ME 231

THERMODYNAMICS 1

ENGR. EMMANUEL M. NADELA (M.ENG’G.ED.)

TOPIC 1
INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS
AND DEFINITIONS
THERMODYNAMICS ----- the branch
of physical sciences that is
concerned with the ways energy is
stored within a body and how
energy transformations, which
involve heat and work, may take
place.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
 TWO APPROACHES
1. MACROSCOPIC APPROACH:
 Concerned with the gross or overall
behavior of matter
 Based on a large no. of molecules
 Also termed Classical Thermodynamics
2. MICROSCOPIC APPROACH:
 Concerned directly with the molecular
structure of matter
 Based on the average behavior of groups
of individual molecules
 Also termed Statistical Thermodynamics
THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM:
--- comprises a device or
combination of devices
containing a quantity of matter
or a region in space chosen for
study.
 A THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM

SURROUNDINGS

SYSTEM

BOUNDARY
KINDS OF THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM

 CLOSED SYSTEM ( CONTROL MASS) :

NO transfer of mass across its boundary.
 Energy can flow across the boundary.
 OPEN SYSTEM ( CONTROL VOLUME):
 Mass and energy can flow across the
boundary.
 ISOLATED SYSTEM :
 Mass and energy cannot flow across the
boundary.
A THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM

SURROUNDINGS ENERGY

MASS
NO! (CLOSED) SYSTEM
YES! (OPEN)

BOUNDARY
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTY:
--- a macroscopic characteristic of
a system such as mass, volume,
pressure and temperature to
which a numerical value can be
assigned at a given time without
knowledge of the previous
behavior (history) of the system.
THERMODYNAMIC STATE:
• refers to the condition of a system as described
by its properties.
• a system is said to be at steady state if none of its
properties changes with time.
• is a point function, i.e., it is defined by at least
two independent properties.
• is defined only when the system is in equilibrium,
i.e., no change in the value of any property of the
system.
PROCESS :
• a transformation from one state to another ( a
change in state).
• occurs when any of the properties of a system
change.
• defined only when the system is not in
equilibrium.
•defined by its initial and final states.
THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE:

•a sequence of processes that begins and

ends at the same state.

•at the conclusion (final state) of a cycle all

properties have the same values they had at
the beginning (initial state).
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
OF A SYSTEM
 SPECIFIC VOLUME

ν = specific volume
ν = volume/mass = V/m = m3/kg
V = total volume, m3
ρ = density
ρ = mass/volume = m/V = kg/ m3
ν = 1/ρ
 SPECIFIC VOLUME
γ = specific weight=weight/vol
γ = Wt/V = mg/V = ρg = N/ m3

s.g. = specific gravity

= γf / γw
γf = specific weight of fluid
γw = specific weight of water
= 9.81 kN/m3
 EXAMPLE 1
Two liquids of different densities (ρ1 = 1500kg/m3, ρ2 = 500 kg/m3) were
poured together into a 100-liter container, filling it. If the resulting
density of the mixture is 800 kg/m 3 , find the respective amounts of
liquids used. Also, find the weight of the mixture; local g=9.675 m/s2.
 PRESSURE

P = Force/Area = F/A = N/m2 = lbs/in2 (psi)

N/m2 = Pascal (Pa)
kN/m2 = kiloPascal (kPa) = 1,000 Pa
1 Mpa = 1,000 kPa = 106 Pa
1 bar = 100 kPa
MEASURING ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

 BAROMETER = instrument used to measure

atmospheric pressure

 STANDARD ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE:

 Patm= 101.325 kPa ( at sea level)
 = 14.7 psi
 ABSOLUTE VS. GAGE PRESSURE
 ABSOLUTE PRESSURE --- pressure measured from absolute
zero ( the theoretical lower limit where molecules stop
moving).
 GAGE PRESSURE --- pressure measured by a gage reckoned
from the local atmospheric pressure.
 VACUUM PRESSURE ( Pvac) --- pressure below atmospheric
pressure; negative gage pressure.

 Pabs = Patm ± Pgage

 MANOMETERS
DEFINITION: A pressure-measuring device
consisting of a U-tube and a measuring fluid
such as mercury.
P = γh
P = gage pressure
γ = specific weight of the measuring fluid
h = height of the column of measuring fluid
EXAMPLE

If atmospheric pressure is 95.7 kPa and the

manometer attached to the tank reads 188 mm Hg
vacuum, find the absolute pressure within the tank.
Specific gravity of mercury is 13.6.
EXAMPLE
The figure shows a tank within a tank, each containing air.
Pressure gage A is located inside tank B and reads 1.4 bar.
The U-tube manometer connected to tank B contains
mercury. Using data on the diagram, determine the
absolute pressures inside tank A and tank B, each in bar.
The atmospheric pressure surrounding tank B is 101 kPa.
 TEMPERATURE

 TEMPERATURE --- measure of hotness/coldness of a

body; indicates how fast the molecules are
moving/vibrating.

 THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM --- when two bodies attain equal

temperature.
THERMOMETRIC PROPERTY --- a measurable
property that changes as its temperature changes.

THERMOMETRIC SUBSTANCE --- a particular

substance that exhibits changes in the
thermometric property.
 TEMPERATURE SCALES

THERMOMETRIC TEMPERATURE SCALE:

°C = 5/9 ( °F – 32 )
°F = 9/5 (°C) + 32
 TEMPERATURE SCALES
THERMODYNAMIC TEMPERATURE SCALE :

provides a continuous definition of temperature , valid over

all ranges of temperature, and does not depend on the
properties of any particular substance or class of
substances.
K = °C + 273.15
R = °F + 459.67
 TEMPERATURE SCALES
.

P
asA
g
B
A gas exerts no gas
pressure when at
absolute zero.
gas C

T (°C)
-273.15 °C 0 °C
EXAMPLE

A new absolute temperature scale is proposed. On

this scale the ice point of water is 150 S and the steam
point is 300 S. Determine the temperatures in ⁰C that
correspond to 100 and 400 S, respectively. What is the
ratio of the size of S to Kelvin.
ENERGY
 BASIC FORMS OF ENERGY
(ENERGY THAT CAN BE STORED)
1. (GRAVITATIONAL) POTENTIAL ENERGY: the energy that an
object possess at a height, z, above some zero reference
level.

PE = mgz , Joules

pe = gz , J/kg

m = total mass, kg

g = gravitational acceleration, m/s2

 BASIC FORMS OF ENERGY
(ENERGY THAT CAN BE STORED)

2. KINETIC ENERGY : energy by virtue of velocity

KE = ½mv2, Joules
ke = v2/2, J/kg
v = average velocity, m/s
 BASIC FORMS OF ENERGY
(ENERGY THAT CAN BE STORED)

3. INTERNAL ENERGY : the sum of the energies of all

molecules in a system, energies that appear in
several complex forms (mostly kinetic)

U = total internal energy, Joules

u = specific internal energy, J/kg

u = U/m
 BASIC FORMS OF ENERGY
(ENERGY THAT CANNOT BE STORED)

WORK
 the product of the displacement of the
body and the component of the force in
the direction of the displacement.

