘(𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1
− ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑝 = = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉
1 1−𝑘 1

72
Problems:

1. From a state defined by 300 psia, 100 cu ft and 240 ̊F, helium undergoes and
isentropic process to 0.3 psig. Find
a.) V2 and T2
b.) ΔH and ΔU
c.) ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉
d.) - ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑃
e.) Q and ΔS
f.) What is the work if the process is nonflow
g.) What is the work if the process is steady flow with ΔK=10Btu

73
2. An adiabatic expansion of air occurs through a nozzle from 828 kPa and 71 ̊C to 138
kPa. The initial kinetic energy is negligible. For an isentropic expansion, compute
the specific volume, temperature and speed at the exit section.

74
Polytropic Process

A polytropic process is an internally reversible process during which

PVn=C and P1V1n= P2V2n= PiVin

Where n is constant.

• Relation between p, V and T:

b) Relation between P and V
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑛 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑛
d.) Relation between T and V
n-1
T2
T1
= [V ]
V1
2

e.) Relation between T and p

𝑛−1
T2
T1
= [P ]
P2
1
𝑛

• Nonflow work:
2
𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑚𝑅(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝑊𝑛 = ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑉 =
1 1−𝑛 1−𝑛
• Change in internal energy:
∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )

75
• Heat transferred:
𝑄 = 𝛥𝑈 + 𝑊𝑛

𝑚𝑅(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
= 𝑚𝑐𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) +
1−𝑛

𝑐𝑣 − 𝑛𝑐𝑣 + 𝑅
= 𝑚(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )( )
1−𝑛
𝑐𝑃 − 𝑛𝑐𝑣
= 𝑚(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )( )
1−𝑛
𝑘−𝑛
= 𝑚𝑐𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )( )
1−𝑛
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐𝑛 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝑘−𝑛
𝑐𝑛 = 𝑐𝑣 ( ) , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
1−𝑛

• Change of enthalpy:
∆𝐻 = 𝑚𝑐𝑃 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
• Change of entropy:
𝑇2
∆𝑆 = 𝑚𝑐𝑛 𝑙𝑛
𝑇1

• Steady flow isentropic:

o Q = △P + △K + △H + Ws
Ws = Q - △K - △P - △H
Ws = Q -△H
(△K=0, △P=0)
2
o − ∫1 𝑉𝑑𝑝 = 𝑊𝑠 + ∆𝐾

2 2
𝑛(𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1 )
− ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑝 = = 𝑛 ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉
1 1−𝑛 1

76
Problems
1. During a polytropic process, 10 lb of an ideal gas, whose R=40 ft.lb/lb.R and cp=0.25
Btu/lb.R, changes the state from 20 psia and 40 ̊F to 120 psia and 340 ̊F. determine
a.) n
b.) ΔU and ΔH
c.) ΔS
d.) Q
e.) ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉
f.) - ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑃
g.) If the process is steady flow during which ΔK=0, what is Ws? What is ΔK if Ws=0?
h.) What is the work for a nonflow process?

77
6 GAS CYCLES

Heat engine or thermal engine is a closed system (no mass crosses its boundaries)
that exchanges only heat and work with its surrounding and that operates in cycles.
Elements of a thermodynamic heat engine with a fluid as the working substance:
1. A working substance, matter that receives heat, rejects heat, and does work;
2. A source of heat (also called a hot body, a heat reservoir, or just source), from
which the working substance receives heat;
3. A heat sink (also called receiver, a cold body, or just sink), to which the
working substance can reject heat; and
4. An engine, wherein the working substance may do work or have work done
on it.

A thermodynamic cycle occurs when the working fluid of a system experiences a

number of processes that eventually return the fluid to its initial state.

QA
QA = heat added
ENGINE W
QR = heat rejected
QR W = net work

Available energy is that part of the heat that was converted into mechanical work.
Unavailable energy is the remainder of the heat that had to be rejected into the
receiver (sink).

The Second Law of Thermodynamics

All energy received as heat by a heat-engine cycle cannot be converted into mechanical
work.
Work of a Cycle
(a) 𝑊 = ∑ 𝑄
W = QA + (-QR) (Algebraic sum)

78
 W = QA – QR (Arithmetic difference)
(b) The net work of a cycle is the algebraic sum of the works done by the
individual processes.

𝑊 = ∑𝑊

W = W1-2 + W2-3 + W3-4 + . . .

The Carnot Cycle

The Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle
conceivable. There are other ideal cycles are efficient
as the Carnot cycle, but none more so, such a perfect
cycle forms a standard of comparison for actual
engines and actual cycles and also for other less
efficient ideal cycles, permitting as to judge how much
room there might be for improvement.

