Thermodyna

mics
HIPOLITO S T A. M A R I A

B S E C E 1-1 (Bridging)

SHANE BURAGA
MAIRENE CABARIOS
NOAH CHRISTOPHER TAN
LYN GAYTO
JOHN CERDA
JENERIE TUDTUD
LHYNIE TANAY
RHIA MAY FLORES
CARL DAVID LAPIRA
RUTH LIMBAGO
JOHN OLIVA

1
 1 Basic Principles, Concepts and
Definition

Thermodynamics is that brach of the physical sciences that treats of various phenomena of
energy and the related properties of matter, especially of the laws of transformation of heat into other
forms of energy and vice versa.

Systems of Units
Newton’s law states that “the acceleration of a particular body is directly proportional to the
resultant force acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass.”
kF ma ma
a= , F= , k=
m k F
k is a proportionality constant

Systems of units where k in unity but not dimensionless:

cgs system: 1 dyne force accelerates 1 g mass at 1 cm/s 2
mks system: 1 newton force accelerates 1 kg mass at 1 m/s 2
fps system: 1 lb force accelerates 1 slug mass at 1 ft/s 2

gm ∙ cm k gm ∙ m slug∙ ft
k =1 k =1 k =1
2
dyne ∙ s newton ∙ s 2
lb f ∙ s2
Systems of units where k is not unity:
If the same word is used for both mass and force in a given system, k is neither unity nor
dimensionless.
1 lb force accelerates a 1 lb mass at 32.174 ft/s 2
1 g force accelerates a 1 g mass at 980.66 cm/s 2
1 kg force accelerates a 1 kg mass at 9.8066 m/s 2

2
 lbm ∙ ft g m ∙ cm kgm ∙ m
k =32.174 k =980.66 k =9.8066
lb f ∙ s 2 g f ∙ s2 kg f ∙ s2

Relation between kilogram force (kgf) and Newton (N)

k gm ∙ m kgm ∙ m
k =1 k =9.8066
N∙s 2
kg f ∙ s2
k gm∙ m kgm ∙ m
Therefore, 1 2
=9.8066
N∙ s kg f ∙ s2

1 kgf = 9.8066 N

Relation between pound mass (lb m) and slug

slug∙ ft lbm ∙ ft
k =1 k =32.174
lb f ∙ s2 lb f ∙ s 2

slug∙ ft lb m ∙ ft
Therefore, 1 =32.174
lb f ∙ s2 lb f ∙ s2

1 slug = 32.174 lbm

Acceleration

A unit force is one that produce unit acceleration in a body of unit mass.

m
F= a
k

1 poundal = (1lbm)(1ft/s2)
F is force in poundals
m
is mass in pounds
k
a is acceleration in ft/s2

3
 m
F= a
k
lb f ∙ s 2
1 pound = (1 slug)(1 ft/s2); 1 slug=1
ft
F is force in pounds
m
is mass in slugs
k
a is acceleration in ft/s2

Mass and Weight

The mass of a body is the absolute quantity of matter in it.

The weight of a body means the force of gravity Fg on the body.

m F Fg
= =
k a g

Where g = acceleration produced by force F g

a = acceleration produced by another force F

At or near the surface of the earth, k and g are numerically equal, so are m and F g

Problems:
1. What is the weight of a 66-kgm man at standard condition?

Solution
m = 66 kgm g = 9.8066 m/s2

m
[ 66 kgm ] [9.8066 ]
mg s2
F g= = =66 kg f
k kg m ∙ m
9.8066
kg f ∙ s 2

2. The weight of an object is 50 lb. What is its mass at standard condition?

Solution

4
 Fg = 50 lbf g = 32.174 ft/s2

lb m ∙ ft
F k
m= g =
[50 lb f ] [ 32.174
lb f ∙ s2 ] =50 lb m
g ft
32.174
s2

3. Five masses in a region where the acceleration due to gravity is 30.5 ft/s 2 are as follows: m1 is
500 g of mass; m2 weighs 800 gf; m3 weighs 15 poundals; m4 weighs 3 lbf; m5 is 0.10 slug of mass. What is
the total mass expressed (a) in agrams, (b) in pounds, and (c) in slugs

Solution

g = (30.5 ft/s2)(12 in/ft)(2.54 cm/in) = 929.64 cm/s2

gm ∙ cm

(a) m =
2
Fg k2

=
[800 g¿ ¿ f ] 980.66
[ gf ∙ s 2 ] =843.91 gm ¿
g cm
929.64 2
s
lb m ∙ ft
15
m3 F g s2 g
k
=
g
=
3

ft
30.5 2
lb m [
=[ 0.49 lb m ] 453.6 m =222.26 g m
]
s

lb m ∙ ft
Fg k
[ 3 lb f ] [ 32.174
lb f ∙ s 2 ] gm
m4 =
g
4

=
30.5
ft [ 453.6
lbm ]
=1435.49 gm

s2

m5 lb g
k [
=( 0.10 slug ) 32.174 m 453.6 m =1459.41 gm
slug lb m ][ ]
Total mass = m1 + m2 + m3 + m4 + m5
= 500 + 843.91 + 222.26 +1435.49 + 1459.41
= 4461.07 gm

4461.07 g m
=9.83
(b) Total mass = gm lbm
453.6
lb m

5
 9.83 lb m
=0.306 slug
(c) Total mass = lb m
32.174
slug

4. Note that the gravity acceleration at equatorial sea level is g = 32.088 fps 2 and that its
variation is - 0.03 fps2 per 1000 ft. ascent. Find the height in miles above this point for which (a) the
gravity acceleration becomes 30.504 fps2, (b) the weight of a given man is decreased by 5%. (c) What is
the weight of a 180 lbm atop the 29, 131-ft Mt. Everest in Tibet, relative to this point?

Solution
(a) change in acceleration = 30.504 – 32.088 = - 1.584 fps 2

−1.584 fps2
h= =528,000 ft∨100 miles
Height, −0.003 fps 2
1000 ft

(b) F=0.95 F g Let Fg = weight of the man at sea level

·a

F Fg
=
a g
h
0.95 F g F g
=
a g

g = 32.088 fps2 a=0.95 g=( 0.95 )( 32.088 ) =30.484 fp s 2

( 30.484−32.088 ) fps 2
h= =534,670 ft∨101.3 miles
−0.003 fps2
1000 ft

(c)
∙Fa g=32.088 fp s2
m=180 lb m
29.131 ft
29.131 ft
a=32.088 fp s 2− [ 1000 ft ]
[ 0.003 fp s2 ]=32.001 fps2

ft

∙Fg F=
ma
=
[ 180 lb m ] [ 32.001
s2 ] =179.03 lb f
k lb m ∙ ft
32.174
lb f ∙ s 2

6
 Specific Volume, Density and Specific Weight

The density ρ of any substance is its mass (not weight) per unit volume

m
ρ=
v

The specific volume v is the volume of a unit mass.

V 1
v= =
m ρ

The specific weight γ of any substance is the force of gravity on unit volume

Fg
γ=
V

Since the specific weight is to the local acceleration of gravity as the density is to the standard
acceleration, γ /g = ρ /k, conversion is easily made;

γk ρg
ρ= ∨γ=
g k

At or near the surface of the earth, k and g are numerically equal, so are ρ and γ .

Problems

1. What is the specific weight of water at standard condition?

Solution

7
 kg m
g = 9.8066 m/s2 ρ=1000
m3

kgm m

γ=
ρg
=
[ 1000
m 3 ][ 9.8066
s2 ] =1000
kg f
k kgm ∙ m m3
9.8066
kg f ∙ s2

2. Two liquids of different densities ( ρ 1 = 1500 kg/m3, ρ 2 = 500 kg/m3) are poured together into a
100-L tank, filling it. If the resulting density of the mixture is 800 kg/m 3, find the respective quantities of
liquids used. Also, find the weight of the mixture; local
g = 9.675 mps2

Solution

Mass of mixture, mm = ρ mvm = (800 kg/m3)(0.100 m3) = 80 kg

m1 + m2 = m m

ρ 1V1 + ρ 2V2 = mm

1500 V1 + 500 V2 = 80 (1)

V1 + V2 = 0.100 (2)

solving equations (1) and (2) simultaneously

V1 = 0.03 m3

V2 = 0.07 m3

m1 = ρ 1V1 = (1500 kg/m3) (0.03 m3) = 45 kg

m2 = ρ 2V2 = (500 kg/m3) (0.07 m3) = 35 kg

weight of mixture,

m
mm g
[ 80 kgm ] [9.675
]
s2
Fgm= = =78.93 kg f
k kgm ∙ m
9.8066
kg f ∙ s2

8
 Pressure

The standard reference atmospheric pressure is 760 mm Hg or 29.92 in. Hg at 32º F, or 14.696
psia, or 1 atm.

Measuring Pressure

1. By using manometers

(a) Absolute pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure.

p = absolute pressure

po = atmospheric pressure

pg = gage pressure, the pressure due to the liquid column h g

p = p o + pg

(b) Absolute pressure is

less than atmospheric pressure

2. By using pressure gages

A pressure gage is a device for measuring gage pressure.

This picture shows the movement in one type of

pressure gage, known as the single-tube gage. The fluid enters the
tube through the threaded connection. As the pressure
increases, the tube with an elliptical section tends to straighten, the
end that is nearest the linkage toward the right. The linkage
causes the sector to rotate. The sector engages a small pinion
gear. The index hand moves with the pinion gear. The whole

9
p = po – pg

The gage reading is called vacuum pressure or the vacuum.

 mechanism is of course enclosed in a case, and a graduated dial, from which the pressure is
read, and is placed under the index hand.

(p = po + pg)

(pg = 0, p = po)

(p = po – pg)

(p = 0, Pg = Po)

Gage Pressure

p = po + pg

F g γV γA hg
p g= = =
A A A

ρg h g g h g
p g=γ hg = =
k kv

Problem

A 30-m vertical column of fluid (density 1878 kg/m 3) is located where g = 9.65 mps2. Find the
pressure at the base of the column.

Solution

10
 m kg

p g=
gρhg
=
[ 9.65
s ][
2
1878 3m
m ]
( 30 m )
k kgm ∙ m
1
N ∙ s2
N
¿ 543,680 ∨543.68 kPa ( gage )
m2

Atmospheric Pressure

A barometer is used to measure atmospheric pressure.

Where ho = the height of column of liquid supported by atmospheric pressure P o

Problems

1. A vertical column of water will be supported to what height by standard atmospheric

pressure.

Solution

At standard condition

lb
γ w =62.4 po=14.7 psi
ft 3

11
 lb ¿ .2

h o=
po
=
[ 14.7
¿2][144
ft 2 ]
= 33.9 ft
γw lb
62.4 3
ft

The specific gravity (sp gr) of a substance is the ration of the specific weight of the substance to
that of water.
γ
sp gr =
γw

2. The pressure of a boiler is 9.5 kg/cm2. The barometric pressure of the atmosphere is 768 mm
of Hg. Find the absolute pressure in the boiler. (ME Board Problem – Oct. 1987)

Solution

pg = 9.5 kg/cm3 ho = 768 mm Hg

At standard condition
kg
γ w =1000
m3
po =( γ Hg ) ( h o )=¿

kg

¿
[
(13.6 ) 1000
m3 ]( 0.768 m )
2
kg
=1.04 2
cm cm
10,000 2
m
kg
p= p o+ p g=1.04 +9.5=10.54
cm2

Absolute Pressure
p=γh
Where h = ho + hg, where the height of column of liquid supported by absolute pressure p.
If the liquid used in the barometer is mercury, the atmospheric pressure becomes,

12
 po =γ Hg hg =( sp gr ) Hg ( γ w )( ho )

lb
[
¿ ( 13.6 ) 62.4
ft 3]¿¿

where ho = column of mercury in inches

lb
then, p g=0.491 hg
¿ .2
lb
and, p=0.491h
¿ .2

Problems

1. A pressure gage registers 40 psig in a region where the barometer is 14.5 psia. Find the
absolute pressure in psia, and kPa.