 WORK is energy in transition, i.e., it exists

only when a force is “moving through a
distance”.
SIGN CONVENTION FOR WORK

SURROUNDINGS

Win - SYSTEM Wout +

BOUNDARY
NET WORK
Wnet = ∑ Win - ∑ Wout

TWO FORMS OF NET WORK:

1. Boundary Work ( Wb) --- occurs because the mass of a system

causes a force to act on the boundary either to expand it ( closed
system) or to cross it (open system)

2. Shaft Work (Ws) --- work crossing the boundary in the form of a
rotating shaft or electrical work.
BOUNDARY WORK
BOUNDARY WORK
CLOSED SYSTEM ( NON-FLOW WORK):
 consider a constant pressure process
1W 2 =Fxd
1W 2 = pA x ∆s
1W 2 = p x ∆V
In differential form:
δW = p dV
Wnf = ∫pdV = non-flow work
δ = inexact differential ( process dependent)
∫pdV represents the area under the curve in the p-V plane
OPEN SYSTEM ( FLOW WORK):
Wf = flow work
Wf = pA x L
Wf = pL2 x L
Wf = pL3
Wf = pV
SHAFT WORK ( Ws)

THERMODYNAMIC DEFINITION OF WORK:

“ Work is done by a system on its
surroundings if the sole effect on
everything external to the system could
have been the raising of a weight.”
 BASIC FORMS OF ENERGY
(ENERGY THAT CANNOT BE STORED)

HEAT

 Energy in transit (flowing) from one body or system

to another solely because of a temperature
difference between the bodies or system.
 HEAT

UNITS FOR HEAT

SI SYSTEM:
1 calorie = the amount of heat required
to raise 1 gram of pure water from
14.5⁰C to 15.5⁰ C.

1 cal = 4.1868 J
 HEAT

UNITS FOR HEAT

ENGLISH SYSTEM:
Btu = British Thermal Unit
1 Btu = the amount of heat required to
raise 1 lbm of pure water from 59.5⁰F to
60.5⁰F.
1 Btu = 778.17 ft-lbf
SIGN CONVENTION FOR HEAT

SURROUNDINGS

Qin + SYSTEM Qout -

BOUNDARY
 HEAT
MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER:

1. CONDUCTION

 transfer of energy from the more energetic particles to

adjacent particles that are less energetic due to
interaction between particles.

 medium of exchange usually solid

 HEAT

MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER:

2. CONVECTION

 energy is transferred due to bulk motion of the fluid

because of differences in densities within the fluid

 medium of exchange usually a fluid

 HEAT
MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER:

3. RADIATION

 results from changes in the electronic configurations

of the molecules

 energy travels as electromagnetic waves

 no medium required; can take place even in

vacuum
To be continued…….
 TOPIC 2
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
STATEMENT:

“During any cycle a closed system (control

mass) undergoes, the cyclic integral of the
heat is proportional to the cyclic integral of
the work.”
 1

C
2

∮ �Q = ∮�W
� � � �
 �� �� + ��
��  �� �� + ��
��
- -
� � � �
 �� �� + ��
��  �� �� + ��
��

= � �
� �  �� - ��
 ��
�� - ��
�� �� ��
Rearranging,
� � � �
��
�� - ��
�� = ��
�� − �� ��
� �
��
(�� - �W) = ��
(�� - �W)
NOTE: (�Q - �W) does not depend on the
process, therefore it is a property.
This property is called ENERGY (E).
E = U + KE +PE , J or kJ
e = u + ke +pe , J/kg or kJ/kg
Therefore,
dE = (�Q - �W)
dE = (�Q - �W)
E 2 – E 1 = 1Q2 – 1W2
Δ E = 1Q2 – 1W2 , kJ
Δ e = 1q2 – 1w2 , kJ/kg
Rearranging,

1Q2 = ΔE + 1W2 , kJ

1Q2 = ΔU + ΔKE + ΔPE + 1W2 , kJ

1q2 = Δu + Δke + Δpe + 1w2 , kJ/kg

( First Law for a closed system)

 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

“ The net change of energy of the control

mass is always equal to the net transfer
of energy across the boundary as heat
and work.”
 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

“ Energy cannot be created nor

destroyed but can be transformed from
one form to another,”
EXAMPLE

A tank containing a fluid is stirred by a paddle wheel.

The work input to the paddle wheel is 5090 kJ. The
heat transfer from the tank is 1500 kJ. Consider the
tank and the fluid inside a control surface and
determine the change in internal energy of this
control mass.
 1500kJ

5090 kJ

1Q2 = ΔU + ΔKE + ΔPE + 1W2

Assuming no changes in kinetic and potential
energy:
(- 1500)= ΔU +0 +0 + (- 5090)
EXAMPLE
Consider a stone having a mass of 10 kg and a liquid
bucket containing 100 kg of liquid water. Initially, the
stone is 10.2 m above the water, and the stone and the
water are at the same temperature , state 1. The stone
then falls into the water.
Determine ∆U, ∆KE, ∆PE, Q and W for the following
changes of state:
a.) the stone is about to enter the water, state 2
b.) the stone has just come to rest in the bucket, state 3
c.) heat has been transferred to the surroundings in an
amount that the stone and water are at the same
temperature, T1, state 4.
 At pt.1: Temp now is higher than
PE1 = mgh surrounding, so heat will be
= 10(9.81)(10.2) rejected until system goes
10 kg = 1 kJ back to original temp T1
KE1 = 0 (equal to T4):
1 U1
SURROUNDINGS First Law:
At pt.2: (ref.elev)
3Q4 = (U4-U3) +(KE4-KE3)
First Law: (PE4-PE3) + 3W4
1Q2 = (U2-U1) +(KE2-KE1) = (U4-U3) + 0 + 0 +0
(PE2-PE1) + 1W2 but U4 = U1 = U2
= 10.2 m 0 = 0+(KE2 -0)+(0-1)+0
3Q4 = (U2-U3)
KE2 = 1 kJ
3Q4 = - 1 kJ (rejected)
U2 = U1
At pt. 3:
First Law:
2
2Q3 = (U3-U2) +(KE3-KE2)
100 kg (PE3-PE2) + 2W3
3
0 = (U3-U2) +(0-1) + 0 +0
(U3-U2) = 1 kJ
Temp increases to T3
FIRST LAW FOR OPEN SYSTEMS
STEADY STATE, STEADY FLOW (SSSF) PROCESS:
1. There is neither accumulation nor diminution of
mass within the system.
2. There is neither accumulation nor diminution of
energy within the system.
3. The state of the working substance at any point
in the system remains constant with time.
mcv Ecv
 MASS BALANCE

