THERMODYNAMICS

Chapter 1: Basic Principles, Concepts and Definitions

Thermodynamics is that branch of physical science that treats of various phenomena of energy and
the related properties of matter, especially of the laws of transformation of heat into other forms
of energy and vice versa.
Example: converting of heat into electrical work (electrical power generation)
Converting electrical work into cooling (air conditioning)

1.1 The Working Substance

Working substance – a fluid in which energy can be stored or from which energy can be removed.

Fluid – a substance characterized by low resistance to flow and the tendency to assume the shape
of its container.

Phase – refers to a quantity of matter that is homogeneous throughout in both chemical

composition and physical structure. (ex. solid phase, liquid phase, vapor phase)

Pure Substance – is one that is uniform and invariable in chemical composition. It can exist in more
than one phase but its chemical composition must be the same in each phase. (ex. Water)

1.2 The System (Thermodynamic System)

A system is that portion of the universe, an atom, a galaxy, a certain quantity of matter, or a certain
volume in space, that one wishes to study. It is a region enclosed by specified boundaries, which
may be imaginary,
either fixed or moving.

Surroundings or Environment – the region about the system,

- Anything external to the system

Boundary – it is a partition that separates the system from the surroundings.

Types of System:

1. Open system (control volume) - is one in which there is an exchange of matter with the
surroundings. Mass can cross its boundary and there is a crossing of energy between system and
surroundings.

2. Closed system (control mass) – is one in which there is no exchange of matter with the
surroundings. Mass cannot cross its boundary however energy can.

3. Isolated system – is one that is completely impervious to its surroundings- neither mass nor
energy cross its boundary.
1.3 Classification of Property

1. Intensive Properties – those that are independent of the mass (ex. Density, pressure,
temperature)

2. Extensive Properties – those that are dependent of mass and are total values (ex. Total volume,
total internal energy)

1.4 Systems of Units

Isaac Newton made the momentous statement that the acceleration of a particular body is directly
proportional to the resultant force acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass.

F F ma
 k
m m
a or a = k ;F=

where:

mks units cgs units fps

m mass of the body kgm gm slug or lbm
a acceleration m/s2 cm/s2 ft/s2
k proportionality constantk =1 kgm-m/N-s2 or k =1 gm-cm/dyne-s2 or k = 1 slug-ft/lbf-s2 or
k = 9.81 kgm-m/kgf-s2 k = 981 gm-cm/gf-s2 k = 32.2 lbm-ft/lbf-s2 or
k = 1 lbm-ft/poundal-s2
F force N or kgf Dyne or gf lbf or poundal

1.5 Mass and Weight

Mass (m) – is the absolute quantity of matter in a body. An unchanging quantity when the
speed of the mass is small compared to the speed of light.

Weight (W)– the force of gravity on the body.

mg
W= k

Where g = gravitational acceleration = 9.81m/s2 = 981 cm/s2 = 32.2 ft/s2 at the surface of the
earth

Note: At the surface of the earth (sea level), k and g are numerically equal, so are m and Fg.
 1.6 Density, Specific Volume, Specific Weight

Density (ρ) – mass per unit volume

m
ρ = V where V = total volume

Specific volume (ν) – volume per unit mass

V 1
m
v= =ρ

Specific weight (  ) – force of gravity per unit volume

W ρg
 
V k
Note: At the surface of the earth, k and g are numerically equal, so are ρ and  .

1.7 Pressure

Pressure (P) – normal force applied to a unit area.

F
P= A

Atmospheric Pressure (Patm) – normal force exerted by the atmosphere on a unit area.
At sea level atmospheric pressure Patm = 101.325 kPa = 14.7 psi = 760 mm Hg = 29.92 in Hg

Gage Pressure (Pg) – is the pressure difference between system’s absolute pressure and
surrounding /atmospheric pressure.

Absolute Pressure (Pabs) – sum of atmospheric and gage pressures

Pabs = Patm + Pg

Note: Pg is negative if it involves vacuum or negative reading relative to atmospheric pressure.

Fluid Pressure – pressure due to a column of a fluid or liquid.

P = h ; where h is the depth

1.8 Temperature
 Temperature – measure of the hotness or coldness of a body. It is also defined as the
measure of the internal energy of a body.

