CLB 20703 Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics

Chapter 1: Basic Concepts in Thermodynamics

Objective of Chapter 1
To introduce students to some of the fundamental concepts and definitions that are used in the study of engineering thermodynamics

Outline
Introduction Dimensions and units Measure of amount Force Temperature Pressure Work Energy Heat

What is Thermodynamics?
Stems from the Greek words therme (heat) and dynamics (force) In early 19th century: consideration of the motive power of heat and the capacity of hot bodies to produce work Today: dealing generally with energy and with relationships among the properties of matter

Scopes of Thermodynamics
First and second laws of thermodynamics To cope with variety of problems especially in the calculation of energy changes, heat and work requirements for processes Property values are essential to application of thermodynamics Development of generalized correlations to provide property estimates in the absence of data

System in Thermodynamics
Always starts with the identification of a particular body of matter This body of matter is called the system

Property in Thermodynamics
Thermodynamic state is defined by a few measurable macroscopic properties The fundamental dimensions, e.g. length, time, mass, temperature etc.

Dimensions and Units

The dimensions require the definition of scales of measure specific units of size Primary units are codified as the International System of Units (SI) Multiples and decimal fractions of SI units are designated by prefixes Other systems of units (e.g. English engineering system) are related to SI units by fixed conversion factors

SI Units and Prefixes

Multiple Prefix femto pico nano micro milli centi hecto kilo mega giga tera peta Symbol f p n m c h k M G T P

Unit second meter kilogram kelvin mole

Symbol s m kg K mol

10-15 10-12 10-9 10-6 10-3 10-2 102 103 106 109 1012 1015

Measures of Amount/Size
Three common measures of amount/size:
Mass, m Number of moles, n = m/M Total volume, Vt

Intensive thermodynamic variables:

Independent of size of system Specific volume, V = Vt/m Molar volume, V = Vt/n Specific density, = V-1 = m/Vt

Force
From Newtons second law: Force = mass x acceleration (F = ma) Force (F) Equation Unit SI F = ma N / kg m s-2 EES F = ma/gc (Ibf)

where gc = 32.174 (Ibm)(ft)(Ibf)-1(s)-2

Example 1:
A box weighs 730 N in Melaka, where the local acceleration of gravity is g = 9.792 m/s2. What are the boxs mass and weight on the moon, where g = 1.67 m/s2?

Temperature
Four temperature scales:
(i) Kelvin scale (iii) Rankine scale (ii) Celsius scale (iv) Fahrenheit scale

Relations among temperature scales:

t C = T K 273.15 T (R) = 1.8 T K t ( F) = T (R) 459.67 t ( F) = 1.8 t C + 32

Temperature

Pressure
P is defined as the normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area of the surface P = F/A = mg/A Pressure (P) Unit SI EES

N m-2/Pa (Pascal) (psi)

Pressure
When using manometers for pressure measurement, P is also expressed as the equivalent height of a fluid column P = F/A = mg/A = (Ah)g/A = hg

Pressure
Most pressure gauges only give readings of gauge pressures Absolute P = Gauge P + Atmosphere P Absolute P must be used in thermodynamics calculations

Example 2:
A dead-weight gauge with 1-cm-diameter piston is used to measure pressures very accurately. In a particular instance a mass of 6.14 kg (including piston and pan) brings it into balance. (i) If the local acceleration of gravity is 9.82 m/s2, what is the gauge pressure being measured? (ii) If the barometric pressure is 748 (torr), what is the absolute pressure?

Example 3:
At 27 C the reading on a manometer filled with mercury is 60.5 cm. The local acceleration of gravity is 9.784 m/s2 and the density of mercury is 13.53 g/cm3 at 27 C. To what pressure does this height of mercury correspond?

Work
W is performed whenever a force acts through a distance

dW = F dl
W is positive when the displacement is in the same direction as the applied force or vice versa
Work (W) Unit SI N m / J (Joule) EES (ft Ibf)

Work
W is also performed when there is a change in volume of fluid (compression or expansion)
dW = PA d Vt A

dW = P dV t

W = t P dV t
V1

V2t

The minus sign is required because the volume change is negative

Work

Energy
Kinetic energy E K = mu 2 2 Work is done when a body accelerates from velocity of u1 to u2, which is equal to the change in kinetic energy of the body
W =
2 mu 2 mu 2 mu 2 1 = 2 2 2

Kinetic Energy (EK) SI Equation EK = mu2/2 Unit N m / J (Joule)

EES EK = mu2/2gc (ft Ibf)

Energy (cont.)
Potential energy EP = mzg Work required to raise a body is the product of force exerted and the change in elevation from z1 to z2

W = mz 2 g mz1 g = (mzg )
Potential Energy (EP) SI Equation Unit EP = mzg N m / J (Joule) EES EP = mzg/gc (ft Ibf)

Energy Conservation
Work done on a body is equal to the change in a quantity of energy
mu 2 W = EK = 2

W = EP = (mzg )

E K + E P = 0
Work performed can be recovered by carrying out reverse process and returning the body to its initial condition

Energy Conservation (cont.)

Work is energy in transit, not residing in a body, and can be converted into another form of energy Work exists only during energy transfer from the surroundings to the system, or the reverse In contrast, kinetic and potential energy reside with the system

Example 4:
An elevator with a mass of 2,500 kg rests at a level 10 m above the base of an elevator shaft. It is raised to 100 m above the base of the shaft, where the cable holding it breaks. The elevator falls freely to the base of the shaft and strikes a strong spring. The spring is designed to bring the elevator to rest and hold the elevator at the position of maximum spring compression. Assuming the entire process to be frictionless, and taking g = 9.8 m/s2, calculate:

Example 4:
a.

The potential energy of the elevator in its initial position relative to the base of the shaft The work done in raising the elevator The potential energy of the elevator in its highest position relative to the base of the shaft The velocity and kinetic energy of the elevator just before it strikes the spring The potential energy of the compressed spring

b. c.

d.

e.

Heat
Heat always flows from higher temperature to a lower one Rate of heat transfer is proportional to the temperature difference between two bodies Heat is never stored within a body It exists only as energy in transit between a system and its surroundings