Δmcv = min - mout = 0

min = mout
∑ min = ∑ mout
Mass entering = Mass leaving
 ENERGY BALANCE

ΔEcv = Ein - Eout = 0

Ein = Eout
∑ Ein = ∑ Eout
Energy entering = Energy leaving
 U2
P2V2
KE2
U1 PE2
P1V1
KE1
PE1
 ENERGY BALANCE
Energy entering = Energy leaving
U1 + P1V1 + KE1 + PE1 + 1Q2 = U2 + P2V2 + KE2 + PE2 + W2

H1+ KE1 + PE1 + 1Q2 = H2+ KE2 + PE2 + 1W2

1 Q2 = ∆H + ∆KE ∆PE + 1W2

1 q2 = ∆h + ∆ke ∆pe + 1w2

( First Law for an open system )

EXAMPLE
A turbine operates under steady flow conditions receiving steam
at the following state: p=1.2 mPa, t=188⁰C, h=2785 kJ/kg,
speed=33.3 m/s and elevation =3 m. The steam leaves the
turbine at the following state: p=20 kPa, h=2512 kJ/kg,
speed=100 m/s and elevation=0 m. Heat is lost to the
surroundings at the rate of 0.29 kW. If the rate of steam flow
through the turbine is 0.42 kg/s, what is the power output of the
turbine in kW?
P1 = 1.2 MPa
t1 = 188°C · =0.42 kg/s ·
h1= 2785 kJ/kg
V1=33.3 m/s
m s
Q = - 0.29 kW
Z1=3 m

P2 = 20 kPa
h1= 2512 kJ/kg
V1=100 m/s
Z1=0 m
SOLUTION:
FIRST LAW: (SSSF)
1Q2 = ms (Δh + Δke + Δpe ) + 1Ẃ2
��� −��� (���)� −(��.�)�
Δke = = = 4.45 kJ/kg
� �(����)
�.��(�−�)
Δpe = g(z2 – z1) = = - 0.029 kJ/kg
����
- 0.29 kw = 0.42 { (2512-2784) + 4.45 – 0.029} + 1Ẃ2
- 1Ẃ2 = + 113.1 kw (output)
EXAMPLE
An air compressor receives 272 kg/min of air at 99.29 kPa
and a specific volume of 0.026 m 3 /kg. The air flows steady
through the compressor and is discharged at 689.5 kPa and
0.0051 m3/kg. The initial internal energy of the air is 1594
J/kg; at discharge, the internal energy is 6241 J/kg. The
cooling water circulated around the cylinder carries away
4383 J/kg of heat. The change in kinetic energy is 896 J/kg
increase. Compute the power required by the compressor.
 AIR
272 kg/min
P1 = 99.29 kPa
Ʊ1 = 0.026 m3/kg
u1= 1594 J/kg Q = - 4383 J/kg
Δke = +896 J/kg

272 kg/min

P2 = 689.5 kPa
Ʊ1 = 0.0051 m3/kg
u1= 6241 J/kg
 SOLUTION :
Basis: 1 kg
FIRST LAW : (SSSF)
1q2 = Δh + Δke + Δpe + 1w2
1q2 = (Δu +Δpʊ) + Δke + 0 + 1w2
= (u2-u1) + (p2ʊ2 – p1ʊ1) + Δke + 1w2
4383 = (6241-1594) + [(689.5)(0.0051) – (99.29)(0.026)] + 896 + 1w2
1w2 = - 10,861 J/kg = - 10.86 kJ/kg
� ���
1Ẃ2 = 272 kg/min x
�� ���
x (- 10.86 kJ/kg) = - 49.2 kw
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
PROBLEM: A closed system of mass 5 kg undergoes a process in which
there is work of magnitude 9 kJ to the system from the surroundings. The elevation of the system
increases by 700 m during the process. The specific internal energy of the system decreases by 6
kJ/kg and there is no change in kinetic energy of the system. The acceleration of gravity is constant at g
9.6 m/s2. Determine the heat transfer, in kJ.

PROBLEM: A closed system of mass 20 kg undergoes a process in which there is a

heat transfer of 1000 kJ from the system to the surroundings. The work done on the system is
200 kJ. If the initial specific internal energy of the system is 300 kJ/kg, what is the final
specific internal energy, in kJ/kg? Neglect changes in kinetic and potential energy.
 TOPIC 3
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
. Heat Engines
It is easy to produce thermal energy using work, but
how does one produce work using thermal energy?
This is a heat engine;
mechanical energy can
be obtained from thermal
energy only when heat
can flow from a higher
temperature to a lower
temperature
 HEAT ENGINE

HEAT ENGINE --- a system that operates in a

cycle and performs a net positive work
and a net positive heat transfer.

THERMAL EFFICIENCY

e = (W/QH) = [(QH - QC)/QH] = 1- QC/QH

EXAMPLE

An automobile engine produces 136 hp on the

output shaft with a thermal efficiency of 30%. The
heating value of the fuel is 35,000 kJ/kg. Find the
total rate of energy rejected to the ambient air and
the rate of fuel consumption in kg/s.
SOLUTION
W = 136 hp x 0.746 KW/hp = 101 KW
QH = W/ꞑ = 101/0.30 = 337 KW
QL = QH – W = 337 – 101 = 236 KW
QH = m kg/s x HHV KJ/kg
337 = m (35,000)
m = 0.0095 kg/s
 REFRIGERATOR(HEAT PUMP)

REFRIGERATOR --- a system that operates in a cycle

and has heat transferred to it from a low-
temperature body and heat transferred from it to a
high temperature body, though work is required to
do this.
Refrigerators, Air Conditioners, and Heat Pumps
These appliances can be thought of as heat engines
operating in reverse.
By doing work, heat is
extracted from the cold
reservoir and exhausted
to the hot reservoir.
 REFRIGERATOR(HEAT PUMP)

COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE (COP)

(COP)R = QL/W

(COP)HP = QH/W
EXAMPLE
The refrigerator in a kitchen, as shown, receives an electrical
input power of 150 W to drive the system and rejects 400 W to
the kitchen air. Find the rate of energy taken out of the cold
space and the coefficient of performance of the refrigerator.

SOLUTION:
QL = QH – W = 400 – 150 = 250 watts
COP = QL / W = 250/150 = 1.67
Refrigerators, Air Conditioners, and Heat Pumps
Refrigerators, Air Conditioners, and Heat Pumps
A heat pump can heat a house in the winter:
THERMAL RESERVOIR --- a body TO which
and FROM which heat can be
transferred indefinitely without change in
the temperature of the reservoir.

1. HEAT SOURCE --- reservoir FROM which heat

is transferred.