Fig. 11. The Carnot Cycle

Operation of the Carnot Engine
A cylinder C contains m mass of a substance. The cylinder head, the only place
where heat may enter or leave the substance (system) is placed in contact with the source
of heat or hot body which has a constant temperature T1. Heat flows from the hot body into
the substance in the cylinder isothermally, process 1-2, and the piston moves from 1’ to 2’.
Next, the cylinder is removed from the hot body and the insulator I is placed over the head
of the cylinder, so that no heat may be transferred in or out. As a result, any further process
is adiabatic. The isentropic change 2-3 now occurs and the piston moves from 2’ to 3. When
the piston reaches the end of the stroke 3’, the insulator I is removed and the cylinder head
is placed I contact with the receiver or sink, which remains at a constant temperature T 3.
Heat then flows from the substance to the sink, and the isothermal compression 3-4 occurs
while the piston moves from 3’ to 4’. Finally, the insulator I is again placed over the head
and the isentropic compression 4-1 returns the substance to its initial condition, as the
piston moves from 4’ to 1’.

79
Analysis of the Carnot cycle
QA = T1 (S2 - S1), area 1-2-n-m-1
QR = T3 (S4 – S3), area 3-4-n-m-3
= -T3 (S3 – S4) = -T3 (S2 - S1)
W = QA – QR = T1 (S2 - S1) – T3 (S2 - S1)
= (T1– T3) (S2 - S1), area 1-2-3-4-1
W (T1 – T3 ) (S2 − S1 )
e= =
Q𝐴 T1 (S2 − S1 )
T1 – T3
e=
T1

The thermal efficiency e is defined as the fraction of the heat supplied to a

thermodynamic cycle that is converted into work.

Work from the TS plane

V2
Q𝐴 = mRT1 ln
V1

80
 V4 V3
Qr = mRT3 ln = −mRT3 ln
V3 V4
From process 2-3,

T3
T2
= [ VV ]
2 k-1
3

From process 4-1,

T4
T1
= [ VV ]
1 k-1
4

But T4 = T3 and T1 = T2

Therefore, [ VV ] =[ VV ]
3
2 k-1
4
1 k-1

V3 V2
Then, =
V4 V1
V2
Qr = −mRT3 ln
V1
V2 V2
W = QA – QR = mRT1 ln − mRT3 ln
V1 V1
V2
W = ( T1 − T3 )mR ln
V1
V2
W ( T1 − T3 )mR ln V1
e= =
Qa V
mRT1 ln V 2
1

T1 − T3
e=
T1

Work from the pV plane.

W = ∑ 𝑊 = W1-2 + W2-3 + W3-4 + W4-1

V2 P3 V3 –P2 V2 V4 P1 V1 –P4 V4
W = P1 V1 ln + + P3 V3 ln +
V1 1−k V3 1−k

81
 Mean Effective Pressure ( Pm or mep)
W
Pm =
Vd
Vd = displacement volume, the volume swept by the piston in one stroke.
Mean effective pressure is the average constant pressure that, acting through one stroke,
will do on the piston the net work of a single cycle.

Ratio of Expansion, Ratio of Compression

Volume at the end of expansion
Expansion ratio =
Volume at the beginning of expansion
V2
Isothermal expansion ratio =
V1
V3
Isentropic expansion ratio =
V2
V3
Overall expansion ratio =
V1
Volume at the beginning of compression
Compression ratio =
Volume at the end of compression
V3
Isothermal compression ratio =
V4
V4
Isentropic compression ratio =
V1
V3
Overall compression ratio =
V1

The isentropic compression ratio rk is the compression ratio most commonly used.

82
Problem Exercises:
1. A Carnot power cycle operates on 2 lb of air between the limits of 70 ̊F and
500 ̊F. the pressure of the beginning of isothermal expansion is 400 psia and at
the end of isothermal expansion is 185 psig. Determine:
a) the volume at the of isothermal compression,
b) ΔS during an isothermal process
c) QA
d) QR
e) W
f) e
g) the ration of expansion during isothermal heating and the overall ratio of
expansion, and
h) the mean effective pressure.

83
2. A Carnot engine operating between 775 K and 305 K produces 54 kJ of work.
Determine:
a) QA
b) ΔS during heat rejection
c) e

84
Three-Process Cycle
1. Ten cu ft of helium at 20 psia and 80 ̊F are compressed isentropically 1-2
to 80 psia. The helium is then expanded polytropically 2-3 with n=1.35 to
the initial temperature. An isothermal 3-1 returns the helium to the initial
state. Find T2 , V2 , P3 , QA , QR, W , ΔS3-1 , PM.

2. Two and a half kg of an ideal gas with R = 296.9 J/(kg)(K) and cv = 0.7442
KJ/(kg)(K) at a pressure of 827.4 kPa and a temperature of 667 ̊C reject
132.2 kJ of heat at constant pressure. The gas is then expanded according
to pV1.25 = C to a point where a constant volume process will bring the gas
back to its original state. Determine P3 , QA , and the power in kW for 100
Hz.

