Chapter 1

Introduction and
Fundamental Concepts
 Learning objectives
This chapter is intended to help you learn how to:
• Define a system that has clearly understood boundaries
• Define a process that has a clear beginning and end
• Identify systems and processes that fall into specific
categories, such as open, closed, isothermal, and
adiabatic
• Define equilibrium and steady state, including how they
are distinct from each other
 Thermodynamics means:
o Thermodynamics is the study of
energy and the ways in which it
can be used to improve the lives
of people around the world.

o It describes how thermal energy is

converted to and from other (Image credit: Carolyn Franks | Shutterstock )

forms of energy and how it affects

matter. Or transferred from one
object to another Electricity

Heat
o Chemical Engineer: the most
important problems to solve are
the determination of heat and Kinetics

work requirements, and the

determination of equilibrium
conditions.
 Definitions and Fundamental Concepts
System
Any part of the universe we choose
to study or analyze. A system may
be enclosed in real boundaries, or
the boundaries may be imaginary.
The boundaries may also either be
movable or rigid. A system should
always be DEFINED.
Surroundings
The remainder of the universe after
the system has been chosen. Only
the part that is affected by the
processes occurring within the
system is taken into consideration.
Boundary: separates system from
surroundings
Types of Systems

Open system
• Exchange of mass and energy with
surroundings is possible

Closed system
• No exchange of mass between a
system and the surroundings. Heat and
work may be exchanged, therefore
changes in Internal energy and volume
may occur.

Isolated system
• Can exchange neither energy nor
matter with its surroundings. This is a
system, which is totally unaffected by
the changes in its surroundings.
What type of system are shown below?
Types of Systems
Processes
The changes taking place within the system is referred to as a process.
(e.g. hydrocarbon fuel and oxygen in a combustion chamber)

Isothermal Process
• Any process occurring in a system taking place at a constant
temperature. To maintain the constant temperature, the system has
to exchange heat with the surroundings e.g. refrigerator

Adiabatic Process
• A process occurring in either an open or closed system without the
exchange of heat with the surroundings (Perfect insulation against
the flow of heat). NB: This does not mean that heat cannot be
generated within the system. Occurs under varying temperature.
Since no physical process can happen instantaneously and no
system can truly be perfectly insulated, a perfectly adiabatic
condition can never be achieved in reality. E.g. The turbines as they
utilize heat as a source to produce work, so any heat lost to the
surroundings would reduce their efficiency
Isobaric Process
• A system in which the pressure of the working fluid remains
constant from the initial to its final state. E.g. the boiling of water to
steam or the freezing of water to ice. In the process, a gas either
expands or contracts to maintain constant pressure

Isochoric Process
• A system in which the volume of the working fluid remains
constant from the initial to its final state. E.g. a nearly isochoric
process is a pressure cooker. When sealed closed, the volume
inside cannot change, so when heat is added both pressure and
temperature increase rapidly. In actuality, pressure cookers do
expand slightly, and some gas is released from a valve on top.

Isentropic Process
• A system in which no heat crosses the system boundary. The fluid
or gas entropy tends to be constant.
• NB: this process is thermodynamically reversible
Properties and Variables

State Variable
A variable whose value depends on
the state in which the system exists.
e.g. Temperature, Pressure, Volume

Path variable
Changes depend on the path traveled
by the system. These variables have
meaning only when applied to a
process in which a path exists between
two states and that path is specified.
e.g. Work, Heat
Extensive Property
A property which depends on the size of the system
e.g. Volume NB: When the system is
homogenous, an
extensive property can
be converted into an
intensive property by
dividing by the total
quantity of the system

Intensive Property
Properties which do not depend on the size of the system
e.g. Temperature, Pressure, Specific Volume
Equilibrium

Denotes a static condition, or the absence of change.

Thermodynamically speaking – the absence of any

tendency toward change on a macroscopic scale.

No change in state can occur.

Changes in state are caused by a driving force – therefore
there can be no driving force at equilibrium. All forces are
in exact balance at equilibrium.
Force
The SI unit of force is Newton and the symbol is N

F=ma
Force = mass x acceleration
N = kg x m/s2

The Newton is defined as the force which when applied to

a mass of 1kg produces an acceleration of 1m/s2.
Therefore 1N = 1kg.m.s-2.

1
In terms of Pound Force (lbf): F = ma
gc
a = 32.174 ft/s2, gc (dimensional constant) = 32.174
(lbm)(ft)(lbf)-1(s)-2
Conversion(s): 1 lbf = 4.4482216 N
Example 1
An astronaut weighs 730 N in Cape Town, where the local
acceleration of gravity is g = 9.792 m/s2. What are the
astronaut’s mass and weight on the moon, where g = 1.67
m/s2?
Solution
F = ma
F = mg
F 730
m= = = 74.55kg
g 9.792
weight of astronaut on moon is:

Example 2 F (moon) = mg = 74.55x1.67 = 124.5N

A block of iron weighs 1.120 lbf at a location on earth where

the acceleration due to gravity is 32.05 ft/s2. What would this
block weigh on the planet Krypton, where g = 260 ft/s2?
Solution
To find the mass of the block on earth
Fxgc 1.120x32.17
m= = = 1.124lb
g 32.05
The force of the block on Krypton is
mg 1.124x260
F= = = 9.084lb f
gc 32.17
Temperature
There are various definitions of temperature.

Temperature is a numerical measure of the degree of hotness

Temperature is a measure of the kinetic energy of a

homogenous set of molecules

S.I. Units: Kelvin and degree Celsius

British Units: Rankine and Fahrenheit

Conversions:
t ∘C = T (K) – 273.15
T (R) = 1.8 T (K)

t (∘ F) = T (R) – 459.67
t (∘ F) 1.8 t ∘ C + 32
VOLUME

Volume is a property associated with cubic measure.

S.I. Units: cubic meter (m3)

If the volume of a substance increases, the substance has

expanded
If the volume of a substance decreases, the substance has
been compressed
Pressure

Pressure is defined as force per unit area. If a force, F, is

applied to an area, A, and if this force is uniformly
distributed over the area, then the pressure, P, exerted is
given by the equation:
F
P=
A

If F is the force in Newton and A is the area in Meter

Square,
The unit of pressure is Newton/meter2 (N/m2): Basic S.I Unit

Other units: Pa = 1N/m2

1 Bar = 105 N/m2
Absolute pressures must be used in thermodynamic
calculations

Absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure + gauge

pressure

OR
Absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure – vacuum
pressure

Pressure is also expressed as the equivalent height of the

fluid column (i.e. manometers)
P = hπg
Example 3
A dead weight gauge with a 1cm diameter piston is used
to measure pressure very accurately. A mass of 6.14kg
(including piston and pan) brings it into balance. If the
local acceleration of gravity is 9.82 m/s2. What is the
gauge pressure being measured? If the barometric
pressure is 748 (torr), what is the absolute pressure?

Solution
F = mg = 6.14x9.82 = 60.295N
F 60.295
Gauge Pr essure = = = 76.77 N.cm −2
A (1/ 4)(ρχ )(1)2
The absolute pressure is therefore:
P = 76.77 + (748)(0.013332) = 86.47N.cm−2
Example 4
At 27 ∘C the reading on a manometer filled with mercury is
60.5cm. The local acceleration of gravity is 9.784m/s2. To
what pressure does this height of mercury correspond?

Example 5
A special manometer fluid has a specific gravity of 2.95
g/cm3 and is used to measure a pressure of 1.15 bar at a
location where the barometric pressure is 760 mmHg.
What height will the manometer fluid indicate? The
gravitational acceleration is 9.81 m/s2.