2. HEAT SINK --- reservoir TO which heat is

transferred
STATEMENTS OF THE SECOND LAW
KELVIN-PLANCK STATEMENT:
“ It is impossible to construct a device that will
operate in a cycle and produce no effect other
than the raising of a weight and the exchange of
heat with a single reservoir.”
(RESTATED: It is impossible to construct a heat engine whose thermal
efficiency is 100%.)
 Heat Engines

Hot Reservoir, TH Hot Reservoir, TH

QH QH
W W
Engine Engine
QC QC = 0

Cold Reservoir, TC Cold Reservoir, TC

Real engine. QH = QC + W Impossible engine. QH = W
The Second Law Applied to Heat Engines
STATEMENTS OF THE SECOND LAW

CLAUSIUS STATEMENT:
“ It is impossible to construct a device that will
operate in a cycle and produce no effect other than
the transfer of heat from a cooler body to a hotter
body.”
(RESTATED: It is impossible to construct a refrigerator without a work input.
 Refrigerators

Hot Reservoir, TH Hot Reservoir, TH

QH QH
W W=0
Engine Engine
QC QC

Cold Reservoir, TC Cold Reservoir, TC

Real fridge. QC + W = QH Impossible fridge. QC = QH
The Second Law Applied to Refrigerators
SSOSOURCE
(Impossible device))
REVERSIBLE PROCESS --- a process that once
having taken place can be reversed and in
so doing leave no change in either system or
surroundings.
FACTORS THAT RENDER PROCESSES IRREVERSIBLE
1. Friction

2. Unrestrained expansion of a fluid

3. Heat transfer through a finite temperature difference

4. Mixing of two different substances

5. Spontaneous chemical reactions

6. Electric current flow through a resistance

7. Many other factors ….

 CARNOT CYCLE

1-2 : Reversible Adiabatic (Q=O)Compression

2-3 : Reversible Isothermal Heat Addition

3-4 : Reversible Adiabatic Expansion

4-1 : Reversible Isothermal Heat Rejection

THERMAL EFFICIENCY OF THE CARNOT CYCLE:
Q = f(T)
QH/QL = TH/TL
e = W/QH
e = (QH – QL) / QH
e = 1 - QL/QH
e = 1 - TL/TH
 TWO PROPOSITIONS REGARDING
EFFICIENCY OF CARNOT CYCLE

1. It is impossible to construct an engine that operates

between two given reservoirs and is more efficient
than a reversible engine operating between the same
two reservoirs.
 TWO PROPOSITIONS REGARDING
EFFICIENCY OF CARNOT CYCLE

2. All engines that operate on the Carnot cycle

between two given constant-temperature
reservoirs have the same efficiency.
EXAMPLE

Consider the heat engine, as shown, that receives a heat

transfer rate of 1 MW at a high temperature of 550°C and
rejects energy to the ambient surroundings at 300K.Work is
produced at a rate of 450 KW.. How much energy is
discarded to the surroundings and the engine efficiency and
compare both to a Carnot heat engine operating between
the same two reservoirs.
SOLUTION
QL = QH – W = 1,000 – 450 =550 KW
ꞑ = W/QH = 450 / 1000 = 0.45
For Carnot Cycle:
ꞑc = 1 – TL/TH = 1 – 300/ (550+273) = 0.635
W = ꞑC x Q H = 0.635 X 1000 = 635 KW
QL = QH – W = 1,000 – 635 = 365 KW
 ENTROPY
WASTE HEAT --- the amount of heat that is not converted to
work

ENTROPY (S) :
 a measure of how much energy is unavailable for
conversion to work
 a measure of the disorder in a system
 points out the forward direction of the flow of events
 STATEMENTS ON ENTROPY

1. “ Natural processes go in a direction that

maintains or increases the total entropy of the
universe.”
2. “ When all systems taking part in a process are
included the total entropy either remains constant if
the process is reversible or increases if the process
is irreversible.”
CLAUSIUS INEQUALITY

= for reversible process

< for irreversible process
 ENTROPY

ds = (δq/T)rev , kJ/kg-K

∆s =∫(δq/T)rev = 1q2/T
PRINCIPLE OF INCREASE OF ENTROPY :

(ds)univ ≥ 0

(∆s)univ ≥ 0

> : Irreversible

= : Reversible

< : Impossible
EXAMPLE

A block of ice at 0°C is placed on a concrete floor

which has a constant temperature of 25.5°C. The ice
melts as it absorbs 2.09 x 106 J of heat. What is the
change in entropy of the ice ? Of the floor? Of the
universe?
 SECOND LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS:

“Entropy can be created but cannot be

destroyed.”
 Second Law of
Thermodynamics
IN SUMMARY:
 The entropy change (Q/T) of the (universe) system +
surroundings  0
 never <0
 order to disorder
The entropy of the universe increases whenever an
irreversible process occurs. All real processes in nature
are irreversible.
 Second Law of Thermodynamics
 Consequences:
A “disordered” state cannot spontaneously transform into
an more “ordered” state.
 No engine operating between two reservoirs can be
more efficient than one that produces zero change in
entropy. The latter is called a “Carnot engine” (no real
engine can ever be perfectly reversible but Carnot is a
useful idealization, since it represents the limiting case) .
 Heat cannot be transferred spontaneously from cold to
hot.
THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

“ The entropy of a perfect crystal is zero

at absolute zero temperature.”
Consider a hypothetical device that takes 1000 J of heat from a hot reservoir
at 300K, ejects 200 J of heat to a cold reservoir at 100K, and produces 800
J of work.
Does this device violate the first law of thermodynamics ?
1. Yes
2. No correct
This device doesn't violate the first law of
thermodynamics because no energy is being created
nor destroyed. All the energy is conserved.

l W (800) = Qhot (1000) - Qcold (200)

l Efficiency = W/Qhot = 800/1000 = 80%
Consider a hypothetical device that takes 1000 J of heat from a hot reservoir
at 300K, ejects 200 J of heat to a cold reservoir at 100K, and produces 800
J of work.
Does this device violate the second law of thermodynamics ?
1. Yes correct
2. No

l W (800) = Qhot (1000) - Qcold (200)

. l Efficiency = W/Qhot = 800/1000 = 80%
l Max eff = 1 - 100/300 = 67% = eCarnot
l e > eCarnot is forbidden by second law :

D S = DSH+DSC=200/100 J/K– 1000/300 J/K < 0

Consider a hypothetical refrigerator that takes 1000 J of heat from a cold
reservoir at 100K and ejects 1200 J of heat to a hot reservoir at 300K.