85
7 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Internal combustion engine is a heat engine deriving its power from the energy
liberated by the explosion of a mixture of some hydrocarbon, in gaseous or vaporized form,
with atmospheric air.

Fig. 13. Four-Stroke Cycle Gasoline Engine

A cycle begins with the intake stroke as the piston moves down the cylinder and draws in a
fuel-air mixture. Next, the piston compresses the mixture while moving up the cylinder. At the
top of the compression stroke, the spark plug ignites the mixture. Burning gases push the
piston down for the power stroke. The piston then moves up the cylinder again, pushing the
burn gases out during the exhaust stroke.

The four-stroke cycle is one wherein four strokes of the piston, two revolutions are
required to complete a cycle.

86
Otto Cycle
The Otto cycle is the ideal prototype of spark-ignition engines.

Fig. 14. Air-Standard Otto Cycle

Air-standard cycle means that air alone is the working medium.
1-2: isentropic compression
2-3: constant volume addition of heat
3-4: isentropic expansion
4-1: constant volume rejection of heat

Analysis of the Otto Cycle

QA = mcv (T3 – T2)
QR = mcv (T4 – T1)
W = QA – QR = mcv (T3 – T2) - mcv (T4 – T1)
W mc𝑉 (T3 – T2 ) − mc𝑉 (T4 – T1 )
e= =
Qa mc𝑉 (T3 – T2 )
(T4 – T1 )
e=1− Eq. 1
(T3 – T2 )
1
e=1− 𝑘−1
𝑟𝑘
V1
where r𝑘 = , then isentropic compression ratio
V2

87
Derivation of the formula for e
Process 1-2:

T2
T1
=[ VV ]
2
1 k-1

T2 = T1 rk k-1 Eq. 2
Process 3-4:

[V ] [V ]
k-1 k-1
T3 V4 V1
= =
T4 3 2

T3 = T4 rk k-1 Eq. 3
Substituting equations (2) and (3) in equation (1)
(T4 – T1 )
e=1− 𝑘−1
T4 r𝑘 − T1 r𝑘 𝑘−1
1
e=1− 𝑘−1
𝑟𝑘

Work from the pv plane

P2 V2 –P1 V1 P4 V4 –P3 V3
W =∑𝑊 =+ +
1−k 1−k

Clearance volume, percent clearance

V1 VD + V3 VD + cVD
rk = = =
V2 𝑉3 cVD
1+c
rk =
c
Where: c = percent clearance
V3 = clearance volume
VD = displacement volume

88
Ideal standard of comparison
Cold-air standard, k = 1.4
Hot-air standard, k < 1.4 = 1.3

The thermal efficiency of the theoretical Otto cycle is

1. Increased by increase in rk
2. Increased by increase in k
3. Independent of the heat added

The average family car has a compression ratio of about 9:1.

The economical life of the average car is 8 years or 80,000 miles of motoring.

Problem Exercises:
1. An Otto cycle operates on 0.1 lb/s of air from 13 psia and 130 ̊F at the beginning
of compression. The temperature at the end of combustion is 5000 ̊R;
compression ratio is 5.5; hot-air standard, k = 1.3.

i) Find V1 , P2 , T2 , P3 , V3 , T4
j) Compute QA , QR , W , e
k) Corresponding HP

PV = MRT
V1 = 1.681121795 ft3/s

P2/P1 = (V1 /V2)k

P2 = 119.2380455 psia

T2/T1 = (V1 /V2)k-1

T2 = 983.9223335 R

Rk = V1/V2

89
5.5 = 1.6811211795 / V2
V2 = V3 = 0.3056585082 ft3/s

P3/T3 = P2/T2
P3 = 605.9322034 psia

rk = V1/V2 = V4/V3
T4/T3 = (V3 /V4)k-1
T4 = 2998.204126 R

Qa = mcv(T3 – T2)
Cv = R/k-1
Cv = 0.2285347044
Qa = 91.781311222 BTU / s

QR = mcv(T4 – T1)
Qr = - 55.03115682 BTU/s

W = Qa – Qr
= 91.781311222 - 55.03115682
= 36.7501544 BTU/s

e = W/Qa
= 36.7501544 BTU/s / 91.781311222 BTU / s
= 40.04099954%

(36.7501544 BTU/s (60 s/ min))/42.4

42.4 BTU/ min = 1 hp

90
= 52.00493547 Hp

2. The conditions at the beginning of compression in an Otto engine operating on

hot-air standard with k = 1.34, are 101.3 kPa, 0.038 m3 and 32 ̊C. The clearance is
10% and 12.6 kJ are added per cycle. Determine:
d) V2 , T2 , P2 , T3 , P3 , T4 , and P4
e) W
f) e
g) Pm

91
Compression-Ignition or Diesel Engine

Fig. 15. Four-Stroke Cycle Diesel Engine

A cycle begins with the intake stroke when the piston moves down and draws air
into the cylinder. The piston rises and compresses the air. During the compression stroke,
the temperature of the air rises to about 900 ̊F (480 ̊C). When oil is injected into the
cylinder, it mixes with the hot air and burns explosively. Gases produced by this
combustion action push the piston down for the power stroke. During the exhaust stroke,
the piston moves up again and forces the burned gases out of the cylinder.