Solution

p = 14.5 + 40 = 54.5 psia

lb m
[1 kg¿¿ m][ 2.205 ]
kg m
1 kgm = =0.06853 slug ¿
lb
32.174 m
slug

13
 m m ft ft
1
s2 [ ][
= 1 2 3.28 =3.28 2
s m s ]

ma ft
F=
k [ ]
= ( 0.06863 slug ) 3.28 2 =0.2248 lb f
s

1 newton = 0.2248 lbf

1 lbf = 4.4484 newtons

N
1
lb
=
[
(1 lb ) 4.4484
lb ][
39.37 ¿
m ]
¿2 2
¿

lb N
1 2
=6895 2
¿ m

[ lb
]
p= 54.5 2 6895
¿
[ ]
m2
lb
¿ .2
=375,780 Pa∨375.78 kPa

2. Given the barometric pressure of 14.7 psia (29.92 in. Hg abs), make these conversions:

(a) 80 psig to psia and to atmosphere

(b) 20 in. Hg vacuum to in. Hg abs and to psia,

Solution

(a) p= p o+ p g=14.7 +80=94.7 psia

14
 80 psig
p g= =5.44 atmospheres
psia
14.7
atm
(b)

h = 9.92 in. Hg abs

p = 0.491 h
p = (0.491)(9.92) = 4.87 psia

(c)
pg =4.7 psi vacuum
Pa
pg = (4.7 psi)[6895 ]
psi
= 32, 407 Pa (gage)

(d)
h = 29.92 + 15 = 44.92 in. Hg abs
p = 0.491 h = (0.491)(44.92) = 22.06 psia
(15 )( 760 )
p g= =381 torrs
29.92

p g=0.491 hg
psi
[
¿ 0.491 [ 15∈. ] 6895 Pa
] [ ]
m psi
= 50,780 Pa (gage)

Temperature

1. Derive the relation between degress Fahrenheit and degrees Centigrade. (EE Board Question)

15
 t ° F−32 t ° C−0
=
212−32 100−0

9
t ° F= t ° C+32
5

5
t ° C= t ° F−32
9
Absolute temperature is the temperature measured from absolute zero.
Absolute zero temperature is the temperature at which all molecular motion ceases.
Absolute temperature will be denoted by T, this

T ° R=t ° F+ 460 , degreed Rankine

T K =t ° C+273 , Kelvin

Degrees Fahrenheit (ºF) and degrees Centigrade (ºC) indicate temperature reading (t).
Fahrenheit degrees (Fº) and Centigrade degrees (Cº) indicate temperature change or difference (∆t).

180 Fº = 100 Cº

5
1 F °= C °
9

9
1 C °= F °
5
It follows that,

1 F °=1 R °
and
1 C °=1 K °

2. Show that the specific heat of a substance in Btu/(lb) (Fº) is numerically equal to cal/(g)(Cº).

Solution

16
 [ Btu ] 252 cal
[ ]
Btu Btu
1 =
( lb ) ( F ° )
[ lb ] 454 g [ F ° ] 5C °
[ ] [ ]
lb 9F °

Btu cal
1 =1
( lb ) ( F ° ) ( g )( C ° )

Conservation of Mass

The law of conservation of mass states that mass is indestructible.

The quantity of fluid passong through a given section is given by the formula

⩒= Av

⩒ Av
ṁ= = = Avρ
v v

Where ⩒ = volume flow rate

A = cross sectional area of the stream
v = average speed
ṁ = mass flow rate

Applying the law of conservation of mass,

A1 v 1 A 2 v 2
ṁ= =
v1 v2
A1 v 1 ρ 1= A2 v 2 ρ 2
Problems

1. Two gaseous streams enter a combining tube and leave as a single mixture. These data apply
at the entrance section:
For one gas, A1 = 75 in.2, v1 = 500 fps, v1 = 10 ft2/lb
For the other gas, A2 = 50 in.2, ṁ2 = 16.67 lb/s
ρ2 = 0.12 lb/ft3
At exit, v3 = 350 fps, v3 = 7 ft3/lb.
Find (a) the speed of v2 at section 2, and

17
 (b) the flow and area at the exit section
Solution
lb
16.67
ṁ2 s
(a) v 2= A ρ = =400 fps
50 lb
2 2
[ 144
ft 2
][ 0.12 3
ft ]
75 2 ft

(b) ṁ1= =
[
A1 v 1 144
ft 500
s ][
=26.04
lb ]
v ft 3 s
10
lb [ ]
2. A 10-ft diameter by 15-ft height vertical tank is receiving water (ρ = 62.1 lb/cu. ft) at the rate
of 300 gpm and is discharging through a 6-in ID line with a constant speed of 5 fps. At a given instant,
the tank is half full. Find the water level and the mass change in the tank 15 min. later.

Solution
gal
Mass flow rate entering =
[ ][
300
min
gal
7.48 3
ft
62.1
lb
ft ]
3
=2490.6
lb
min .

π
Mass flow rate leaving = Avρ= ¿
4

Mass change = (3658 – 2490.6)(15) = 17,511 lb (decreased)

17,511lb
=282 ft 3
Volume change = lb
62.1 3
ft

282 ft 3
Decreased in height = =3.59 ft
78.54 ft 2

Water level after 15 min. = 7.5 – 3.59 = 3.91 ft

18
 2 Conservation of Energy

Conservation of Energy

Gravitational Potential Energy (P)

The gravitational potential energy of a body is its energy due to its position or elevation.

Kinetic Energy (K)

The energy or stored capacity for performing work possessed by a moving body, by
virtue of its momentum is called kinetic energy.

Internal Energy (U,u)

19
 Internal energy is energy stored within a body or substance by virtue of the activity and
configuration of its molecules and of the vibration of the atoms within the molecules.
u = specific internal energy (unit mass) Δu = u2 – u1
U = mu = total internal energy ( m mass) ΔU = U2-U1

Work (W)
Work is the product of the displacement of the body and the component of the force in
the direction of the displacement. Work is energy in transition; that is is exists only when a force
is “moving through a distance”.

Work of a nonflow System

The area under the curve of the process on the pV plane represents the work done during
a nonflow reversible process.
Work done by the system is positive (outflow of energy)
Work done on the system is negative (inflow of energy)

Flow Work (Wf)

Flow work or flow energy is work done in pushing a fluid across a boundary, usually into
or out of a system.

20
Heat (Q)
Heat is energy in transit (on the move) from one body or system to another solely because
of a temperature difference between the bodies or systems.
Q is positive when heat is added to the body or system.
Q is negative when heat is rejected by the body of system.
Classifications of Systems
(1) A closed system is one in which mass does not cross its boundaries.
(2) An open system is one on which mass crosses its boundaries.

Conservation of Energy
The law of conservation of energy states that energy is neither created nor destroyed.
The first law of thermodynamics states that one form of energy may be converted into
another.

Steady Flow Energy Equation

Characteristics of steady flow systems
1. There is neither accumulation nor diminution of mass within the system.
2. There is neither accumulation nor diminution of energy within the system.
3. The state of the working substance at any point in the system remains constant.

21
Enthalpy (H, h)
Enthalpy is a composite property applicable to all fluids and is defined by
h = u + pv and H = mh = U + pV
The steady flow energy equation becomes

Problems
1. During a steady flow process, the pressure of the working substance drops from 200 to 20
psia, the speed increases from 200 to 1000 fps, the internal energy of the open system
decreases 25 Btu/lb, and the specific volume increases from 1 to 8 ft3/lb. No heat is
transferred. Sketch an energy diagram. Determine the work per lb. Is it done on or by the
substance? Determine the work in hp for 10 lb per min. ( 1hp = 42.4 btu/min)

22
Solution

2. Steam is supplied to a fully loaded 100-hp turbine at 200 psia with u1 = 1163.3 Btu/lb,
v1= 2.65 ft3/lb and v1= 400 fps. Exhaust is at 1 psia with u2= 925 Btu/lb, v2= 294ft3/lb and
v2= 1100 fps. The heat loss from the steam in the turbine is 10 Btu/lb. Neglect potential
energy change and determine a) the work per lb steam and b) the steam flow rate on lb/h.

23
Solution

3. An air compressor (an open system) receives 272 kg per min of air at 99.29 kPa and a
specific volume of 0.026 m3/kg. The air flows steady through the compressor and is
discharged at 689.5 kPa and 0.0051 m3/kg. The initial internal energy of the iar is 1594

24
J/kg; at discharge, the internal energy is 6241 K/kg. The cooling water circulated around
the cylinder carries away 4383 J/kg of air. The change in kinetic energy is 896 J/g
increase. Sketch an energy diagram. Compute the work.

25
 3 The Ideal Gas Laws

The Ideal Gas

An ideal gas is ideal only in the sense that it conforms to the simple perfect gas laws.
Boyle’s Law
If the temperature of a given quantity of gas is held constant, the volume of the gas varies
inversely with the absolute pressure during the change of state.

Charles’ Law
1) If the pressure on a particular quantity of gas is held constant, then, with any change
of state, the volume will vary directly as the absolute temperature.

2) If the volume of a particular quantity of gas is held constant, then, with any change of
state, the pressure will vary directly as the absolute temperature.

26
Equation of State or Characteristic Equation of a Perfect Gas
Combining Boyle’s and Charles’ Laws,

Problems
1. A drum 6 in in diameter and 40 in long contained acetylene at 250 psia and 90 degrees f.
After some of the acetylene was used, the pressure was 200 psia and the temperature was
85 degrees F, a) what proportion of the acetylene was used? B) What volume would used
the acetylene occupy at 14.7 psia and 80 degrees F? R for acetylene is 59.35 lb/lb degrees
R.
Solution

27
2. The volume of a 6 x 12-ft tank is 339.3 cu ft. It contains air at 200 psig and 85 degrees F.
How many 1-cu ft drums can be filled to 50 psig and 80 degrees F? The drums have been
sitting around in the atmosphere which is at 147 psia and 80 degrees F
Solution

28
Specific Heat

The specific heat of a substance is defined as the quantity of heat required to

change the temperature of unit mass through one degree.

And for a particular mass m,

29
If the mean or instantaneous value of specific heat is used,

Constant Volume Specific Heat (cv)

Constant Pressure Specific Heat (cp)

Ratio of Specific Heat

Internal Energy of an Ideal Gas

Joule’s law states that “the change of internal energy of an ideal gas is a function
of only the temperature change”. Therefore ΔU is given by the formula,

Whether the volume remains constant or not.

30
Enthalpy of an Ideal Gas
The change of enthalpy of an ideal gas is given by the formula,

Whether pressure remains constant or not.

Relation between Cp and Cv

Problems:

1. For a certain odeal gas R= 25.8 ft.lb/lb degrees R and k = 1.09 a) What are the values
of cp and cv? b) what mass of this gas would occupy a volume of 15 cu ft at 75 psia
and 80 degrees F? c) If 30 Btu are transferred to this gas at a constant volume in b),
what are the resulting temperature and pressure?
Solution:

31
2. For a certain gas R= 320 J/kg. K and Cv= 0.84 kJ/kg. Kc, a) Find Cp and k. b) if 5 kg
of this gas undergo a reversible non flow constant pressure process from V1= 1.133.
m3 and p1= 690 kPa to a state where t2= 555 degrees C, find ΔU and ΔH.

Solution

Entopy (S, s)

Entropy is that property of a substance which remains constant if no heat enters or

leaves the substance, while it does work or alters its volume, but which increases or
diminishes should a small amount of heat enter or leave.

The change in entropy of a substance receiving (or delivering ) heat is defined by

32
Any process that can be made to go in the reverse direction by an infinitesimal change in
the condition is called reversible process.

Any process that is not reversible are irreversible.

33
 4 Processes of Ideal Gas

Constant Volume Process

An isometric process is a reversible constant volume process. A constant volume process may be
reversible or irreversible.

(a) Relation between p and T.