1. How much work does the refrigerator do? Answers:

2. What happens to the entropy of the universe? 200 J
3. Does this violate the 2nd law of thermodynamics? Decreases
yes

QC = 1000 J Since QC + W = QH, W = 200 J

QH = 1200 J

DSH = QH/TH = (1200 J) / (300 K) = 4 J/K

DSC = -QC/TC = (-1000 J) / (100 K) = -10 J/K
DSTOTAL = DSH + DSC = -6 J/K  decreases (violates 2nd law)
 TOPIC 4
IDEAL GAS LAWS AND PROCESSES
 IDEAL GAS LAWS

BOYLE’S LAW: T=C

“If the temperature of a given quantity of
gas is held constant, the volume of the
gas varies inversely with the absolute
pressure.”

pV = constant
 IDEAL GAS LAWS
CHARLES’ LAW (GAY-LUSSAC’S LAW ): P=C
“If the absolute pressure of a given quantity
of gas is held constant, the volume of the gas
varies directly with the absolute temperature.”

T/V = constant
 IDEAL GAS LAWS
CHARLES’ LAW (GAY-LUSSAC’S LAW ): V=C
“If the volume of a given quantity of gas is
held constant, the absolute pressure of the
gas varies directly with the absolute
temperature.”

T/p = constant
 EQUATION OF STATE
P

P1=Pa 1
a

υa = υ2 υ
T1(υa / υ1) = T2(Pa / P2)
1 a (P=C) T1(υ2 / υ1) = T2(P1 / P2)
T1/Ta = υ1 / υa P1 υ1/ T1 = P2 υ2/ T2
Ta = T1(υa / υ1) P υ/ T = constant = R
a 2 (υ = c) P υ = RT
Ta/T2 = Pa / P2 P (V/m) = RT
P V = mRT
Ta = T2(Pa / P2)
 IDEAL GAS EQUATION
pV = mRT
pʊ = RT
p = pressure, kPa
V = total volume, m3
ʊ = specific volume, m3/kg
R = specific gas constant, kJ/kg-K
T = absolute temperature, K
SPECIFIC GAS CONSTANT
R = Ṝ/M
Ṝ = universal gas constant
= 8.3143 J/gmole-K
= 1545.32 ft-lb/pmole-R
= 1.9859 Btu/pmole-R
M = molecular mass , g/gmole
(from Periodic Table)
 SPECIFIC HEAT
SPECIFIC HEAT --- the quantity of heat required to change
the temperature of a unit mass through one degree.

1. CONSTANT VOLUME SPECIFIC HEAT ( Cv):

Cv = du/dT , kJ/kg-K
du = CvdT
∫du = Cv ∫dT
Δu = Cv ΔT = Cv (T2 – T1)
u2 – u1 = CvT2 – CvT1
u = Cv T , kJ/kg
 SPECIFIC HEAT
2. CONSTANT PRESSURE SPECIFIC HEAT ( Cp):
Cp = dh/dT , kJ/kg-K
dh = CpdT
∫dh = Cp ∫dT
Δh = Cp ΔT = Cp (T2 – T1)
h2 – h1 = CpT2 – CpT1
h = Cp T , kJ/kg

3. SPECIFIC HEAT RATIO (k):

k = CP/ Cv
 SPECIFIC HEAT RELATIONS
h=u + pυ Cp = Cv + R Cp = Cv + R
h=u + RT Cp = Cp/k + R kCv = Cv + R
Cp – Cp/k = R kCv – Cv = R
CpT = CvT + RT Cp (1 – 1/k) = R Cv = R/(k-1)
Cp = Cv +R Cp ( k-1)/k = R
Cp = kR/(k-1)
 SPECIFIC HEAT

SPECIFIC HEAT RELATIONS:

CP = CV + R
CP = kR/(k-1)
Cv = R/(k-1)
JOULE’S LAW:
The change of internal energy of an ideal
gas is a function of only the temperature
change.

Δu = f(T)
EXAMPLE

What should be the volume of a methane tank to

hold 10 kg of methane (CH4) at 1,500 kPa and 30°C?
If the temperature drops to 0°C, what will be the
pressure?
SOLUTION
R = 8.3143/(12 + 4) = 0.5196 kJ/kg-K
V1 = mRT1/P1 = 10(0.5196)(30+273) / 1500 = 1.05 m3
P2 = mRT2/V2 = 10(0.5196)(0+273)/1.05 = 1,351 kPa
OR,
For V=C:
P2/ P1 = T2/T1
P2 = P1(T2/T1) = 1500 (273/303) = 1,351 kPa
EXAMPLE

A gas, initially at p1 = 517.2 kPa and V1 = 142 liters,

undergoes a process to p2 = 172.4 kPa and V2 =274 liters
during which the enthalpy decreases 65.4 kJ. The specific
heats are constant; cv = 3.157 kJ/kg-K. Determine :
a) ΔU
b) cp
c) R
SOLUTION
a) Δ H= ΔU + ΔPV
ΔU = ΔH – ΔPV = (-65.4) – [172.4(0.274) – 517.2(0.142) = -39.2 kJ
b) Δh = Cp ΔT Cp = Cv ( Δh/Δu) = 3.157 (-65.4/ -39.2) = 5.26 kJ/kg-
K
Δu = CvΔ T
c) Cp = Cv + R
R = Cp – Cv = 5.26 – 3.157 = 2.103 kJ/kg-K
EXAMPLE
PROBLEM:

For a certain gas R=320 J/kg-K and Cv = 0.84 kJ/kg-K.

a.) Find Cp and k

b.) If 5 kg of this gas undergo a reversible non-flow constant-

pressure process from V1 = 1.133 m3 and p1 = 690 kPa to a
state where t2 = 555 ⁰C, find ∆U and ∆H.
SOLUTION
a) Cp = Cv + R = 0.84 + 0.32 = 1.16 kJ/kg
k = R/Cv + 1 = (0.32/0.84) + 1 = 1.381
OR,
k = Cp/Cv = 1.16/0.84 = 1.381
b) P1V1 = mRT1
690(1.133) = 5 (0.320) T1
T1 = 488.6 K
ΔU = mCv(T2-T1) = 5 (0.84) (828 -488.6) = 1425.5 kJ
ΔH = mCp (T2-T1) = 5 (1.16) (828 -488.6) = 1968.5 kJ
 EXAMPLE
PROBLEM:

Two vessels A and B of different sizes are connected by a

pipe with a valve. Vessel A contains 142 liters of air at 2,767.92
kPa, 93.33 °C. Vessel B, of unknown volume, contains air at
68.95 kPa, 4.44 °C. The valve is opened and, when the
properties have been determined, it is found that pm =
1,378.96 kPa, tm = 43.33°C. What is the volume of vessel B?
SOLUTION
mm = mA + mB
PmVm/RTm = PAVA/RTA + PBVB/RTB
1378.96 (Vm)/316.33 = 2767.92(VA)/366.33 + 68.95(VB)/277.44
4.36 Vm = 1072.9 + 0.25 VB
But Vm = VA + VB
Vm = 142 + VB
4.36 (142 + VB) = 1072.9 + 0.25 VB
VB = 110.4 liters
 ENTROPY OF AN IDEAL GAS
Consider a reversible, non-flow process:
Δe = 1q2 – 1w2
Δu + Δke + Δpe = 1q2 – 1w2
1q2 = Δu + 1w2
In differential form:
∂q = du + ∂w
But ds = (∂q/T)rev and ∂w = pdv
Tds = du + pdv
ds = du/T + pdv/T
But p/T = R/v and du = Cv dT
ds = Cv(dT/T) + R(dv/v)
∫ds = Cv ∫(dT/T) + R ∫(dv/v)
Δs = Cv ln (T2/T1) + R ln (v2/v1)
h = u + pv
dh = du + d(pv)
dh = du + pdv + vdp
du + pdv = dh – vdp
Tds = dh –vdp
ds =dh/T – vdp/T
But v/T = R/p and dh = CpdT
ds = CpdT /T – (v/T)dp
ds = Cp(dT /T) – (R/p)dp
∫ds = Cp ∫(dT /T) – R ∫(dp/p)
Δs = Cp ln (T2/T1) - R ln (p2/p1)
ENTROPY OF AN IDEAL GAS

∆s = Cv ln (T2/T1) + R ln (ν2/ν1)

∆s = Cp ln (T2/T1) - R ln (p2/p1)
EXAMPLE

An ideal Carnot cycle with air (R=0.287 kJ/kg-K) in a

piston cylinder has a high temperature of 1200 K and
a heat rejected at 400 K. During the heat addition , the
volume triples. Find the two heat transfers (q) in the
cycle and the over-all cycle efficiency.
SOLUTION
qH = TH (ΔS)
Δs = Cv ln (T2/T1) + R ln (v2/v1)
Δs = 0 + 0.287 ln(3) = 0.3153 kJ/kg-K
qH = 1200 (0.3153) = 378.4 kJ/kg
qL = TL (ΔS) = 400 (- 0.3153) = - 126.1 kJ/kg
ꞑc = 1 – qL/qH = 1 – 126.1/378.4 = 0.667 = 66.7%
OR,
ꞑc = 1 – TL/TH = 1 – 400/1200 = 0.667 = 66.7%
IDEAL GAS
PROCESSES
1. CONSTANT VOLUME (V=C) PROCESS

1.1.) p-v-t Relations:

T2/T1 = p2/p1

1.2.) Non-flow Work:

Wnf = ∫ pdv = 0

1.3.) Change in Internal Energy

∆U = mCv(T2-T1) , kJ
∆u = Cv(T2-T1) , kJ/kg
1. CONSTANT VOLUME (V=C) PROCESS

1.4.) Heat Transferred:

Q = ΔU + Wnf
Q = m Cv(T2-T1) , kJ

1.5.) Change in Enthalpy:

∆H = mCp(T2-T1) , kJ

1.6.) Change in Entropy:

∆S = m Cv ln(T2/T1) , kJ/K
2. CONSTANT PRESSURE (P=C) PROCESS
2.1.) p-v-t Relations:
T2/T1 = V2/V1

2.2.) Non-flow Work:

Wnf = ∫ pdv = p∆V = P2V2 - P1V1
= mRT2 – mRT1= mR∆T

2.3.) Change in Internal Energy

∆U = mCv(T2-T1) , kJ
2. CONSTANT PRESSURE (P=C) PROCESS
2.4.) Heat Transferred:
Q = ΔU + Wnf
Q = mCvΔT + mRΔT
Q = m(Cv + R) ΔT
Q = m Cp(T2-T1) , kJ
2.5.) Change in Enthalpy:
∆H = mCp(T2-T1) , kJ
2.6.) Change in Entropy:
∆S = = m Cp ln(T2/T1) , kJ/K
3. CONSTANT TEMPERATURE (T=C) PROCESS
3.1.) p-v-t Relations: (PV=C)
P1 V1 = P2V2 = C

3.2.) Non-flow Work:

Wnf = ∫ pdv = ∫(C/V)dv = C∫dv/V
= P1V1 ln(V2/V1)
= mRT1 ln(P1/P2)
3.3.) Change in Internal Energy
∆U = 0
3. CONSTANT TEMPERATURE (T=C) PROCESS

3.4.) Heat Transferred:

Q = Wnf = ∫ pdʊ= P1V1 ln(V2/V1) , kJ
= mRT1 ln(P1/P2) , kJ
3.5.) Change in Enthalpy:
∆H = 0
3.6.) Change in Entropy:
∆S = = mR ln(V2/V1) , kJ/K
4. CONSTANT ENTROPY (S=C) PROCESS
( Reversible Adiabatic Process)

4.1.) p-v-t Relations: (PVk = C)

P1 V1k = P2V2k
T2/T1 = (V1/V2)k-1
= (P2/P1)(k-1)/k
4.2.) Non-flow Work:
P = C/Vk = CV-k
Wnf = ∫ PdV = ∫ CV-k dV = C ∫V-k dV = PVk ∫V-k dV
= PVk [V1-k /(1-k)] = PV/(1-k)
Wnf = (P2V2 – P1V1)/(1-k)
Wnf = mR(T2-T1)/(1-k)
4. CONSTANT ENTROPY (S=C) PROCESS
( Reversible Adiabatic Process)
4.3.) Change in Internal Energy
∆U = mCv(T2-T1) , kJ
4.4.) Heat Transferred:
Q=0
4.5.) Change in Enthalpy:
∆H = mCp(T2-T1) , kJ
4. CONSTANT ENTROPY (S=C) PROCESS
( Reversible Adiabatic Process)
4.6.) Change in Entropy:
∆S = 0
4.7.) Steady-flow Work : PVk = C
∂q = dh + dke + dpe + ∂wsf C/P = Vk
0 = dh + 0 + 0 + ∂wsf V = (C/P)1/k
∂wsf = -dh wsf = - Δh= h1 – h2 wsf = - ∫vdp = -∫(C1/k / P1/k )dP
∂q = du + d (pv)+ dke + dpe + ∂wsf =-C1/k (P-1/k)dP
Integrating fully:
∂q = du + pdv + vdp + ∂wsf
wsf = k(P2V2 – P1V1)/(1-k)
Tds = Tds + vdp + ∂wsf = k(mR)( T2 – T1) / (1-k)
∂wsf = - vdp = k(Wnf)
wsf = - ∫vdp
5. POLYTROPIC PROCESS
5.1.) p-v-t Relations:
P1 V1n = P2V2n
T2/T1 =(V1/V2)n-1
=(P2/P1)(n-1)/n
5.2.) Non-flow Work:
Wnf = (P2V2 – P1V1)/(1-n)
= mR(T2-T1)/(1-n)
5.3.) Change in Internal Energy
∆U = mCv(T2-T1) , kJ
5. POLYTROPIC PROCESS

5.4.) Heat Transferred:

Q = mCn(T2-T1) , kJ
where Cn = CV (k-n/1-n)

5.5.) Change in Enthalpy:

∆H = m Cp (T2-T1) , kJ

5.6.) Change in Entropy:

ΔS = m Cn ln(T2/T1) , kJ/K
EXAMPLE 1:

A perfect gas has a value of R = 319.2 J/kg-K and k = 1.26.