Fig. 16. Air-Standard Diesel Cycle

1-2: isentropic compression
2-3: constant pressure addition of heat
3-4: isentropic expansion

92
 4-1: constant volume rejection of heat

Analysis of the Diesel Cycle

QA = mcp (T3 – T2)
QR = mcV (T4 – T1)
W = QA – QR = mcp (T3 – T2) - mcv (T4 – T1)
W mcp (T3 – T2 ) − mcv (T4 – T1 )
e= =
Qa mcp (T3 – T2 )
(T4 – T1 ) Eq. 4
e=1−
k (T3 – T2 )

e=1−
1
rk k−1
[krc(r −1−1)]
k

V1
where r𝑘 = , then compression ratio
V2

V3
rc = , the cutoff ratio
V2

Point 3 is called the cutoff point.

Derivation of the formula for e

Process 1-2:

T2
T1
= [ VV ] 1
2
k-1

T2 = T1 rk k-1 Eq. 5
Process 2-3:
T3 V3
= = 𝐫𝐜
T2 V2

T3 = T1 rk k-1 rc Eq. 6
Process 3-4:

[V ] [V ]
k-1 k-1
T4 V4 V2 rc rc k−1
= = =
T3 3 1 rkk−1

93
 k−1

]
rc
T4 = T1 rk k-1 rc [ k−1
rk

T4 = T1 rc k Eq. 7
Substituting equations (5), (6) and (7) in equation (4)
(T1 rc k – T1 )
e=1−
k (T1 r𝑘 𝑘−1 rc − T1 r𝑘 𝑘−1 )

rc k – 1
e=1−
k 𝑟𝑘 𝑘−1 (rc − 1)

e=1−
1
𝑟𝑘 𝑘−1
[ rc k –1
k (rc −1)
]
The efficiency of the Diesel cycle differs from that of the Otto cycle by the bracketed
rc k –1
factor . This factor is always greater than 1, because rc is always greater than
k (rc −1)
1. Thus, for a particular compression ratio rk, the Otto cycle is more efficient.
However, since the Diesel engine compresses air only, the compression ratio is
higher than in an Otto engine. An actual Diesel engine with a compression ratio of 15
is more efficient than an actual Otto engine with a compression ratio of 9.

Relation among rk , rc , and re (expansion ratio)

V4 V1
re = =
V3 V3

rk =
V1
V2
= [ ][ ]
V3
V2
V1
V3

rk = rc re

94
Problem Exercises:
1. A Diesel cycle operates with a compression ratio of 13.5 and with a cutoff occurring at 6% of
the stroke. State 1 is defined by 14 psia and 140 ̊F. For the hot-air standard with k= 1.34 and
for an initial volume of 1 cu ft, compute:
a) T2 , P2 , V2 , T3 , V3 , P4 , and T4
b) QR
c) W
d) e and Pm
e) for a rate of circulation of 1000 cfm, compute the horsepower.

Cv = r/k-1
=53.34/778(1.34-1)
=0.2016482686 A

Cp = Rk/k-1
= 53.34(1.34) / (1.34-1)778
=0.2702086799 B

Pv = mrt
M = 0.062999212598 C

T2 = T1 rkk-1
= 1453.666331R D

P2 = P1rkk
P2 = 457.9048943 psia E

Rk = v1/v2
V2 = 0.0747074074 FT3 F

V3/T3 = V2/T2

95
V3 = V2 + 0.06VD
= V2 + 0.06 (V1 – V2)
V3 = 0.1296296296 ft3

V3/T3 = V2/T2
T3 = 2543.916079 R

T4 = T3 (V3/V4)k-1
T4 = 1270.054143 R

P4 = P3 (V3/V4)k
P4 = 29.63459667 psia

Qr = Mcv(T1- T4)

= 8.511197343 Btu

QA = Mcp(T3- T2)

= 18.5571619 BTU

W = Qa - QR

= 10.04596456 BTU

e = W/Qa

= 54.1352423%

Pm = W/(1-V2)

= 10.04595907 (778) / (1 - 0.074074074) (144)

= 58.61817117 psi

10.04595907 Btu (1000 cfm) / 42.4 Btu/min

96
= 237.0283019 hp

97
2. There are supplied 317 kJ/cycle to an ideal Diesel engine operating on 227g air: P1 = 97.91
kPa, T1 = 48.9 ̊C. at the end of the compression, P2 = 3930 kPa. Determine;
a) rk
b) percent clearance, c
c) rc
d) W
e) e
f) Pm

98
 Dual Combustion Engine
In modern compression ignition engines the pressure is not constant during the
combustion process but varies in the manners illustrated in the figures below. The major
part of combustion can be considered to approach a constant-volume process, and the late
burning, a constant-pressure process.