T₂ = P₂
T₁ P₁

(b) Nonflow Work

Wₙ = ∫₁² pdV = 0

(c) The Change in Eternal Energy

ΔU = mcᵥ (T₂ - T₁)

(d) The heat transferred

Q = mcᵥ (T₂ - T₁)

(e) The change of Enthalpy

ΔH= mcₚ (T₂ - T₁)

34
(f) The change of entropy
T₁
ΔS = mcᵥ ln
T₁
(g) Reversible steady flow constant volume

(a) Q = ΔU + ΔK + ΔW𝒻 + Wₛ + ΔP
Wₛ = - (ΔW𝒻 + ΔK + ΔP)
Wₛ = -ΔW𝒻 = V (p₁ - p₂)

ΔP = 0, ΔK = 0

(b) -∫₁² Vdp = Wₛ + ΔK

-V (p₂ - p₁) = Wₛ + ΔK
V (p₁ - p₂) = Wₛ + ΔK
V (p₁ - p₂) = Wₛ
(ΔK = 0)

(h) Irreversible nonflow constant volume process

Q = ΔU + Wₙ
For reversible nonflow, Wₙ = 0
For irreversible nonflow, Wₙ + 0
Wₙ = nonflow work
Wₛ = steady flow work

PROBLEMS

1. Ten cu ft. of air at 300 psia and 400°F is cooled to 140°F at constant volume. What are
(a) the final pressure, (b) the work, (c) the change of internal energy, (d) the transferred
heat,
(e) The change of enthalpy, and (f) the change of entropy?

Solution.

35
 P ₁ T ₂ (300)(600)
(a) = =209 psia
T₁ 860

(b) W=0

P ₁ V ₁ (300)(144 )( 10)
(c) m= = =9.147lb
RT ₁ (53.34)(860)

ΔU = mcᵥ (T₂ - T₁)

= (9.417) (0.1714) (600-860)
= -420 Btu

(d) Q = mcᵥ (T₂ - T₁) = -420 Btu

(e) ΔH = mcₚ (T₂ - T₁)

= (9.417) (0.24) (600-860)

= -588 Btu

T₂
(f) AS = mcᵥln
T₁
600
= (9.417) (0.1714) ln
860
Btu
= -0.58
°R

2. There are 1.36 kg of gas, for which R = 377 J/Kg.k and K=1.25, that undergo a nonflow
constant volume process from P₁ = 551.6 kPa. During the process the gas is internally
stirred and there are also added 105.5 kJ of heat. Determine (a) t₂, (b) the work input and
(c) the change of entropy.
Solution

36
 T₁ = 60+273 = 333K
T ₁ P ₂ (333)(1655)
(a) T₂, = = = 999 K
P₁ (561.6)

R 377
(b) cᵥ - = = = 1508 J /( kg . K ° )
k−1 1.25−1

ΔU = mcᵥ (T₂ - T₁)

= (1.36) (1.508) (999-333)
= 1366 kJ
Wₙ = Q – ΔU = 105.5 – 1366
= -1260.5 kJ

T₂ 999
(c) ΔS = mcᵥln = (1.36)(1.508)ln
T₁ 333
= 2.253 kJ / K

3. A group of 50 persons attend a secret meeting in a room which is 12 meter wide by 10

meters long and a ceiling of 3 meters. The room is completely sealed off and insulated.
Each person gives off 150 kcal per hour of heat and occupies a volume of 0.2 cubic
meter. The room has an initial pressure of 101.3 kPa and temperature of 16°C. Calculate
the room temperature after 10 minutes.

Solution

Btu cal kcal

cᵥ = 0.1714 = 0.1714 = 0.1714
lb. F ° g.C° kg . k °

Q = (50 persons) (150 kcal/person.hour) = 7500 kcal/h

37
 Volume of room = (12)910) (3) = 360 m³
Volume of air, V = 360 – (0.2) (50) = 350 m³
P₁V ₁
Mass of air, m = =¿¿
RT ₁

Q = (7500 kcal/h) (10/60 h) = 1250 kcal

Q = mcᵥ (T₂ - T₁)
1250 = (427.34) (0.1714) (T₂-289)
T₂ = 306.1 k
t₂ = 33.1°C

4. A 1-hp stirring motor is applied to a tank containing 22.7kg of water. The stirring action
is applied for 1 hour and the tank loses 850 kJ/h of heat. Calculate the rise in temperature
of the tank after 1 hour, assuming that –the process occurs at constant volume and that Cᵥ
for water 4.187 kJ/ (kg) (C°).

Solution

Q = (-850 kJ/h) (1h) = -850 kJ

W = (-1 hp) (h) = (-1hp) (0.746 kW/hp) (h) (3600 s/h)
= -2685.6kJ
Q = ΔS + W
ΔU = Q - W = -850 – (-2685.6) = 1835.6 kJ
ΔU = mcᵥ (ΔT)
1835.6 kJ
ΔU =19.3C °
ΔT = = kJ
mcᵥ (22.7)( 4.187 . C °)
kh

38
5. A closed constant-volume system receives 10.5 kJ of puddle work. The system contains
oxygen at 344 kPa, 278 K, occupies 0.06 cu m. Find the heat (gain or loss) if the final
temperature is 400K.

Solution
P ₁ V ₁ (344)(0.06)
m= = =0.2857 kg
RT ₁ ( 0.2599 ) ( 278 )

ΔU = mcᵥ ((T₂ - T₁)

= (0.2857) (0.6595) (400-278)
= 22.99kJ
Q = ΔU + W
= 22.99 + (-10.5)
= 12.49 kJ

39
(a) Relation between V and T.

T₂ V ₂
=
T₁ V ₁

(b) Nonflow Work

Wₙ = ∫₁² pdV = P (V₂ - V₁)

(c) The change of internal energy.

ΔU = mcᵥ ((T₂ - T₁)

(d) The heat transferred

Q = mcₚ (T₂ - T₁)

(e) The change of enthalpy.

ΔH = mcₚ (T₂ - T₁)

(f) The change of entropy.

T₂
ΔS = mcₚln
T₁

(g) Steady flow isobaric.

(a) Q = ΔP + ΔK + ΔH + wₛ
wₛ = - (ΔK + ΔP)
wₛ = - ΔK
(ΔP = 0)

40
 (b) - ∫₁²Vdp = wₛ + ΔK
0 = wₛ+ ΔK
wₛ = -ΔK
Problems:
1. A certain gas , with cp= 0.529 Btu/lb. degrees R, and R= 96.2 ft.lb/lb degrees R, expands
from 5 cu ft and 80 degrees F to 15 cu ft while the pressure remains constant at 15.5 psia.
Compute a) T2 b) ΔH c) ΔU, d) ΔS and e) For an internally reversible nonflow process,
what is the work?
Solution

41
2. A perfect gas has a value of R = 319.3 J/kg and k= 1.26. If 120 kJ are added to 2.27 kg of
this gas at constant pressure when the initial temperature is 32.2 degrees C, find a) T2, b)
Δ H c) ΔU and d) work for a non flow process.
Solution:

42
43
Isothermal Process
An isothermal process is an internally reversible constant temperature process of a
substance.

44
PROBLEMS
1. During an isothermal process at 88°F, the pressure on lb. of air drops from 80 psia to
5 psia. For an internally reversible process, determine (a) the ∫pdV and the work of a
nonflow process, (b) the - ∫Vdp and the work of a steady flow process during which
ΔK = 0, (c) Q, (d) ΔU and ΔH, and (e) ΔS.

Solution
V₂ P₁
(a) ∫pdV = p₁V₁1n = mRT ln
V₁ P₂

45
 (8)(53.34)(548) 80
= ln = 421.2 Btu
778 19.7
Wₙ = ∫pdV = 421.2 Btu

V₂
(b) - ∫Vdp = p₁V₁1n = 421.2 Btu
V₁
(c) Q = ΔU + Wₙ = 421.2 Btu
(d) ΔU = 0
ΔH = 0

Q 421.2
(e) ΔS = = = 0.7686 Btu/°R
T 548

2. During a reversible process there are abstracted 317 kJ/s from 1.134 kg/s of a certain
gas while the temperature remains constant at 26.7°C. For this gas, c₀ = 2.232 and cᵥ
1.713 kJ/kg.K. The initial pressure is 586 kPa. For both non flow and steady flow (AP
= 0, ΔK = 0) process, determine (a) V₁ V₂ and p₂ (b) the work and Q, (c) ΔS and
ΔH.

(a) R = cₚ - cᵥ = 2.232 – 1.713 = 0.519 kJ/kg.K

mRT ₁ (1.134)(0.519)(299.7)
V₁ = = = 0.301 m³/s
p₁ 586
V₂
Q = p₁V₁ln
V₁
V₂ Q −317
ln = = = -1.80
V ₁ p ₁ V ₁ (586)(0.301)
V2
= e⁻¹.⁸⁰ = 0.0498 m³/s
V1
p ₁ V ₁ (586)(0.301)
p₂ = = = 3542 kPa
V₂ 0.0498

(b) Since ΔP = 0 and ΔK = 0, Wₙ = Wₛ = Q = -317 kJ/s

46
 Q −317
(c) ΔS = = = -1.058 kJ/K.s
T 299.7
ΔH = 0

3. Air flows steadily through an engine at constant temperature, 400 K. Find the work per
kilogram of the exit pressure is one-third the inlet pressure and the inlet pressure is 207 kPa.
Assume that the kinetic and potential energy variation is negligible.

RT ₁ ( 0.28708)( 400)
V₁ = = =0.5547 m ³/ kg
P₁ 207
V₂ P₁
W = p₁V₁1n = p₁V₁1n
V₁ P₂
= (207) (0.5547) ln 3
= 126.1 kJ

47
48
49
50
51
Problems
1. During a polytropic Process, 10 lb of an ideal gas, whose R= 40ft.lb/lb.R and cp= 0.25
Btu/lb.R, changes state from 20 psia and 40 F to 120 psia and 340 F. Determine (a) n, (b)
Delta U and Delta H, (c) Delta S, (d) Q (e) /pdV, (f) -/Vdp (g) if the process is steady
flow during which Delta K = 0, what is W?. What is Delta K if W = 0? (h) What is the
work for a nonflow process?
Solution

2. Compress 4 kg/s of Co2 gas polytropically (pV1.2 = C) from p1= 103.4 kPa, T1= 60 c to
T2= 227C. Assuming ideal gas action, find P2, W, Q, Delta S (a) as nonflow, (b) as a
steady flow process where Delta P= 0, Delta k = 0.

Solution

52
53
 5 Gas Cycles

Heat engines or thermal engine is a closed system (no mass crosses its boundaries) that
exchanges only heat and work with its surrounding and that operates in cycle.

Elements of s thermodynamic heat engine with a fluid as the working substance:

1. A working substance, matter that receives heat, rejects heat, and does work;
2. A source of heat (also called a hot body, a heat reservoir, or just source), from which
the working substance receives heat;
3. A heat sink (also called a receiver, a cold body, or just sink), to which the working
substance can reject heat; and
4. An engine, wherein the working substance may do work or have work done on it

A thermodynamic cycle occurs when the working fluid of a system experiences a number of
processes that eventually return the fluid to its initial state.

Cycle Work and Thermal Efficiency

QA W QA = heat added
ENGINE W = heat rejected
QR =
net work
QR

Available energy is that part of the heat that converted into mechanical work.

Unavailable energy is the remainder of the heat that had to be rejected into the receiver (sink).

The Second Law of Thermodynamics

54
 All energy received as heat by a heat-engine cycle cannot be converted into mechanical
work.

Work of a Cycle
(a) W = ∑W
W = QA + (-QR) (Algebraic sum)
W = QA - QR (Arithmetic differences)

(b) The net work of a cycle is the algebraic sum of the works done by the individual
processes.

W = ∑W
W = W1-2 + W2-3 + W3-4 + . . .