If 120 kJ of heat are added to 2.27 kg of this gas at constant
pressure when the initial temperature is 32.2 °C, find:
a.) T2
b.) ΔH
c.) ΔU
d.) Wnf
SOLUTION :
�� �.��(�.����)
a) Cp = = =1.5469 kJ/kg-K
�−� �.��−�

Q = m Cp (T2 – T1)

120 = 2.27 (1.5469) ( T2 – 305.2 K) T2 = 339.4 K

b) ΔH = m Cp( T2 – T1) = Q = 120kJ

� �.����
c) Cv = = = 1.2277 kJ/kg-K
�−� �.�� −�

ΔU = m Cv (T2 – T1) = 2.27(1.2277)(339.4-305.2) = 95.3 kJ

d) Wnf = mR (T2-T1) = 2.27 (0.3192)(339.4-305.2) = 24.78 kJ

EXAMPLE 2:
A closed constant-volume system receives 10.5 kJ of
paddle work. The system containing oxygen at 344 kPa,
278 K, and occupies 0.06 m3. Find the heat gain (or loss) if
the final temperature is 400K.

For oxygen, Cv = 0.6595 KJ/kg-K

R = 259.9 J/Kg-K
SOLUTION :

���� (���)(�.��)
m= = = 0.2857 kg
��� (���.�)(���)
ΔU = m Cv ΔT
= 0.2857(0.6595)(400-278)
= 22.99 kJ
Q = ΔU + W
= 22.99 + (- 10.5)
= + 12.49 kJ (gain)
 EXAMPLE 3 :
A 0.20 kg/s of air (R = 0.27 kJ/kg-K) are compressed
isothermally from P1 = 100 kPa and V1 = 0.15 m3/s to P2 = 700 kPa.
Determine the work in KW for non-flow, and for steady flow
process. For steady flow process, initial and final velocities are V1
= 15 m/s and V2 = 60 m/s respectively.
SOLUTION :
a) For non-flow process:

Wnf = p1V1 ln(p1/p2) = 100(0.15) ln(100/700) = -29.2 kW

ΔS = - mR ln( p2/p1) = - (0.20 kg)(0.287) ln(700/100) = - 0.1117 kJ/K

b) For steady-flow process:

Q = ΔH + ΔKE + ΔPE + Wsf

Wnf = 0 + ΔKE + 0 + Wsf

(��)� −(��)�
Wsf = Wnf + KE1 – KE2 = -29.2 Kw + (0.20 kg/s)( ) = - 29.56 kW
����
EXAMPLE 4 :

Air ( k = 1.4) in a piston-cylinder occupies an initial volume

of 0.15 m3 at a pressure of 560 kPa. The air expands in a
reversible adiabatic process. Air doing the work on the piston
caused the volume to increase until it reaches 0.30 m3.
Determine the work in the system.
SOLUTION :
���� −����
Wnf =
�−�

(p2/p1)(k-1)/k = (V1/V2)k-1

(p2/560)(1.4-1)/1.4 = (0.15/0.30)1.4-1

p2 = 212.2 kPa

���� −���� (���.�)(�.��)−(���)(�.��)

Wnf = = = 50.8 kJ
�−� �−�.�
 EXAMPLE 5 :
Air is polytropically compressed in a cylinder according to
pV1.3 = C. The work required is 190 kJ. Determine:

a.) the change in internal energy

b.) the heat transferred

For air: Cv = 0.7186 kJ/kg-K

R = 0.287 kJ/kg-K

k = 1.4
SOLUTION :
���
a) Wnf =
�−�

���(�−�) (−���)(�−�.�)
ΔT = =
�� �(�.���)

(−���)(�−�.�)
ΔU = m Cv ΔT = m(0.7186)( ) = 142.7 kJ
�(�.���)

b) Q = m Cn ΔT

�−�) �.�−�.�)
Cn = Cv ( ) = (0.7186) ( ) = - 0.2395 kJ/kg-kg
�−�) �−�.�)

(−���)(�−�.�)
Q = m (- 0.2395) ( ) = - 47.6 kJ
�(�.���)
EXAMPLE 6 :

A 1-hp stirring motor is applied to a tank containing 22.7 kg

of water. The stirring action is applied for 1 hour and the tank
loses 850 kJ/h of heat. Calculate the rise in temperature of
the tank after 1 hour, assuming that the process occurs at
constant volume and that Cv for water is 4.187 kJ/kg-K.
SOLUTION :

Q = (-850 kJ/h)(1 hr) = - 850 kJ

W = (- 1 hp x 0.746) = (-0.746kJ/s x 3600 s) = - 2685.6 kJ
Q = ΔU + W
ΔU = Q – W = (-850) – (-2685.6) = 1835.6 kJ
ΔU = m Cv ΔT
ΔU ����.�
ΔT = = = 19.3 K
��� (��.�)(�.���)
EXAMPLE 7 :
Helium ( Cv = 3.1233 kJ/kg-K, R = 2.07767 kJ/kg-K, k = 1.666 )
expands polytropically through a turbine according to PV1.3 = C.
The inlet temperature and pressure is measured to be 1200 K
and 800 kPa, respectively. The helium exits the turbine at a
pressure of 160 kPa. If the turbine produces 30 MW, determine:

a.) exit temperature, K

b.) mass flow rate of helium, kg/s

c.) the heat transferred, KW

SOLUTION :
a) T2/T1 = (P2/P1)(n-1)/n
T2/1200 = (160/800)(1.3-1)/1.3
T2 = 827.7 K
b) Q = m Cn ΔT
�−� �.���−�.�
Cn = Cv ( ) = 3.1233 ( ) = - 3.8 kJ/kg-K
�−� �−�.�
� � � ��
Wsf =
�−�
�.��(�)(�.�����)(���.�−����)
30,000 =
�−�.�
m = 8.95 kg/s
Q = 8.95 (- 3.8)(827.7-1200) = 12,662 kW = 12.7 MW
 TOPIC 5
PURE SUBSTANCE
u1 = uf1 + x1(ufg1)
= 779.78 + 0.92 (2585.4 – 779.78)
= 2440.9 kJ/kg

s1 = sf1 + x1(sfg1)
= 2.1785 + 0.92(4.3735)
= 6.204 kJ/kg-K
 TOPIC 6
GAS POWER CYCLES
AIR CONSTANTS