Fig. 17.
Air-Standard Dual Cycle
Analysis of the Dual Combustion Cycle
QA = mcv (T3 – T2) + mcp (T4 – T3)
QR = mcv (T5 – T1)
W = QA – QR = mcv (T3 – T2) + mcp (T4 – T3) - mcv (T5 – T1)
W mcv (T3 – T2 ) + mcp (T4 – T3 ) − mcv (T5 – T1 )
e= =
Qa mcv (T3 – T2 ) + mcp (T4 – T3 )
(T5 – T1 )
e=1− Eq. 8
(T3 – T2 ) + k (T4 – T3 )

e=1−
1
rk k−1
[r r p rc k −1
p k (rc −1) +(rp −1)
]

99
 P3
where r𝑝 = , the pressure ratio during the constant volume portion of combustion
P2

V1
rk = , the compression ratio
V2

V4
rc = , the cutoff ratio
V3

The thermal efficiency of this cycle lies between that of the ideal Otto and the ideal
Diesel.

Derivation of the formula for e

Process 1-2:

T2
T1
= [ VV ]
1
2
k-1

T2 = T1 rk k-1 Eq. 9
Process 2-3:
T3 P3
= = 𝐫𝐩
T2 P2

T3 = T1 rk k-1 rp Eq. 10
Process 3-4:

T4
T3
= [ VV ]=r
4
3
c

T4 = T1 rk k-1 rc rp Eq. 11
Process 4-5:

[ V ] =[ VV ] =[ VV r ] =[ VV r ]
T5 V4 k-1 k-1 k-1 k-1 rc k−1
4 3 c 2 c
= =
T4 5 1 1 1 rkk−1

k−1

]
rc
T5 = T1 rk k-1 rc rp [ k−1
rk

100
T5 = T1 rp rc k Eq. 12
Substituting equations (9), (10), (11) and (12) in equation (8)
(T1 rp rc k – T1 )
e=1−
(T1 r𝑘 𝑘−1rp − T1 r𝑘 𝑘−1 ) + k (T1 r𝑘 𝑘−1 rp r − T1 r𝑘 𝑘−1 rp )
c

e=1−
1
rk k−1
[r r p rc k −1
p k (rc −1) +(rp −1)
]

Problem Exercises:
1. At the beginning of compression in an ideal dual combustion cycle, the working fluid
is 1 lb of air at 14.1 psia and 80 ̊F. The compression ratio is 9, the pressure at the end
of the constant volume addition of heat is 470 psia, and there are added 100 Btu
during the constant pressure expansion. Find:
a) rp
b) rc
c) The percentage clearance
d) e
e) Pm

101
2. An ideal dual combustion cycle operates on 454g of air. At the beginning of
compression, the air is at 96.53 kPa, 43. 3 ̊C. Let rp =1.5, rc =1.60, and rk =11.
Determine:
a) The percentage clearance
b) P, V and T at each corner of the cycle
c) QA
d) e
e) Pm

102
8 GAS COMPRESSORS

Operation of Compressor

Figure 18 shows a conventional indicator card for a compressor without clearance. As

the piston starts the stroke 4-1, the inlet valve opens and gas is drawn into the cylinder
along the line 4-1. At point 1, the piston starts the return stroke, all valves being closed, and
the gas is compressed along the curve 1-2. At 2, the discharge valve opens and the
compressed gas is delivered to the receiver.
The events of the diagram with clearance are the same as those with no clearance,
except that since the piston does not force all the gas from the cylinder at the pressure P 2,
the remaining gas must re-expand to the intake pressure, process 3-4, before intake starts
again.

Preferred Compression Curves

The work necessary to drive the compressor

decreases as the value of n decreases. Polytropic
compression and values of n less than k are brought
about by circulating cooling water.

103
Comparison of work for Isothermal and for Isentropic Compression.

Heat Rejected
The heat rejected during compression 1-2 is,
Q1-2 = m1 cn (T2 – T1)

104
Problem Exercises:

1. A rotary compressor receives 6 m3/min. of a gas (R=410 J/kg.K, cp=1.03 kJ/kg.K,

k=1.67) at 105 kPa, 27 ̊C and deliveries it at 630 kPa. Find the work if compression
is
a) Isentropic
b) Polytropic with pV1.4 = C, and
c) Isothermal

105
2. A centrifugal compressor handles 300 cu ft per minute of air at 14.7 psia and 80 ̊F.
The air is compressed to 30 psia. The initial speed is 35 fps and the final speed is
170 fps. If the compression is polytropic with n=1.32, what is the work?