The Carnot Cycle

C
Hot Body
The Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle conceivable.
m Piston
There is other ideal cycle as efficient as the Carnot cycle, but
T1
none more so, such a perfect cycle forms a standard of comparison
for actual engines and actual cycles and also for other less efficient 4’ 1’2’ 3’
ideal cycle, permitting as to judge how much none

or more so, such a perfect cycle forms a standard of comparison 1

Nonconducting

for actual engines and actual cycles and also for another less I P
Cylinder Walls

efficient ideal cycle, permitting as to judge how much room their T=C

might be for improvement. S=C 2

4

S=C T3

T=C
3
Figure 11. The Carnot Cycle VD

55
 Cold Body
V

Operation of the Carnot Engine

A cylinder C contains m mass of the substance. The cylinder head, the only place where heat
may enter or leave the substance (system) is placed in contact with the source of heat or hot body which
has a constant temperature T1. Heat flows from the hot body into the substance in the cylinder
isothermally, process 1-2, and the piston moves from 1’ to 2’. Next, the cylinder is removed from the hot
body and the insulator I is placed over the head of the cylinder, so that no heat may be transferred in or
out. As a result, any further process is adiabatic. The isentropic change 2-3 now occurs and the piston
moves from 2’ to 3’. When the piston reaches the end of the stroke 3’, the insulator I is removed and the
cylinder head is placed in contact with the receiver or sink, which remains at a constant temperature T 3.
Heat then flows from the substance to the sink, and the isothermal compression 3-4 occurs while the
piston moves from 3’ to 4’. Finally, the insulator I is again placed over the head and the isentropic
compression 4-1 returns the substance to its initial condition, as the piston moves from 4’ to 1’.

p 1

T= C 2 T 1 T1 2

S= C W T1 – T2
S=C W
4
4 3 3
T=C 3
T3
Pm W

VD S2 - S 1

V m n S

Fig. 12 Carnot Cycle

Analysis of the Carnot Cycle

QA = T1 (S2 – S1), area 1-1-n-m-1

QR = T1 (S4 – S3), area 3-4-m-n-3

= -T3 (S3 – S4) = -T3 (S2 – S1)

W = QA - QR = T1 (S2 – S1) - T3 (S2 – S1)

= (T1 – T3) (S2 – S1), area 1-2-3-4-1

W (T 1 – T 3 )(S 2 – S 1)
e= =
Qa T 1 ( S2 – S1 )

56
 T 1−T 3
e=
T1

The thermal efficiency e is defined as the fraction of the heat supplied to a thermodynamic cycle
thatis converted into work.

Work from the TS plane

V2
QA = mRT1 1n
V1
V4 V3
QR = mRT3 1n = mRT3 1n
V3 V4
From process 2-3,

T2 V 2
=
T3 V 3[ ] k-1

From process 4-1,

T4 V1
=
T1 V 4 [ ] k-1

But T4 = T3 and T1 = T2

V2 V1
Therefore,
[ ] [ ]
V3
k-1
=
V4
k-1

V3 V2
Then, =
V4 V1
V2
QR = mRT3 1n
V1
V2 V2
W = QA - QR = mRT1 1n - mRT3 1n
V1 V1
V2
W = (T1 – T3) mR1n
V1
V2
( T 1 – T 3 ) mR 1 n
W V1
e= =
QA V2
mRT 1 1 n
V1

57
 T 1−T 3
e=
T1

Work from the pV plane.

W = ∑ W = W1-2 + W2-3 + W3-4 + W4-1

V 2 p 3 – V p2 V V 4 p 1 – V p4 V
W = p1V1 1n + 3 2
+ p3V3 1n + 1 4

V1 1−k V3 1−k

Mean Effective Pressure (pm or mep)

W
Pm =
VD

VD = displacement volume, the volume swept by the piston in one stroke.

Mean effective pressure is the average constant pressure that, acting through on stroke, will do
on the piston the net work of a single cycle.

Ratio of Expansion, Ratio of Compression

volume at the end of expansion
Expansion ratio =
volume at the beginning of expansion
V2
Isothermal expansion ratio =
V1
V3
Isentropic expansion ratio =
V2
V3
Overall expansion ratio =
V1
volume at the beginning of compression
Compression ratio =
volume at the end of compression
V3
Isothermal compression ratio =
V4
V4
Isentropic compression ratio, rk =
V1
V3
Overall compression ratio =
V1
The isentropic compression ratio rk is the compression ratio most commonly used.

58
Problems

1. A Carnot power cycle operates on 2 lb of air between the limits of 70⁰F and 500⁰F.
The pressure at the beginning of isothermal expansion is 4000psia and at the end of
isothermal expansion is 185 psig. Determine (a) the volume at the end of isothermal
compression, (b) ∆S during an isothermal process (c) QA, (d) QR , (e) W, (f) e, (g) the
ratio of expansion during isothermal heating and the overall ratio of expansion, and
(h) the mean effective pressure.
Solution

P 1 T

m = 2 lb

2 1 2 p1 =
400 psia

4 T1 =
960⁰R

3 3 p2 =
199.7 psia

T3 =
530⁰R

V S

Point 1:

mRT 1 ( 2 ) (53.34)(960)
V1 = = = 1.778 ft3
P1 (400)(144)

Point 2:

mRT 2 ( 2 ) (53.34)(960)
V2 = = = 3.561 ft3
P2 (199.7)(144)

Point 3:

T3 530
P3 = P 2
[ ]T2
k/k-1
= (199.7) [ ]
960
1.4/1.4 – 1
= 24.57 psia

mRT 3 ( 2 ) (53.34)(530)
V3 = = = 15.72 ft3
P3 (24.97)(144)

59
Point 4:

V1 1.778
V4 = V 3
[ ]
V2
= (15.72) [
3.561 ]
= 7.849 ft3

(a) V4 = 7.849 ft3

V 2 ( 2 ) (53.34) 3.561 Btu

(b) ∆S1-2 = mR 1n = 1n = = 0.0952
V1 778 1.778 ⁰R

(c) QA = T1 (∆S) = (960) (0.0952) = 91.43 Btu

(d) QR = -T3 (∆S) = -(530) (0.0952) = -50.46 Btu

(e) W = QA - QR = 91.43 - 50.46 = 40.97 Btu

W 40.97
(f) e = = = 0.4481 or 44.81%
Q A 91.43

V 2 3.561
(g) Isothermal Expansion Ratio = = =2
V 1 1.778
V 3 15.72
Overall compression ratio = = = 8.84
V 1 1.778

W W ( 40.97 ) (778)
(h) Pm = = = = 15.88 psi
V D V 3−V ( 15.72−1.778 ) (144)
1

2. A Carnot engine operating between 775 K and 305 K produces 54 kJ of work.

Determine (a) QA; (b) ∆S during heat rejection, and (c) e.
Solution

60
 T

1 2 T1 = 775 K
T3 = 305 K

4 3 W = 54 kJ

( T 1 – T 3 ) 775−305
(a) e = = = 0.6065 or 60.65%
T1 775

W 54
QA = = = 89.04 kJ
e 0.6065

(b) QR = Q A – W = 89.04 – 54 = -35.04 kJ

Q R −35.04 kJ
∆S3-4 = = = -0.115
T3 305 K

(c) e = 60.65%

Three-Process Cycle

Problems

1. Ten cu ft of helium at 20 psia and 80⁰ F are compressed isentropically 1-2 to 80 psia.
The helium is then expanded polytropically 2-3 with n= 1.35 to the initial
temperature. An isothermal 3-1 returns the helium to the initial state. Find T2, V2, QA,
QR, W, ∆S3-1, and pm.

Solution

P 2 T 2 p1 = 20
psia

T1 = 540
⁰R

61
 pV1.35 = C V1 = 10
cu ft

1 1 3 p2 = 80
psia

3 T3 = 540
⁰R
V S

( p 1 – V 1 ) ( 20 ) (144)(10)
m= = = 0.1382 lb
RT 1 (386.04)(540)

Point 2:

P2 80
T2 = T 1
[ ]
P1
k-1/k
= (540) [ ] 20
1.666 – 1 / 1.666
= 939.9⁰ R

P1 20
V2 = V 1
[ ]
P2
1/k
= (10) [ ]
80
1/1.666
= 4.351 ft3

Point 3:

T3 540
P3 = p 2
[ ]
T2
n/n-1
= (80) ) [ 939.9 ] 1.35/1.35-1
= 9.435 psia

p3 80
V3 = V 2
[ ]
p2
1/n
= (4.351) [ 9.435 ] 1/1.35
= 21.2 ft3

k−n 1.666−1.35 Btu

cn = cv[ ] 1−n
= (0.754)
1−1.35 [
= -0.6808
lb ° R ]
Q A = (m) (cn) (T3 – T2) = (0.1382)(- 0.6808)(540-939.9) = 37.63 Btu

V 1 (0.1382)(386.04)(540) 10
QR = mRT31n = 1n = -27.82 Btu
V3 778 21.2

62
 W = Q A −¿ QR = 37.63 – 27.82 = 9.81 Btu

Q R −27.82 Btu
∆S3-1 = = = -0.0515
T1 540 °R

W ( 9.81 ) (778)
Pm =
V 3−V ( 21.2−4.351 ) (144 ) = 3.15 psi
=
2

2. Two and a half kg of an ideal gas with R= 296.9 J/(kg) (K) and cv = 0.7442kJ/(kg)
(K) at a pressure of 827.4 kPa and a temperature of 667⁰ C reject 132.2 kJ of heat at
constant pressure. The gas is then expanded according to pV1.25 = C to a point where a
constant volume process will bring the gas back to its original state. Determine p3,
QA, and the power in Kw for 100 Hz.
Solution

p 2 1 1

pV1.25 =C 3

V
S

P1 = 827.4 kPa

T1 = 677 + 273 = 950 K

QR = -132.2 kJ

kJ
cp = cv + R = 0.7442 + 0.2969 = 1.0411
kg . K ⁰
c p 1.0411
k= = = 1.399
c v 0.7442
Point 1:

mRT 1 ( 2.5 ) (0.2969)(950)

V1 = = = 0.8522 m3
P1 827.4

63
Point 2:

QR = mcp (T2 – T1)

-132.2 = (2.5) (1.0411) (T2 – 950)

T2 = 899.2 K

T2 899.2
V2 = V 1
[ ]
T1
= (0.8522)
950 [
= 0.8066 m3 ]
Point 3:

V2 .8066
T3 = T 2
[ ]V1
n-1
= (0899.2) [ 0.8522 ]1.25 – 1
= 886.9 K

V2 n 0.8066
p3 = p 2
[ ]
V3
= (827.4)
0.8522[ ] 1.25
= 772.4 kPa

k−n 1.399−1.25 kJ
cn = cv [ ]
1−n
= (0.7742) [
1−1.25
= 0.4435
kg . K ⁰ ]
QA = mcn (T3 – T2) + mcv (T1 – T3)

QA = (2.5) (-0.4435) (886.9 – 899.2) + (2.5) (0.7442) (950-886.9) = 131 kJ

W = QA - QR = 131 – 132.2 = -1.2 kJ

kJ cycles
[
W = 1.2
cycle ][
100
s
= -120 kW ]

6 Internal Combustion Engine

64
Internal combustion engine is a heat engine deriving its power from the energy liberated by the
explosion of a mixture of some hydrocarbon, in gaseous or vaporized form, with atmospheric air.

A cycle begins with the intake stroke as the piston moves down the cylinder and draws in a fuel-air mixture. Next,
the piston compresses the mixture while moving up the cylinder. At the top of the compression stroke, the spark
plug ignites the mixture. Burning gases push the piston down for the power stroke. The piston then moves up the
cylinder again, pushing the burned gases out during the exhaust stroke.

The four-stroke cycle is one wherein four strokes of the piston, two revolutions, are required to
complete a cycle.

Otto Cycle

The Otto cycle is the ideal prototype of spark-ignition engines

65
 Air-standard cycle means that air alone is the working medium.

1-2: isentropic compression

2-3: constant volume addition of heat
3-4: isentropic expansion
4-1: constant volume rejection of heat

Analysis of the Otto Cycle

Q A =mc v ( T 3−T 2 )
Q R=mc v ( T 1−T 4 ) =−mc v ( T 4 −T 1 )
W =Q A−QR =mcv ( T 3−T 2) −mc v ( T 4 −T 1 )

W mc v ( T 3−T 2 )−mc v ( T 4 −T 1 )
e= =
QA mc v ( T 3−T 2 )

( T 4 −T 1 )
e=1− (1)
( T 3−T 2 )
1
e=1−
k ∙1
rk
V1
where r k = , the isentropic compression ration
V2

66
Derivation of the formula for e

Process 1-2:
k−1
T2 V 1
=
T1 V 2 [ ]
T 2=T 1 r k−1
k (2)

Process 3-4:
k−1 k−1
T3 V 4 V1
=
T4 V 3 [ ] [ ] =
V2

T 3=T 4 r k−1
k (3)

Substituting equations (2) and (3) in equation (1)

T −T 1
4
e=1− k−1
( T4 r k −T 1 r k−1
k )
1
e=1− k−1
r k

Work from the pV plane

p2 V 2 − p1 V 1 p 4 V 4 − p3 V 3
W =∑ W = +
1−k 1−k

Clearance from the pV plane

V 1 V D +V 3 V D + cV D
rk = = =
V2 V3 cV D
1+c
rk =
c

Where c = per cent clearance

V3 = clearance volume

67
 VD = Displacement volume

Ideal Standard of Comparison

Cold-air standard, k = 1.4

Hot-air standard, k < 1.4

The thermal efficiency of the theoretical Otto Cycle is

1. Increased by inrease in rk
2. Increased by increase in k
3. Independent of the hear added

The average family car has a compression ration of about 9:1.