Conversion of temperature reading to another temperature scale:

t(oF) = 1.8 t(oC) + 32

o
[t( F)  32]
t(oC) = 1.8
T(K) = t( C) + 273
o

T(R) = t(oF) + 460

Conversion of change in temperature from one scale to another temperature scale:

t(oC) = T(K)
t(oF) = T(R)
t(oF) = 1.8[t(oC)]

1.9 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

States that when two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, the two are in
thermal equilibrium with each other.

1.10 Law of Conservation of Mass

States that mass is indestructible; i.e. mass can neither be created nor destroyed.

The quantity of fluid passing through a given section is given by the formula

V = A

V A

m= v v

Where: V = volume flow rate

 = average velocity
m = mass flow rate
A = cross sectional area of stream
in A2 V2 2 2 m2
out
SYSTEM
fluid
2
1
A1 V1 1 1 m1

Examples:
1. Four bodies are located in a region where g = 9.67 m/s2.
Body1 = 750 gm; Body2 = 4 poundals; body3 = 4.5 N and body4 = 32.2 lbf.
a) What is the total mass expressed in lbm?
b) What will be the total weight (lbf) if the bodies are located 15,000 ft above the
earth’s surface? (gravitational acceleration decreases by 0.003 ft/s2 for every
1000 ft ascent above sea level)
c) At what distance (miles) from the earth’s surface will these objects weigh zero.

2. A mass of 2 kg is subjected to a vertical force of 35 N. The local gravity g = 9.75 m/s2, and
frictional effects are neglected. Determine the magnitude in m/s2 and direction of the
acceleration of the mass if the external vertical force is acting a) upward, b) downward.

3. Saponification is a process wherein soap is added to a certain type of oil to produce grease.
One such grease is said to have 75.5 % by volume oil and 24.5% by volume soap, wherein the
oil and soap have densities 760 kgm/m3 and 6,250 kgm/m3, respectively. This kind of grease is
sold by packs shaped like a sphere with a diameter of 20 cm for convenience. Calculate: a) the
mass of oil per pack (kgm), b) the mass of soap per pack (kgm),c) the weight of each pack (kgf),
d) the specific weight of grease (N/m3), e) will the grease float if it is placed in water whose
density is 1000 kgm/m3? Explain

4. A spherical tank 1 ft in diameter contains steam at 150 psia and 400 oF. If the mass of
steam is 0.165lbm:
a. Determine the specific volume of steam.
b. What is its specific weight if g = 30 ft/s2

5. A 12-m3 rigid tank of air is separated by a thin membrane into side A with a volume of 7
m3 and side B with an initial specific volume of 0.417 m3/kgm. The membrane is broken
and the resulting specific volume is 0.55 m3/kgm. Find the initial density of air inside A in
kg/m3.

6. Barometric Pressure is 29.89 in Hg. Convert the following

a. 68 psig to mm Hg absolute
b. 100 kPag to psia
c. 1000 mm Hg absolute to kPag
d. 5 psia to in Hg vacuum

7. A hiker is carrying a barometer that reads 101.3 kPaa at the base of the mountain. The
barometer reads 89 kPaa at the top of the mountain. If the average air density is 1.22
kgm/m3, determine the height of the mountain.

8. The pressure in the pressurized water tank is measured by a multi-fluid manometer with
one end open to the atmosphere. Determine the absolute pressure of air in the tank
(pressure at point 1) assuming that the air pressure is uniform. The densities of mercury,
water and oil are 13,600 kgm/m3, 1000 kgm/m3, 850 kgm/m3, respectively. h1 = 20 cm, h2 =
30 cm and h3 = 46 cm
9. A tank, initially empty, is in the form of a right circular cylinder with hemispherical ends.
The overall length of the tank is 3 meters and the diameter of the hemisphere is 1
meter. If a pump discharges a fluid, whose density is 1.2 kgm/Liter, in this tank at a rate
of 300 liters per minute determine a.) Weight of liquid inside the tank after 5 minutes,
b) total time to fill the tank

10. A 10 ft diameter x 15 ft height cylindrical tank is receiving water at the rate of 350 GPM
and discharging it through a 6-inch ID pipeline at a constant velocity of 5 ft/s. At a given
instant the tank is 2/3 full. Find the water level in the tank 15 minutes later.