106
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY

volume of gas drawn in

Conventional volumetric efficiency =
displacement volume
V1 V1 − V4
nv = =
VD VD
Displacement volume VD is the volume swept by the face of the piston in one stroke.
V3
The clearance ratio or percent clearance, c =
VD
Then, 1

nv = 1 + c − c = [ ] P2
P1
𝑛

If the compression process is isentropic, let n=k.

π
VD = D2 LN
4
where:
D = diameter of piston
L = length of stroke
N = number of cycle completed per minute
N = (n) (1) (number of cylinder), for single-acting compressor
N = (n) (2) (number of cylinder), for double-acting compressor
n = compressor speed, revolution per min., rpm

A single-acting compressor makes one

complete cycle in one revolution.
A double-acting compressor makes two
complete cycle in one revolution.

Free Air

Free air is air at normal atmospheric conditions in a particular geographical

location.

107
Problem Exercises:

1. A twin-cylinder, double-acting compressor with a clearance of 5% handles 20

m3/min, of nitrogen from 100 kPa, 37 ̊C to 725 kPa. Compression and expansion
are polytropic with n=1.30. Find:
a) The work
b) The heat rejected
c) The bore and stroke for 150 rpm and L/D = 1.30.

2. A single-acting air compressor operates at 150 rpm with initial condition of air
at 97.9 kPa and 27 ̊C and discharges the air at 379 kPa to a cylindrical tank. The
bore and stroke are 355mm and 381mm, respectively with a percentage
clearance of 5%. If surrounding air are at 100 kPa and 20 ̊C while the
compression and expansion processes are pV1.3=C. Determine:
a) Free air capacity in m3/s
b) Power of the compressor in kW

108
3. A single-acting air compressor with clearance of 6% takes in air at atmospheric
pressure and a temperature of 85 ̊F, and discharges it at a pressure of 85 psia.
The air handled is 0.25 cu ft per cycle measured at discharge pressure. If the
compression is isentropic, find:
a) Piston displacement per cycle,
b) Air HP of compressor if rpm is 750.

4. A single-acting compressor has a volumetric efficiency of 87% and operates at

500 rpm. It takes in air at 100 kPa and 30 ̊C and discharges it at 600 kPa. The air
handled is 6 cu m per min measured at discharge condition. If the compression is
isentropic, find:
a) Piston displacement per stroke in cu m, and
b) Mean effective pressure in kPa

109
5. A compressor is to be designed with 6% clearance to handle 500 cfm of air at
14.7 psia and 70 ̊F, the state at the beginning of compression stroke. The
compression is isentropic to 90.3 psig.
a) What displacement in cfm is necessary?
b) If the compressor is used at an altitude of 6000 ft and if the initial
temperature and discharge pressure remain the same as given in (a), by
what percentage is the capacity of the compressor reduced?
c) What should be the displacement of a compressor at the altitude of 6000
ft to handle the same mass of air in(a)?

110
COMPRESSOR EFFICIENCY

ideal work
In general, efficiency = actual work

A. Mechanical Efficicency
The mechanical efficicency of compressor is
indicated work of compressor, WI
nm =
brake work of compressor, WB
If the compressor is given by a stream or internal combustion engine, the
mechanical efficiency of the compressor system is
indicated work of compressor
nms =
indicated eork of driving engine

B. Compression Efficicency
Adiabatic compression efficiency is
adiabatic ideal work
nc =
indicated work of compressor
Isothermal compression efficiency is
isothermal ideal work
nt =
indicated work of compressor
Polytropic compression efficiency is
polytropic ideal work
np =
indicated work of compressor

C. Overall Efficiency
Overall efficiency is
no =(mechanical efficiency) (compression efficiency)

Adiabatic overall efficiency is

noc = (nm )(nc ) =

WI
WB
[ adiabaticWideal work]
I

adiabatic ideal work

noc =
WB

111
 Isothermal overall efficiency is

not = (nm )(nt ) =

WI
WB
[ isothermalWideal work]
I

isothermal ideal work

not =
WB
Polytropic overall efficiency is

nop = (nm )(np ) =

WI
WB
[ polytropicWideal work]
I

polytropic ideal work

nop =
WB
Indicated work is the work done in the cylinder.
Brake work or shaft work is the work delivered at the shaft.
Adiabatic compression efficiency is the compression efficiency commonly used.
Compression efficiency, therefore, would mean adiabatic compression efficiency.