The economical life of the average car is 8 years or 80,000 miles of motoring.

Problems
1. An Otto cycle operates on 0.1 lb/s of air from 13 psia and 130º F at the beginning of
compression. The temperature at the end of combustion is 5000ºR; compression ration is
5.5; hot-air standard, k = 1.3. (a) Find V1, p2, t2, p3, V3, t4, and p4. (b) Compute QA, QR, W,
e, and the corresponding hp.

Solutions

68
 m = 0.1 lb/s

rk = 5.5

k = 1.3

p1 = 13 psia

T1 = 130 + 460 = 590ºR

T3 = 5000ºR

(a) Point 1:

mR T 1 ( 0.1 )( 53.34˙ )( 590 ) ft 3

V̇ 1= = =1.681
p1 ( 13 )( 144 ) s
Point 2:
k
V1
p2= p1
V2 [ ] k 1.3
=p 1 ( r k ) =( 13 ) ( 5.5 ) =119.2 psia

k−1
V1
T 2=T 1
[ ]
V2
=T 1 ( r k )
k−1
=( 590 )( 5.5 )
1.3 −1
=983.9 ° R

t 2=523.9 ° F
V̇ 1 1.681 ft 3
V̇ 2= = =0.3056
rk 5.5 s
Point 3:

ft 3
V̇ 3=V̇ 2=0.3056
s
p2 119.2
p3=T 1
[ ]
T2
=( 5000 )
983.9 [
=605.8 psia ]
Point 4:
k−1 1.3 −1
V3 1
T 4=T 3
V4[ ] =( 500 ) [ ]
5.5
=2998° R

t 4=2538° F

69
 p1 13
p4 =T 4
[ ]
T1
=( 2998 ) [ ]
590
=66.1 psia

R 53.34 Btu
(b) cv= = =0.2285
k −1 (778)(1.3−1) lb . R °
Q̇ A =ṁ c v ( T 3−T 2 )=( 0.1 ) ( 0.2285 ) ( 5000−983.9 )
Btu
Q̇ A =91.77
s
Q̇ R=ṁ c v ( T 1−T 4 ) =( 0.1 ) ( 0.2285 )( 590−2998 )
Btu
Q̇ R=−55.03
s

Btu
W =Q̇ A− Q̇ R =91.77−55.03=36.75
s
Ẇ 36.75
e= = =0.4005∨40.05 %
Q̇ A 91.77
Btu s
W=
( 36.75
s )( 60
min )
=52hp
Btu
42.4
( min)(hp)

2. The conditions at the beginning of compression in an Otto engine operating on hot-air

standard with k = 1.34, are 101.3 kPa, 0.038 m3 and 32ºC. The clearance is 10% and 12.6
kJ are added per cycle. Determine (a) V2, T2, p2, T3, p3, T4 and p4, (b) W, (c) e, and (d) pm.

Solution

p1 = 101.3 kPa

V1 = 0.038 m3

T1 = 32ºC +273 =305 K

70
 R 0.28708 kJ
cv= = =0.8444
k −1 (1.34−1 ) kg ∙ K
˙ )
p1 V 1 ( 101.3 ) ( 0.038
m= = =0.04396 kg
RT 1 ( 0.28708 ) ( 305 )
1+c 1+0.10
rk = = =11
c 0.10
(a) Point 2:
V 1 0.038
V 2= = =0.003455 m3
rk 11
T 2=T 1 r k−1 1.34 −1
k = ( 305 )( 11 ) =689 K
p2= p1 r k−1 1.34
k = ( 101.3 ) ( 11 ) =2518 kPa
Point 3:
Q A =m c v ( T 3−T 2 )
12.6=( 0.04396 ) ( 0.8444 ) ( T 3 −689 )
T 3=1028 K
T3 1028
p3 = p2
[ ]
T2
=( 2518 )
689 (
=3757 kPa )
Point 4:
k−1 k−1
V3 1
T 4=T 3
V4[ ] [] =T 3
rk
=(1028)¿

k k
V3 1
p4 = p3
V4[ ] []
= p3
rk
=( 3757 ) ¿

(b) Q R=m c v ( T 1−T 4 ) =( 0.04396 ) ( 0.8444 ) ( 305−455 )

Q R=−5.57 kJ
W =Q A−Q R =12.6−5.57=7.03 kJ
W 7.03
(c) e= = =0.558∨55.8 %
Q A 12.6
W W 12.6
(d) pm = = = =364.7 kPa
V D V 1−V 2 0.038−0.003455

71
A cycle begins with the intake stroke when the piston moves down and draws air into the cylinder. The piston rises
and compresses the air. During the compression stroke, the temperature of the air rises to about 900ºF (480ºC).
When oil is injected into the cylinder, it mixes with the hot air and burns explosively. Gases produced by this
combustion action push the piston down for the power stroke. During the exhaust stroke, the piston moves up
again and forces the burned gases out of the cyclinder.

1-2: isentropic compression

2-3: constant-pressure addition of heat
3-4: isentropic expansion
4-1: constant-volume rejection of heat

Analysis of the Diesel Cycle

Q A =mc p ( T 3−T 2)
Q R=mc v ( T 1−T 4 ) =−mc v ( T 4 −T 1 )
W =Q A−Q R =mc p ( T 3 −T 2 ) −mc v ( T 4−T 1 )

72
 W mc p ( T 3−T 2) −mc v ( T 4 −T 1 )
e= =
QA mc p ( T 3−T 2 )

( T 4 −T 1 )
e=1− (4)
k ( T 3−T 2 )

r kc −1
e=
1
r k−1
k
[ k ( r c −1 ) ]
V1
where r k = , the compression ratio
V2
V3
rc= , the cutoff ratio
V2
Point 3 is called the cutoff point

Derivation of the formula for e

Process 1-2:
k−1
T2 V 1
=
T1 V 2[ ]
T 2=T 1 r k−1
k (5)
Process 2-3:
T3 V 3
= =r
T2 V 2 c
T 3=T 1 r k−1
k rc (6)

Process 3-4:
k−1 k−1
T4 V 3 V r r k−1
=
T3 V 4[ ] [ ] = 2 c
V1
= c

r k−1
k

r k−1
T 4=T r
k−1
1 k c r
[ ]c

r k−1
k

T 4=T 1 r kc (7)

73
Substituting equations (5), (6), and (7) in equation (4)

T 1 r kc −T 1
e=1− ❑ k−1
k(T 1 r k r c −T 1 r k−1
k )

r k−1
c
e=1− k−1
kr k (r c −1)

k−1 r kc −1
e=1−r k ¿ ¿
k (r c −1)

The efficiency of the Diesel cycle differs from that of the Otto cycle by the bracketed factor

r kc −1
. This factor is always greater than 1, because r c is always greater than 1. Thus, for a particular
k (r c −1)
compression ratio rk, the Otto cycle is more efficient. However, since the Diesel engine compresses air
only, the compression ratio is higher than in an Otto engine. An actual Diesel engine with a compression
ration of 15 is more efficient than an actual Otto engine with a compression ratio of 9.

Relation among rk, rc, and re (expansion ratio)

V4 V1
re= =
V3 V3
V1 V3 V1
rk = =
V2 V2 V3[ ][ ]
r k =r c r e

Problems
1. A Diesel cycle operates with a compression ratio of 13.5 and with a cutoff occuring at
6% of the stroke. State 1 is defined by 14 psia and 140ºF. For the hot-air standard with k
= 1.34 and for an initial 1 cu. ft, compute (a) t2, p2, V2, t3, V3, p4, and t4, (b) QR, (c) W, (d)
e and pm. (e) For a rate of circulation of 1000 cfm, compute the horsepower.

74
Solution
rk = 13.5

k = 1.34

p1 = 14 psia

T1 = 140 + 460 = 600ºR

V1 = 1 cu. ft

R 53.34 Btu
cv= = =0.2016
k −1 (778 ) (1.34−1) lb . R°
Btu
c p=k c v =( 1.34 )( 0.2016 )=0.2702
lb . R °
˙ )(1)
p1 V 1 (14)(144
m= = =0.630 lb
RT 1 (53.34)(600)
(a) Point 2:
V1 1
V 2= = =0.0741 ft 3
r k 13.5
T 2=T 1 r k−1 1.34−1
k = ( 600 )( 13.5 ) =1454 ° R
t 2=994 ° F

p2= p1 r kk =( 14 ) (13.5 )1.34=457.9 psia

Point 3:
V 3=V 2+0.06 V D =V 2+ 0.06(V 1−V 2 )
V 3=0.0741+ ( 0.06 ) (1−0.0741 )=0.1297 ft 3
V3 0.1297
T 3=T 2
[ ]
V2
=( 1454 ) (
0.0741 )
=2545 ° R

t 3=2085 ° F
Point 4:

75
 k−1
V3
T 4=T 3
V4[ ] =(2545) ¿

t 4=811 ° F
k
V3
p4 = p3
V4[ ]
=( 457.9 ) ¿

(b) Q A =m c p ( T 3−T 2 )=( 0.063 ) ( 0.2702 ) (2545−1454 )

Q A =18.57 Btu
Q R=m c v ( T 1−T 4 ) =( 0.063)(0.2016)( 600−1271)
Q R=8.52 Btu
(c) W =Q A−QR =18.57−8.52=10.05 Btu
W 10.05
(d) e= = =0.5412∨54.12 %
Q A 18.57
( 10.05 ) ( 778 )
pm = =58.64 psi
( 1−0.0741 )( 144 )
Btu ft 3
(e) W=
[ 10.05
ft 3 ][
1000
min ]
=237 hp
Btu
42.4
min. hp

2. There are supplied 317 kJ/cycle to an ideal Diesel engine operating on 227 g air:
p1 = 97.91 kPa, t1 = 48.9ºC. At the end of compression, p2 = 3930 kPa. Determine (a) rk, (b) c, (c) rc,
(d) W (e) e, and (f) pm.

Solution

m = 0.227 kg

p1 = 97.91 kPa

T1 = 48.9 + 273 = 321.9 K

p2 = 3930 kPa

QA = 317 kJ/cycle
Point 1:

76
 mR T 1 (0.227)(0.28708)(321.9) 3
V 1= = =0.2143 m
p1 97.91
Point 2:

p1 1k 97.91
V 2=V 1 =[
p2
] =( 0.2143 ) [
3930
=0.0153m ]
3

k−1 1.4 −1
p2 3930
T 2=T 1 =
p1 [ ] k
=( 321.9 )
[
p2 97.91 ] 1.4
=924.4 K

Point 3:
Q A =m c p ( T 3−T 2 )

317 =(0.227)(1.0062)( T 3−924.4 )

T3 2312
T 3=2312 K V 3=V 2=
T2
=( 0.0153 )
3930924.4[=0.0383 m
3
]
Point 4 :
k−1 1.4 −1
V3 0.0283
T 4=T 3=
V4 [ ] [
=( 2312 )
0.2143 ] =1161 k

V 1 0.2143
(a) r k = = =14
V 2 0.0153
1+c
(b) r k =
c
1+ c
14=
c
c=0.0769∨7.69 %
V 3 0.0383
(c) r c = = =2.50
V 2 0.0153
(d) Q R=m c v ( T 1−T 4 ) =( 0.227 ) ( 0.7186 ) ( 321.9−1161 )
Q R=−136.9 kJ
W =Q A−QR =317−136.9=180.1 kJ
W 180.1
(e) e= = =0.5681∨56.81 %
Q A 317
W W 180.1
(f) pm = = = =905 kPa
V D V 1−V 2 0.2143−0.0153

77
 Dual Combustion Engine
In modern compression ignition engines the pressure is not constant during the combustion
process but varies in the manners illustrated in the figures below. The major part of combustion can be
considered to approach a constant-volume process, and the late burning, a constant-pressure process.