Cp = 1.0062 kJ/kg-K

Cv = 0.7186 kJ/kg-K

R = 287.08 J/kg-K

k = 1.4
TERMINOLOGY FOR RECIPROCATING DEVICES
 OTTO CYCLE
(SPARK IGNITION ENGINES)
DEFINITIONS:
1) Clearance Volume
Vc = V2
2) Piston Displacement (Displacement Volume)
VD = V1 – V2
3) % Clearance
�� ��
C= =
�� ��−��
4) Compression Ratio
�� �+�
rk = =
�� �
EXAMPLE
An engine working on Otto cycle receives 1,500 kJ/kg of
heat. The pressure and temperature at the beginning of
compression is 150 kPa and 300 K, respectively. The
compression ratio of the cycle is 8.0. Determine :

a) the net work

b) the thermal efficiency

c) the mean effective pressure (MEP)

d) the maximum temperature in the cycle

SOLUTION :
Consider process 1 to 2 : (S=C)
For isentropic process:
�� �� k-1
= ( ) = ( rk) k-1
�� ��
��
( ) = (8)1.4-1
���
T2 = 689.2 K
Consider heat addition process 2 to 3: (V=C)
qA = Cv (T3 –T2) = 0.7186 ( T3 – 689.2) = 1500 kJ/kg
T3 = 2776.6 K
SOLUTION :
Consider process 3 to 4 : (S=C)
For isentropic process:
�� �� k-1
=( ) = ( rE) k-1
�� ��
����.�
( ) = (8)1.4-1 ( rE = rk )
��
T4 = 1208.6 K
Consider heat rejection process 4 to 1: (V=C)
qR = Cv (T1–T4) = 0.7186 ( 300-1208.6) = - 652.9 kJ/kg
SOLUTION :
a) Wnet = qA – qR = 1500 – 652.9 = 847.1 kJ/kg

���� ���.�
b) e= = x 100 % = 56.47 %
�� ����

���� ����
c) MEP = =
�� ��−��

��� �.���(���)
v1 = = = 0.5740 m3/kg
�� ���
SOLUTION :
��
rk =
��

�.����
8=
��

v2 = 0.07175 m3/kg

���.�
MEP = = 1686.6 kPa
(�.����−�.�����)
 DIESEL CYCLE
(COMPRESSION IGNITION CYCLE)
DEFINITIONS:
1) Clearance Volume
Vc = V2
2) Piston Displacement (Displacement Volume)
VD = V1 – V2
3) % Clearance
�� ��
C= =
�� ��−��
4) Compression Ratio
�� �+�
rk = =
�� �
DEFINITIONS :
5) Cut-off Volume
Vco = V3 – V2
6) % Cut-off
��� �� −��
Co = =
�� �� −��
7) Cut-off Ratio
�+�� ��
rco = =
� ��
8) Expansion Ratio
�� �+�
rE = =
�� �+��
EXAMPLE :
There are supplied 317 kJ/cycle to an ideal Diesel engine
operating on 227 g of air : p1 = 97.91 kPa, t1 = 48.9°C. At the
end of compression, p2 = 3930 kPa. Determine:
a) Compression ratio, rk
b) % clearance, c
c) cut-off ratio, rc
d) net work in kJ, Wnet
e) thermal efficiency, e
f) mean effective pressure, MEP
SOLUTION :
���� �.���(�.�����)(���.�)
V1 = = = 0.2143 m3
�� ��.��

Consider process 1 to 2: (S=C)

�� k ��
( ) =
�� ��

�� ��.��
( )1.4 =
�.���� ����

V2 = 0.0153 m3
SOLUTION :
��
= (p2/p1)k-1/k
��
��
= (3930/97.91)1.4-1/1.4
���.�
T2 = 924.4 K
Consider heat addition process 2 to 3: (p2=p3)
QA = m C p ( T3 – T2 )
317 = 0.227(1.0062)(T3 – 924.4)
T3 = 2312 K
SOLUTION :

�� ��
=
�� ��

�� ����
=
�.���� ���.�

V3 = 0.0383 m3
SOLUTION :
Consider process 3 to 4: (S=C)
�� �� k
=( )
�� ��
�� �.���� �. �
= ( ) (V4 = V1)
��� �.����
p4 = 352.73 kPa
�� k-1 ��
( ) =
�� ��
�.���� 1.4-1 ��
( ) =
�.���� ����
T4 = 1161 K
SOLUTION :

�� �.����
a) rk = = = 14
�� �.����

�+�
b) rk = = 14
�

C = 0.0769 = 7.69 %

�� �.����
c) rco = = = 2.5
�� �.����
SOLUTION :

d) QR = mCv (T1 – T4) = 0.227(0.7186)(321.9-1161) = -136.9 kJ

Wnet = QA – QR = 317 – 136.9 = 180.1 kJ

���� ���.�
e) e= = x 100 % = 56.81 %
�� ���

���� ���.�
f) MEP = = = 905 kPa
�� −�� �.���� −�.����
 BRAYTON CYCLE
The Brayton cycle is a thermodynamic cycle used in
some heat engines. Notably, it is used for gas turbine engines
and some jet engines. The cycle consists of compressing
ambient air, mixing the air with fuel, then igniting the mixture,
which expands, doing work. In many Brayton cycle engines,
the hot air can then be recycled, heating the fresh air coming
through. This increases efficiency, because less fuel is needed
to heat the fresh air. In physics terms, the cycle consists
of adiabatic compression and expansion paired
with isobaric heating and cooling, and allows for
increased efficiency over some other cycles.
OPEN CYCLE
 CLOSED CYCLE

2
3

1 4
 3
2 3

2 4

1J
J 4
1
 STIRLING and ERICSSON CYCLE
The Stirling and Ericsson cycles are not used to model real
engines as they are difficult to achieve in practice. The
advantage of both is that they can achieve efficiencies
approaching the true Carnot efficiency. They do this by
extracting the heat produced in the compressor and
transferring it to the turbine. This is done through a device
called a regenerator. But the compressor and turbine are
treated as isothermal, which is very difficult to achieve in
practice.
STIRLING CYCLE
to 4 (TL to TH).
2.The air at state 4 is passed into the
regenerator from the top at a temperature T3. The
air passing through the regenerator matrix is
heated from TL to TH.
3.The air at state 1 expands isothermally in the
cylinder until it reaches state 2
4.The air coming out of the engine at
temperature TH (condition 2) enters into the
regenerator from the bottom and is cooled while
passing through the regenerator matrix at
constant volume and comes out at a
temperature TL at condition 3, and the cycle is
repeated.
5.It can be shown that the heat absorbed by the
air from the regenerator matrix during the
process 4 → 1 is equal to the heat given by the
ERICSSON CYCLE
CARNOT vs STIRLING vs ERICSSON CYCLE