112
Problem Exercises:
1. A two-cylinder, single-acting air compressor is directly coupled to an electric motor
running at 1000 rpm. Other data are as follows:
Size of each cylinder, 150 mm x 200 mm
Clearance volume, 10% of displacement
Exponent (n) for both compression and re-expansion process, 1.6
Air constant, k=1.4
Air molecular mass, 29
Calculate:
a) The volume rate of air delivery in terms of standard air for a delivery
pressure of 8 times ambient pressure under ambient conditions of 300 K and
1 bar.
b) Shaft power required if the mechanical efficiency is 81%

2. A 12 x 14 in double-acting air compressor with 5.5% clearance operates at 150 rpm,

drawing air at 14.5 psia and 85 ̊F and discharging is at 62 psia, the compression and
expansion processes are polytropic with n=1.34. Determine:
a) The volume of free air handled per minute, if atmospheric conditions are
82 ̊F and 14.7 psia,
b) The heat rejected,
c) The indicated work of the compressor if the compression efficiency is 87%
d) The ideal work

113
3. There are compressed 8.48 kg/min of oxygen by a 35.56 x 35.56 cm, doube-acting,
motor driven compressor operating at 100 rpm. These data apply: P 1=101.35 kPa,
T1=26.7 ̊C and P2=310.27 kPa. Compression and expansion are polytropic with
n=1.31. Determine:
a) The conventional volumetric efficiency
b) The heat rejected
c) The work
d) The kW input by the driving motor for an overall adiabatic efficiency of 71%.

114
MULTISTAGE COMPRESSION
Multistaging is simply the compression of the gas in two or more cylinders in place of a
single-cylinder compressor. It is used in reciprocating compressors in order to
1) Save power
2) Limit the gas discharge temperature
3) Limit the pressure differential per cylinder

The figures above show the events of the conventional cards of a two-stage machine,
with the high pressure (HP) superposed on the low pressure (LP). Suction in the LP
cylinder begins at A and the volume V’1 is drawn in. compression 1-2 occurs and the gas is
discharged along 2-B. The discharge gas passes through the intercooler and is cooled by
circulating water through the intercooler tubes. Conventionally, it is assumed that the gas
leaving the intercooler and entering the HP cylinder has the same temperature as it had
upon entering the LP cylinder (T3=T1). The gas is then drawn into the HP cylinder along E-
3, is compressed 3-4, and finally discharged from the compressor unit 4-F. The residual gas
always remains in each cylinder because of clearance and must reexpand F-E (HP cylinder)
and B-A (LP cylinder).

115
 W = W of the low pressure cylinder + W of the high pressure cylinder

𝑛−1 𝑛−1

W=
nmRT1
1−n
[( )
𝑛 P
P1
2
]
-1 +
nmRT3
1−n
[( ) 𝑛 P4
P3
-1 ]
It is common practice to adjust the operation of multistage compressors so that
approximately equal works are done in the cylinders, a practice that results in minimum
work for compressing a given quantity of a gas. Thus for the particular case of T1=T3 and of
P2=P3=Px , we have the work of the LP stage equal to that of the HP stage, or

𝑛−1 𝑛−1
nmRT1
1−n
[( )P𝑥
P1
𝑛
]
-1 =
nmRT3
1−n
[( )
P4
P𝑥
𝑛
-1 ]
Px = √P1 P4
Where: Px = intermediate pressure for minimum work

Since the work of each cylinder is the same, the total work for the two-stage
machine is twice the work in each cylinder, or
𝑛−1 𝑛−1

W=
2nmRT1
1−n
[( )P2
P1
𝑛
]
-1 =
2nmRT1
1−n
[( ) P4
P1
2𝑛
-1 ]
A pressure drop in the intercooler could be spread on each side of this ideal value.
pressure drop
P2 = P𝑥 +
2
pressure drop
P3 = P𝑥 −
2
Heat Transferred in Intercooler
The heat rejected in the intercooler is,
QIC = m1 cp (T3 – T2)
where m’ is the mass of gas passing through the intercooler (also the mass drawn in
by the LP cylinder and delivered by the HP cylinder).

116
Problem Exercises:
1. There are compressed 11.33 m3/min of air from 26.7 ̊C, 103.42 kPa to 827.36 kPa.
All clearance are 8%.
a) Find the isentropic power and piston displacement required for a single
stage compression.
b) Using the same data, find the minimum ideal work for two-stage
compression when the intercooler cools the air to the initial temperature.
c) Find the displacement of each cylinder for the conditions of part (b)
d) How much heat is exchanged in the intercooler?
e) For an overall compression efficiency of 78%. What driving motor output is
required?

2. A two-stage, double-acting compressor is to deliver 90 lb/min of air from 14.3 psia

and 90 ̊F to a final pressure of 185 psia. The normal barometer is 29.8 in. Hg and the
temperature is 80 ̊F. The pressure drop in the intercooler is 3 psi and the
temperature of the air at the exit of the intercooler is 90 ̊F, the speed is 210 rpmand
pV1.34 =C during compression and expansion. The clearance is 5% for both cylinder.
The temperature of the cooling water increase by 18 ̊F. Find:
a) The volume of free air
b) The discharge pressure of the low pressure cylinder for minimum work,
c) The temperature at discharge from both low pressure and high pressure
cylinders
d) The mass of cooling water to be circulated about each cylinder and through
the intercooler
e) The work
f) If, for the low pressure cylinder, L/D = 0.68 and if both cylinders have the
same stroke, what should be the cylinder dimentions?