1-2: isentropic compression

2-3: constant-volume addition of heat
3-4: constant-pressure addition of heat
4-5: isentropic expansion
5-1: constant-volume rejection of heat
Analysis Dual Combustion Cycle
Q A =mc v ( T 3−T 2 )+ mc p ( T 4−T 3 )
Q R=mc v ( T 1−T 5 )=−mcv ( T 5 −T 1 )
W =Q A−QR =mcv ( T 3−T 2) + mc p ( T 4−T 3 )−mc v ( T 5−T 1 )

W mc v ( T 3−T 2 )+ mc p ( T 4−T 3 )−mcv ( T 5−T 1 )

e= =
QA mc v ( T 3−T 2 ) +mc p ( T 4−T 3 )

( T 5−T 1 )
e=1− (8)
( T 3−T 2 ) +k (T 4 −T 3)
r p r kc −1
e=
1
r k−1
k
[ r p −1+ r p k ( r c −1 ) ]
78
 p3
where r p = , the pressure ratio during the constant volume portion of combustion
p2
V1
rk = , the compression ratio
V2
V4
rc= , the cutoff ratio
V3

The thermal efficiency of this cycle lies between that of the ideal Otto and the ideal Diesel.

Derivation of the formula for e

Process 1-2:
k−1
T2 V 1
=
T1 V 2[ ]
T 2=T 1 r k−1
k (9)

Process 2-3:
T3 p3
= =r
T2 p2 p
T 3=T 1 r k−1
k rp (10)

Process 3-4:
T4 V 4
= =r
T3 V 3 c
T 4=T 1 r k−1
k r p rc (11)

Process 4-5:
k−1 k−1 k−1 k−1
T5 V 4 V V r V r r k−1
=
T4 V 5[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
= 4
V1
= 3 c
V1
= 2 c
V1
= c

r k−1
k

79
T 5=T 1 r p r kc (12)

Substituting equations (9), (10), (11), and (12) in equation (8).

T 1 r p r kc −T 1
e=1− k−1 k−1 k−1 k−1
(T ¿¿ 1 r k r p−T 1 r k )+ k (T 1 r k r p r c −T 1 r k r p )¿
1
e=1− k−1
¿
r k

Problems
1. At the beginning of compression in an ideal dual combustion cycle, the working fluid is 1 lb of
air at 14.5 psia and 80ºF. The compression ratio is 9, the pressure at the end of the constant volume
addition of heat is 470 psia, and there are added 100 Btu dutring the constant pressure expansion. Find
(a) rp, (b) rc, (c) the precentage clearance, (d) e, and (e) p m.

Solution

m = 1 lb air

p1 = 14.1 psia

T1 = 80 + 460 = 540ºR

p3 = 470 psia

rk = 9
Point 1: Q3-4 = 100 Btu

mR T 1 (1)(53.34)(540) 3
V 1= = =14.186 ft
p1 (14.1)(144)
Point 2:
V 1 14.186 3
V 2= = =1.576 ft T 2=T 1 ¿
rk 9
p2= p1 ¿
Point 3:

80
 p3 470
T 3=T 2
[ ]
p2
=( 1300 )[305.6 ]
=1999 ° R

Point 4:
Q 3−4 =( m)(c p ) ( T 4 −T 3 )

100= (1 )( 0.24 ) ( T 4 −1999 )T 4=2416 ° R

T4 2416
V 4 =V 3
[ ]
T3
= (1.576 ) [ ]
1999
=1.905 ft 3

Point 5:
T 5=T 4 ¿
p3 470
(a) r p = = =1.54
p2 305.6
V 4 1.905
(b) r c = = =1.21
V 3 1.576
1+c
(c) r k =
c
1+ c
9=
c
c=0.125∨12.5 %
(d) Q A =Q 3−4 +Q 3−4 =( m ) ( c v )( T 3−T 2 ) +100

¿ ( 1 ) ( 0.1714 ) ( 1999−1300 ) +100=219.8 Btu

Q R=( m ) ( c v ) ( T 1 −T 5 ) =( 1 )( 0.1714 )( 540−1082 )=−92.9 Btu
W 219.8−92.9
e= = =0.5773∨57.73 %
QA 219.8
W (126.9) ( 778 )
pm = = =54.37 psi
V 1−V 2 (14.186−1.576)(144)

2. An ideal dual combustion cycle operates on 454 g of air. At the beginning of compression, the air is at
96.53 kPa, 43.3ºC. Let rp = 1.5, rc = 1.60, and rk = 11. Determine (a) the percentage clearance, (b) p, V,
and T at each corner of the cycle, (c) Q A, (d) e, and (e) pm. m = 0.454 kg of air

p1 = 96.53 kPa
Solution
T1 = 43.3 +273 = 316.3 K

81 rp = 1.5

rc = 1.60

rk = 11
 1+c
(a) r k =
c
1+ c
11=
c
c=0.10∨10 %
mR T 1 (0.454)( 0.28708)(316.3) 3
(b) V 1= = =0.4271 m
p1 96.53
V 1 0.4271
V 2= = =0.03883m3T 2=T 1 ¿
rk 11
p2= p1 ¿
p3=( p¿¿ 2) ( r p ) =( 2770.8 ) ( 1.5 )=4156.2kPa ¿

p3 4156.2
T 3=T 2
[ ]
p2
=( 825.4 ) (
2770.8
=1238.1 K )
V 4 =(V ¿ ¿3) ( r c )= ( 0.03883 )( 1.60 ) =0.06213 m3 ¿
V4
T 4=T 3
[ ]
V3
=( 1238.1 ) (1.6 )=1981 K

T 5=T 4 ¿
T5 916.2
p5 = p1
[ ]
T1
=( 96.53 )
316.3(=279.6 kPa)
(c)Q A =( m ) ( c v )( T 3−T 2 ) + ( m ) ( c p )( T 4 −T 3 )

¿ ( 0.454 )( 0.7186 )( 1238.1−825.4 ) + ( 0.454 )( 1.0062 ) (1981−1238.1 )

¿ 474 kJ
(d) Q R=( m ) ( c v ) ( T 1 −T 5 ) =( 0.454 ) ( 0.7186 ) ( 316.3−916.2 )=195.7 kJ
W =Q A−Q R =474−195.7=278.3 kJ
W 278.3
e= = =0.5871∨58.71 %
Q A 474

82
 W 278.3
(e) pm = = =716.8 kPa
V 1−V 2 0.4271−0.03883

83
 7 Gas Compressors

GAS COMPRESSOR
Operation of Compressor

Figure 18
shows a

conventional indicator card for a compressor without clearance. As the position starts the stroke
4-1, the inlet valve opens and gas is drawn into the cylinder along the line 4-1. At point 1, the
piston starts the return stroke, all valves, being closed, and the gas is compressed along the curve
1-2. At 2, the discharge valve opens and the compressed gas is delivered to the receiver.
The events of the diagram with clearance are the same as those with no clearance, except
that since the piston does not force all the gas from the cylinder at the pressure p 2, the remaining
gas must re-expand to the intake pressure, process 3-4, before intake starts again. Without
clearance, the volume of gas taken into the cylinder is equal to the displacement volume. As seen
from Fig. 19 for the diagram with clearance, the volume of gas drawn into the cylinder is V 1 - V4
= Vi‘ and is less than the displacement volume VD.
p1Vi‘ = m'RT1
p1V1 = m1RT1
where
m1 = m' + mc , total mass after admission
m' = mass of gas drawn in and delivered
mc = clearance of residual gas
Vi‘ = volume of gas drawn in, corresponding to mass m'
p1 = pressure at start of compression
T1 = temperature at start of compression
V1 = total volume at end of admission, corresponding to mass m1

Compressor Work

Q = ΔP + ΔK + ΔH + W

84
W = Q - ΔK – ΔH
W = Q – ΔH
(ΔK = 0)

For reciprocating compressors, ΔK is negligible.

(a) Adiabatic compression (ΔK = 0)

(b) Polytropic compression (ΔK = 0)

(c)Isothermal compression (ΔK = 0)

85
 Preferred Compression Curves

The work necessary to drive the compressor

decreases as the value of n decreases. Polytropic
compression and values of n less than k are brought about
by circulating cooling water.

Comparison of work for Isothermal and for Isentropic Comparison.

Heat Rejected
The heat rejected during compression 1-2 is,
Q1-2 = m1 cn (T2 – T1 )

Problems
1. A rotary compressor receives 6m3 / min of a gas ( R = 410 J/ kg.K, c p = 1.03 kJ/ kg.K, k =
1.67) at 105 kPa, 27° C and delivers it at 630 kPa. Find the work if compression is (a)
isentropic, (b) polytropic with pV1.4 = C, and isothermal.

Solution

86
(a) Isentropic compression

(b)Polytropic compression

(c) Isothermal compression

87
 2. A centrifugal compressor handles 300 cu ft per minute of air at 14.7 psia and 80 ° F. Th
air is compressed to 30 psia. The initial speed is 35 fps and the final speed is 170 fps. If
the compression is polytropic with n = 1.32, what is the work?

Solution

Volumetric Efficiency

88
Conventional Volumetric Efficiency = volume of gas drawn in
Displacement volume

Displacement volume VD is the volume swept by the face of the piston in one stroke.
The clearance ratio or per cent clearance, c = V3
VD

then,

If the compression process is isentropic, let n = k.

where:
D = diameter of piston
L = length of stroke
N = number of cycle completed per minute
N = (n) (1) (number of cylinders), for single-acting compressors
N = (n) (2) (number of cylinders), for double -acting compressors
n = compressor speed, revolution per minute, rpm

A single- acting compressor makes one complete cycle in one revolution

A double- acting compressor makes two complete cycles in one revolution.

Free Air
Free air is air at normal atmospheric conditions in a particular geographical location.

89
Problems

1. A twin- cylinder, double- acting compressor with a clearance of 5% handles 20 m 3 /min

of nitrogen from 100kPa, 37° C to 725 kPa. Compression and expansion are polytropic
with
n = 1.30. Find (a) the work, (b) the heat rejected, and (c) the bore and stroke for 150 rpm
and L/D = 1.30.

Solution

90
2. A single- acting air compressor operates at 150 rpm with initial condition of air at 97.9
kPa and 27° C and discharges the air at 379 kPa to a cylindrical tank. The bore and stroke
are 355 mm and 381 mm, respectively with a percentage clearance of 5%. If surrounding
air are at 100 kPa and 20° C while the compression and expansion processes are pV1.3 = C.
Determine (a) Free air capacity in m3 /s. (b) Power of the compressor in kW. (ME Board
Problem – Oct 1986)

91
92
3. A single – acting air compressor with a clearance of 6% takes in air at atmospheric
pressure and a temperature of 85 ° F, and discharges it at a pressure of 85 psia. The air
handled is 0.25 cu ft per cycle measured at discharge pressure. If the compression is
isentropic, find (a) piston displacement per cycle, and (b) air hp of compressor if rpm is
750. (ME Board Problem – March 1978)

4. A single – acting compressor has a volumetric efficiency of 87% and operates at 500
rpm. It takes in air at 100 kPa and 30° C and discharges it at 600 kPa. The air handled is 6
cu m per min measured at discharge condition. If the compression is isentropic, find (a)
piston displacement per stroke in cu m, and (b) mean effective pressure in kPa. (ME
Board Problem – April 1983)

93
5. A compressor is to be designed with 6% clearance to handle 500 cfm of air at 14.7 psia
and 70° F, the state at the beginning of compression stroke. The compression is isentropic
to 90.3 psig.
(a) What displacement in cfm is necessary?
(b) If the compressor is used at an altitude of 6000 ft and if the initial temperature and
discharge pressure remain the same as given in (a), by what percentage is the capacity of
the compressor reduced?

94
 (c) What should be the displacement of a compressor at the altitude of 6000 ft to handle the
same mass of air as in (a)?

(b) Barometric pressure at 6000 ft = 11.78 psia or 23.99 in Hg

New intake pressure, p1N = 11.78 psia
New discharge pressure p2N = 90.3 + 11.78 psia

Compressor Efficiency

95
 In general, efficiency = ideal work
actual work

A. Mechanical Efficiency
The mechanical efficiency of a compressor is

nm = indicated work of compressor, WI

brake work of compressor, WB

If the compressor is driven by a steam or internal combustion engine, the mechanical

efficiency of the compressor system is

nms = indicated work of compressor

indicated work of driving engine

B. Compression Efficiency

Adiabatic compression efficiency is

nc = adiabatic ideal work

indicated work of compressor

Isothermal compression efficiency is

nt = isothermal ideal work

indicated work of compressor

Polytropic compression efficiency is

np = polytropic ideal work

indicated work of compressor

C. Overall Efficiency

Overall efficiency is

no = (mechanical efficiency) (compression efficiency)

Adiabatic overall efficiency is

96
 noc = adiabatic ideal work
WB

Isothermal overall efficiency is

not = isothermal ideal work

WB

Polytropic overall efficiency is

nop = polytropic ideal work

WB

Indicated work is the work done in the cylinder.