117
THREE-STAGE COMPRESSION

𝑛−1 𝑛−1 𝑛−1

[( ) ] [( ) ] [( ) ]
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
nmRT1 P𝑋 nmRT3 P𝑌 nmRT5 P6
-1 = -1 = -1
1−n P1 1−n P𝑋 1−n P𝑌

P𝑋 P𝑌 P6
= =
P1 P𝑋 P𝑌

PX = (PY P1)1/2 Eq. 1

Py = (Px P6)1/2 Eq. 2

Solving equations (1) and (2) simultaneously,
3 3
Px = √P1 2 P6 and Py = √P1 P6 2
𝑛−1
𝑛−1

[( ) ] [( ) ]
3𝑛
3nmRT1 P2 𝑛 3nmRT1 P6
W= -1 = -1
1−n P1 1−n P1

118
Problem Exercise:
1. Air is compressed from 103.4 kPa and 32 ̊C to 4136 kPa by a three-stage compressor
with value of n=1.32. Determine:
a) The work per kg of air and
b) The heat rejected in the intercoolers.

119
9 THE BRAYTON CYLCE
Operation of a Simple Gas turbine Power Plant

Diagrammatic Layout of Gas Turbine Units

Air continuously enters the compressor 1. After compression, it enters the combustors,
some of it going around the outside of the combustion chamber proper and the remainder
furnishing oxygen for burning the fuel, which is continuously injected to the combustion
chamber. Because of their temperature rise, the gases expand and enter the turbine in the
state 3. After expansion through the turbine, the exhaust to the atmosphere is in some
condition 4. In an ordinary power plant arrangement, the work of the turbine Wt is great
enough to drive the compressor Wc and deliver brake work WB to drive, say, a generator or
propeller; Wt = WB + WC. An external source of power is needed to start a gas turbine unit.

120
Analysis of the Brayton Cycle
QA = m cp (T3 – T2)
QR = m cp (T4 – T1)
W = QA – QR = mcp (T3 – T2) – mcp (T4 – T1)
W mc𝑝 (T3 – T2 ) − mc𝑝 (T4 – T1 )
e= =
Qa mc𝑝 (T3 – T2 )
(T4 – T1 )
e=1− Eq. 1
(T3 – T2 )
1 1
e=1− 𝑘−1 = 1− (𝑘−1)/𝑘
𝑟𝑘 𝑟𝑃
V1
where r𝑘 = , the compression ratio
V2
P2
r𝑃 = , the pressure ratio
P1

Derivation of the formula for e

Process 1-2:
𝑘−1
T2
T1
= [ VV ]
2
1 k-1
= [ PP ]
1
2
𝑘

T2 = T1 rk k-1 Eq. 2

rk k-1 = rP (k-1)/k Eq. 3

Process 3-4:
𝑘−1 𝑘−1

[P ] [P ]
k-1 k-1
T3 P3 𝑘 P2 𝑘
= =
T4 4 1

T3 = T4 rk k-1 Eq. 4
Substituting equations (2) and (4) in equation (1)
(T4 – T1 )
e=1−
T4 r𝑘 𝑘−1 − T1 r𝑘 𝑘−1
1 1
e=1− = 1−
𝑟𝑘 𝑘−1 𝑟𝑃
(𝑘−1)/𝑘

121
Total compressor work, Wc = Q –ΔH
Wc = -mcp (T2 – T1)
Total turbine work, Wt = Q –ΔH
Wt = -mcp (T4 – T3)
Net work, W or WB = WT – WC

122
Problem Exercise:
1. The intake of the compressor of an air-standard Brayton cycle is 40,000 cfm at 15
psia and 90 ̊F. The compression ratio, rk = 5 and the temperature at the turbine inlet
is 1440 ̊F. The exit pressure of the turbine is 15 psia. Determine the net work,
thermal efficiency and the mean effective pressure.

123
 REFERENCE

TEXTBOOK

Moran, Michael J., Shapiro, Howard n., Fundamental s of Engineering

Thermodynamics, 5th edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, 2006
Sta Maria, Hipolito B., Thermodynamics 1
Van Wylen, Gordon, et. al., Fundamentals of Classical Thermodynamics, 4th edition,
John Wiley & sons, Inc., New York 1994
Burghardt, M David, Harbach, James A. Engineering Thermodynamics, 4th edition.
Harper Collins College Publisher, New York, 1993

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