Brake work or shaft work is the work delivered at the shaft.
Adiabatic compression efficiency is the compression efficiency commonly used.
Compression efficiency, therefore, would mean adiabatic compression efficiency.

Problems

1. A two – cylinder, single – acting air compressor is directly coupled to an electric motor
running at 1000 rpm.
Other data as follows:
Size of each cylinder, 150 mm x 200 mm
Clearance volume, 10% of displacement
Exponent (n) for both compression and re-expansion process, 1.6
Air constant, k = 1.4
Air molecular mass, 29

Calculate:
(a) The volume rate of air delivery in terms of standard air for a delivery pressure of 8 times
ambient pressure under ambient conditions of 300 K and 1 bar.
(b) Shaft power required if the mechanical efficiency is 81%. (ME Board Problem – April 1984)

97
2. A 12 x 14 – in. double – acting air compressor with 5.5% clearance operates at 150 rpm,
drawing air at 14.5 psia and 85° F and discharging it at 62 psia, the compression and expansion
processes are polytopic with n = 1.34. Determine (a) the volume of free air handled per minute, if
atmospheric conditions are 82° F and 14.7 psia, (b) the heat ejected, (c) the indicated work
compressor if the compression efficiency is 87%, and (d) the ideal work.

98
99
100
3. There are compressed 8.48 kg/min of oxygen by a 35.56 x 35.56 – cm, doble – acting, motor
driven compressor operating at 100 rpm. These data apply: p1 = 101.35 kPa, t1 = 26.7° C and p2 =
310.27 kPa. Compression and expansion are polytropic with n = 1.31. Determine (a) the
conventional volumetric efficiency, (b) heat rejected, (c) the work, and (d) the KW input by the
driving motor for an overall adiabatic efficiency of 71%.

101
 Multistage Compression

Multistaging is simply the compression of the gas in two or more cylinders in place of a
single – cylinder compressor. It is used in reciprocating compressors in order to (1) save power,
(2) limit the gas discharge temperature, and (3) limit the pressure differential per cylinder.

102
 The figures
above show the events of the conventional cards of a two – stage machine, with the high pressure
(HP) superposed on the low pressure (LP). Suction in the LP cylinder begins at A and the V’ 1 is
drawn in. Compression 1 – 2 occurs and the gas is discharged along 2 – B. The discharged gas
passes through the intercooler and is cooled by circulating water through the intercooler tubes.
Conventionally, it is assumed that the gas leaving the intercooler and entering the HP cylinder
has the same temperature as it had upon entering the LP cylinder (T 3 = T1). The gas is then into
the HP cylinder along E – 3, is compressed 3 – 4, and finally discharged from the compressor
unit 4 – F. The residual gas always remains in each cylinder because of clearance and must re-
expand F – E (HP cylinder) and B – A (LP cylinder)

W = W of the low pressure cylinder + W of the high pressure cylinder

It is common practice to adjust the operation of multistage compressors so that

approximately equal works are done in the cylinders, a practice that results in minimum work for
compressing a given quantity of gas. Thus for the particular case of T1 = T3 and of p2 = p3 = px , we
have the work of the LP stage equal to that of the HP stage, or

103
 where px = intermediate pressure for minimum work

Since the work of each cylinder is the same, the total work for the two – stage machine is
twice the work in each cylinder, or

A pressure drop in the intercooler could be spread on each side of this ideal value.

p2 = px + pressure drop
2

p3 = px – pressure drop
2

Heat Transferred in Intercooler

the heat rejected in the intercooler is,

QIC = m’ cp (T3 – T2 )

where m’ is the mass of a gas passing through the intercooler (also the mass drawn in by the LP
cylinder and delivered by the HP cylinder).

Problems

1. There are compressed 11.33 m3 /min of air from 26.7°C, 103.42 kPa to 827.36 kPa. All
clearance are 8%.
(a) Find the isentropic power and piston displacement required for a single stage
compression.
(b) Using the same data, find the minimum ideal work for two- stage compression
when the intercooler cools the air to the initial temperature.
(c) Find the displacement of each cylinder for the conditions of part (b).
(d) How much heat is exchange in the intercooler?
(e) For the overall compression efficiency of 78%, what driving motor output is required?

104
105
2. A two- staged, double-acting compressor is to deliver 90 lb/min of air from 14.3 psia and 90°F
to a final pressure of 185 psia. The normal barometer is i29.8 in. Hg and the temperature is 80°F.
the pressure drop in the intercooler is 3 psi and the temperature of the air at the exit of the
intercooler is 90°F., the speed is 210 rpm and pV 1.34 = C during compression and expansion. The
clearance is 5% for both cylinders. The temperature of the cooling water increase by 18°F. Find
(a) the volume of free air, (b) the discharge pressure of the low pressure cylinder for minimum
work, (c) the temperature at discharge from both low pressure and high pressure cylinders, (d)
the mass of cooling water to be circulated about each cylinder and through the intercooler, (e) the
work, (f) if, for the low pressure cylinder, L/D = 0.68 and if both cylinders have the same stroke,
what should be the cylinder dimensions?

106
107
108
109
110
Problem

Air is compressed from 103. 4kPa and 32°C to 4136 kPa by a three- stage compressor
with the value of n = 1.32. Determine (a) the work per kg of air and (b) the heat rejected in the
intercoolers.

8 Brayton Cycle

111
Operation of a Simple Gas Turbine power plant

Fig. 26 Diagrammatic Layout of Gas Turbine Units

Air continuously enters the compressor 1. After compression, it enters the combustors, some of it going
around the outside of the combustion chamber proper and the remainder furnishing oxygen for burning
the fiel which continuously injected into the combustion chamber. Because of their temperature rise,
the gases expand and enter the turbine in state expansion through the turbine, the exhaust to the
atmosphere is in some condition 4. In an ordinary power plant arrangement, the work of the turbine W T,
is great enough to drive the compressor W c and deliver brake work WB t drive, say, a generator or
propeller; Wt = WB + Wc. An external source of power is needed to start a turbine unit.

112
113
114
Problems
1. The intake of the compressor of an air-standard Brayton cycle is 40000 cfm at 15 psia and 90
o
F. The compression ratio, r=5 and the temperature at the turbine inlet is 1440 oF. The exit
pressure of the turbine is 15 psia. Deretmine the net work, thermal efficiency and the mean
effective pressure.

2. There are required 2238 net kW form a gas turbine unit for the pumping of crude oil from
North Alaskan Slope. Air enters the compressor section at 99.975 kPaa, 278 oK; the pressure
ratio is rp = 10. The turbine section receives the hot gases at 1111 oK. Assume the closed
Brayton cycle, and find:

a)The required air flow  

b)The thermal efficiency

c)For the maximum work, what should be the temperature of the air leaving the compressor
section?

115
116
Chapter 1
Review Problems

1. What is the mass in grams and the weight in dynes and in gram-force of 12 oz of salt? Local g
is 9.65 m/s2 1 lbm = 16 oz.

Ans. 340.2 gm; 328,300 dynes; 334.8 gf

2. The mass of a given airplane at sea level (g = 32.1 fps 2) is 10 tons. Find its mass in lb, slugs,
and kg and its (gravitational) weight in lb when it is travelling at a 50,000-ft elevation. The
acceleration of gravity g decreases by 3.33 × 10-6 fps2 for each foot of elevation.

Ans. 20,000 lbm; 621.62 slugs; 19,850 lbf

3. the mass of a fluid system is 0.311 slug, its density is 30 lb/ft 3 and g is 31.90 fps2. Find (a) the
specific volume, (b) the specific weight, and (c) the total volume.

Ans. (a) 0.0333 ft3/lb; (b) 29.75 lb/ft3; (c) 0.3335 ft3

4. A weatherman carried an aneroid barometer from the ground floor to his office atop the Sears
Tower in Chicago on the ground level, the barometer read 30.150 in. Hg absolute; topside it read
28.607 in. Hg absolute. Assume that the average atmospheric air density was 0.075 lb/ft 3 and
estimate the height of the building.

Ans. 13.28 kPa

5. Convert the following readings of pressure to kPa absolute, assuming that the barometer reads
760 mm Hg: (a) 90 cm Hg gage; (b) 40 cm Hg vacuum; (c) 100 psig; (d) 8 in. Hg vacuum, and
(e) 76 in. Hg gage.

Ans. (a) 221.24 kPa; (b) 48 kPa; (c) 790.83 kPa; (d) 74.213 kPa; (e) 358.591 kPa

6. A mass of 0.10 slug in space is subjected to an external vertical force of 4 lb. If the local
gravity acceleration is g= 30.5 fps2 and if friction effects are neglected, determine the
acceleration of the mass if the external vertical force is acting (a) upward (b) downward.
Ans. (a) 9.5 fps2; (b) 70.5 fps2

117
7. A lunar excursion module (LEM) weights 1500kgf on the earth where g= 9.75 mps2. What will
be its weight on the surface of the moon where g m= 1.70mps2. On the surface of the moon, What
will be the force in kgf and in newtons required to accelerate the module at 10 mps2?
Ans. 261.5 kgf; 1538.5 kgf; 15, 087 N

8. A cylindrical drum (2-ft diameter, 3-ft height) is filled with a fluid whose density is 40 lb/ft 3.
Determine (a) the total volume of fluid, (b) its total mass in pounds and slugs, (c) its specific
volume, and (d) its specific weight where g= 31.90fps2.
Ans. (a) 9.43 ft3; (b) 377.2 lb; 11.72 slugs; (c) 0.025ft3/lb; (d) 39.66 lb/ft3

9. A vacuum gauge mounted on a condenser reads 0.66m Hg. What is the absolute pressure in
the condenser in kPa when the atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa? Ans. 13.28 kPa

10. A fluid moves in a steady flow manner between two sections in a flow line. At section 1: A 1=
10 ft2, Ʋ1= 100 fpm v1= 4ft3/lb. At section 2: A2= 2 ft2, ƿ2= 0.20 lb/ft3. Calculate (a) the mass flow
rate and (b) the speed at section 2. Ans. (a) 15,000 lb/h; (b) 10.42 fps
11. If a pump discharges 75 gpm of water whose specific weight is 61.5 lb/ft³ (g= 31.95 fps²),
find (a) the mass flow rate in lb/min. and (b) and total time required to fill a vertical cylinder tank
10 ft in diameter and 12 ft high. Ans. (a) 621.2 lb/min (b) 93.97 min

118
Chapter 2
Review Problems

1. Assuming that there are no heat effects and no frictional effects, find the kinetic energy and
speed of a 3220-lb body after it falls 778 ft from rest. Start with the steady flow equation,
deleting energy terms which are irrelevant. Ans. 224 fps
2. Steam enters a turbine with an enthalpy of 1292 Btu/lb and leaves with an enthalpy of 1098
Btu/lb. The transferred heat is 13 Btu/lb. What is the work in Btu/min and in hp for a flow of 2
lb/sec? Ans. 512.3 hp
3. Air flows steadily at the rate of 0.5 kg/s through an air compressor, entering at 7 m/s speed,
100 kPa pressure and, 0.95 m3/kg specific volume, and leaving at 5 m/s, 700 kPa and 0.19m3/kg.
The internal energy of the air leaving is 90 kJ/kg greater than that of air entering. Cooling water
in the compressor jackets absorbs heat from the air at the rate of 58 kW. Compute the work in
kW. Ans. -122 kW
4. In a steady flow apparatus, 135 kJ of work is done by each kg of fluid. The specific volume of
the fluid, pressure and speed at the inlet are 0.37 m3/kg, 600 kPa, and 16 m/s. The inlet is 32 m
above the floor, and the discharge pipe is at floor level. The discharge conditions are 0.62 m3/kg,
100 kPa, and 270 m/s. The total heat loss between the inlet and discharge is 9 kJ/kg of fluid. In
flowing through this apparatus, does the specific internal energy increase or decrease, and by
how much? Ans. -20.01 kJ/kg
5.Steam enters a turbine stage with an enthalpy of 3628 kJ/kg at 70 m/s and leaves the same
stage with an enthalpy of 3846 kJ/kg and a velocity of 124 m/s. Calculate the work done by the
steam. Ans. 776.8 kJ/kg
6. A reciprocating compressor draws in 500 cubic feet per minute of air whose density is 0.079
lb/cu ft and discharges it with a density of 0.304 lb/cu ft. At the sunction, p1 = 15 psia; at
discharge, p2 = 80 psia. The increase in specific internal energy is 33.8 Btu/lb and the heat
transferred from the air by cooling is 13 Btu/lb. Determine the work on the air in Btu/min and in
hp. Neglect the change in the kinetic energy.
Ans: 56.25 hp
7. A thermodynamic steady flow system receives 4.56 kg per minute of a fluid where p1 = 137.90
kPa, v1 = 0.0388 m³/kg, v1 = 122 m/s and u1 = 17.16 kJ/kg. The fluid leaves the system at a
boundary where p2 = 551.6 kPa, v2 = 0.193 m³/kg, v2 = 183 m/s and u2 = 52.80 kJ/kg. During the
passage through the system, the fluid receives 3000 J/s of heat. Determine the work.
Ans: -486 kJ/min

119
Chapter 3
Review Problems

1. An automobile tire is inflated to 32 psig pressure at 50 degrees F. After being driven the
temperature rise to 75 degrees F. Determine the final gage pressure assuming the volume
remains constant. Ans. 34.29 psig (EE Board problem)
3
2. If 100 ft of atmospheric air at zero Fahrenheit temperature are compressed to a volume of 1
ft3 at a temperature of 200 degrees F, what will be the pressure of the air in psi?
Ans. 2109 psia
3
3. A 10-ft tank contains gas at a pressure of 500 psia, temperature of 85 degrees F, and a
weight of 25 pounds. A part of the gas was discharged and the temperature and pressure
changed to 70 degrees F and 300 psia, respectively. Heat was applied and the temperature
was back to 85 degrees F. Find the final weight, volume, and pressure of the gas.
Ans. 15.43 lb; 10ft3 ; 308.5 psia
4. Four hundred cubic centimeters of gas at 740 mm Hg absolute and 18 degrees C undergoes a
process until the pressure becomes 760 mm Hg absolute and the temperature 0 degrees C.
What is the final volume of the gas?
Ans. 365 cc
5. A motorist equips his automobile tires with a relief-type valve so that the pressure inside the
tire never will exceed 240 kPa(gage). He starts a trip with a pressure of 200 kPa (gage) and a
temperature of 23 degrees C in the tires. During the long drive, the temperature of the air in
the tires reaches 83 degrees c. Each tire contains 0.11 kg of air. Determine a) the mass of air
escaping each tire, b) the pressure of the tire when the temperature returns to 23 degrees C.
Ans. A) 0.0064 kg; b) 182.48 kPA (gage)
3
6. A 6-m tank contains helium at 400 K and is evacuated from atmospheric pressure to a
pressure of 740 mm Hg vacuum. Determine a) mass of helium remaining in the tank, b) mass
of helium pumped out, c) the temperature of the remaining helium falls to 10 degrees C.
What is the pressure in kPa?
Ans. A) 0.01925 kg; b) 0.7123 kg; c) 1.886 kPa
7. An automobile tank contains 3730 cu in air at 32 psig and 80 degrees F. a) What mass of air
is in the tire? B) In operation, the air temperature increases to 145 degrees C. If the tire is
inflexible, what is the resulting percentage increase in gage pressure? C) What mass of the
145 degrees F air must be bled off to reduce the pressure back to its original value?
Ans. A) 0.5041 lb b) 17.53% c) 0.0542 lb
8. A spherical balloon is 40 ft in diameter and surrounded by air of 60°F and 29.92 abs. (a) If the
balloon is filled with hydrogen at a temperature of 70°F and atmospheric pressure, what total
load can it lift? (b) If it contains helium instead of hydrogen, other conditions remaining the
same, what load can it lift? (c) Helium is nearly twice as heavy as hydrogen. Does it have half
lifting force? R for hydrogen is 766.54 and for helium is 386.04 ft.lb/lb°R.
Ans: (a) 2381 lb, (b) 2,209 lb
9. A reservoir contains 2.83 cu. m of carbon monoxide at 6,895 kPa and 23.6°C. An
evacuated tank is filled from a reservoir to a pressure of 3497 kPa and a temperature of

120
12.4°C, while the pressure in the reservoir decreases to 6,205 kPa and the temperature is
18.3°C. What is the volume of the tank? R for CO is 296.92 J/kg.°K.
Ans: 0.451 m³
10. A gas initially at 15 psia and 2 cu ft undergoes a process to 90 psia and 0.60 cu ft, during
which enthalpy increases by 15.5 Btu. cv = 2.44 Btu/lb.R°. Determine (a) ∆U, (b) cp , and (c)
R.
Ans: (a) 11.06 Btu, (b) 3.42 Btu/lb.R°, (c) 762.4 ft.lb/lb.R°
11. For a certain gas, R= 0.277 kJ/kg.K and k=1.384. (a) What are the value of cp and cv? (b)
what mass of this gas would occupy a volume of 0.425 cu m at 517.11 kPa and volume in (b),
what are the resulting temperature and pressure?

Ans. (a) 0.7214 and 0.994 kJ/kgR⁰; (b) 2.647 kg (c) 43. 27 ⁰C , 545.75 kPa

121
Chapter 4
Review Problems

1. If 10 kg/min of air are compressed isothermally from P₁ = 96 kPa and V₁ = 7.85 m³/min
to P₂ = 620 kPa, find the work, the change of entropy and the heat (a) nonflow process
and (b) a steady flow process with V₁ = 15 m/s and v₂ = 60 m/s.
Ans. (a) – 1370 kJ/min, -5.356 kJ/K.min; (b) – 1386.9kJ/min
2. One pound of an ideal gas undergoes an isentropic process from 95.3 psig and a volume
of 0.6ft³ to a final volume of 3.6ft³. If cₚ = 0.124 and cᵥ = 0.093 Btu/lb.R, what are (a) t₂
(b) P₂ (c) AH (d) W.
Ans. (a) -243.1°F ; (b)10.09 psia ; (c) -21.96 Btu; (d) 16.48 Btu
3. A certain ideal gas whose R = 278.6 J/kg.K and cᵥ = 1.015 kJ/kg.K expands isentropically
from 1517 kPa, 288°C to 365 kPa. For 454 g/s of this gas determine, (a) W₀, (b) V₂, (c)
ΔU and (g) ΔH.
Ans. (a) 21.9 kJ/s (b) 0.06495 m³/s (d) -30.18 kJ/s
4. A polytropic process of air from 500 psia, 300°F, and 1 ft³ occurs to P₂ = 20 psia in
accordance with pV ¹.³ = C. Determine (a) t₂ and v₂ (b) ΔU, ΔH, ΔS (c) ∫pdV and - ∫Vdp.
(d) Compute the heat from polytropic specific heat and check by the equation Q= ΔU +
∫pdV, € Find the nonflow work and (f) steady flow work for ΔK = 0.
Ans. (a) 17.4°F, 4.71t ft³; (b) -25.81 Btu,-36.4 Btu, 0.0141 Btu/°R; (c) 34.41
Btu, 44.73 Btu; (d) 8.60 Btu; (e) 34.41 Btu; (f) 44073 Btu
5. The work required to compress a gas reversibly according to pV¹.³⁰ = C is 67. 790 J, if
there is no flow. Determine ΔU and Q if the gas is (a) air, (b) methane, l = 1.321, R =
518.45 J/kg.K, cᵥ 1.6187 kJ; cₚ = 2.1377 kJ/kg.K.
Ans. (a) 50.91 KJ, -16.88 kJ; (b) 63.50 kJ; - 4.29 kJ

122
 Chapter 5
Review Problems

1. The working substance for the Carnot cycle is 8 lb. of air. The volume at the beginning of
isothermal expansion is 9 cu ft and the pressure is 300 psia. The ratio of the expansion during
the addition of heat is 2 at the temperature of the cold body is 90 0 F . Find (a) QA, (b) QR, (c)
V3 (d) p3 (e) V4 (f) p4 (g) pm (h) the ratio of expansion during the isentropic process, and (i) the
overall ratio of compression.
Ans. (a) 346.4 Btu (b) -209.1 Btu; (c) 63.57 cu ft; (d) 25.64 psia; (e) 31.79 cu ft; (f) 51.28
psia; (g) 13.59 psia; (h) 3.53; (i) 7.06

2. Gaseous nitrogen actuates a Carnot power cycle in which the respective volumes at the four
corners of the cycle starting at the beginning of the isothermal expansion, are V1 = 10.10 L, V2 =
14.53 L, V3 = 226.54 L, and V4 = 157.73 L. The cycle receives 21.1 kJ of heat. Determine (a) the
work and (b) the mean effective pressure.
Ans. (a) 14.05 kJ; (b) 64.91 kPa

3. Show that the thermal efficiency of the Carnot cycle in terms of the isentropic compression ratio
1
rk is given by e=1 -
k−1
rk
4. Two- and one-half pounds of air circulate a cycle composed of the following processes:
polytopic compression 1-2, with n = 1.5; constant pressure 2-3; constant volume 3-1. The known
data are: p1 = 20 psia, t1 = 100⁰ F, QR = -1682 Btu. Determine (a) T2 and T3, (b) the work of the
cycle using the pV plane, in Btu; (c) QA; (d) the thermal efficiency, and (e) pm.
Ans. (a) 1120 0 R , (b) 384.4 Btu, (c) 2067 Btu; (d) 1860%; (e)106.8 psi

5. A three-process cycle of an ideal gas, for which cp = 1.064 and cv = 0.804 kJ/kg.K⁰, is initiated
by an isentropic compression 1-2 from 103.4 kPa, 27⁰ C to 608.1 kPa. A constant volume
process 2-3 and a polytropic 3-1 with n = 1.2 completes the cycle. Circulation is steady rate of
0.905kg/s, compute (a) QA; (b) W; (c) e; (d) pm.

Ans. (a) 41.4 kJ/s; (b) -10 kJ/s; (c) 24.15%; (d) 19.81 kPa

123
Chapter 6
Review Problems

1. An ideal Otto engine, operating on the hot-air standard with k = 1.34, has a compression
ratio of 5. At the beginning of compression the volume is 6cu ft, the pressure is 13.75
psia and the temperature is 100⁰F. During the constant-volume heating, 340 Btu are
added per cycle. Find (a) c, (b) T3, (c)P3, (d) e, and (f) Pm.

Ans. (a) 25% (b) 5209 ⁰R (c) 639.4 psia (d) 42.14%; (e) 161.2 psi

2. An ideal Otto cycle engine with 15% clearance operates on 0.227 kg/s of air; intake state
is 100.58 kPa, 37.7⁰C. The energy released during combustion is 110 kJ/s. For hot-air
standard with k=1.32, compute (a) p, V, and T at each corner, (b) W, (c) e, and (d) Pm.

Ans. (a) 0.2013 m3/s, 0.02626 m3/s, 596.2 K, 1479.85 kPa, 1136.4 K, 2820.7 kPa, 592.2
K, 191.71 kPa; (b) 52.7 kJ/s; (c) 47.91%, (d) 301.1 kPa

3. In an ideal Diesel engine compression is from 14.7 psia, 80⁰F, 1.43cu ft to 500 psia.
Then 16 Btu/cycle are added as heat. Make computations for cold-air standards and final
(a) T2, V2, T3, V3, T4 and P4, (b) W, (c) e and Pm, and (d) the hp for 300 cycles/min.

Ans. (a) 1479R, 0.1152ft3, 2113R, 0.1646 ft3, 890 R, 24.2psia; (b) 9.7 Btu; (e)
60.63%, 39.9 psi (d) 68.6 hp

4. For an ideal Diesel cycle with the overall value of k= 1.33, rk=15, rc=2.1, P1= 97.9 kPa,
find P2 and Pm.

Ans. 3589 kPa, 602 kPa

5. State 1 for a dual combustion engine is P1=1 atm and T1=60.3C; rk=18; at the end of the
constant volume combustion process the pressure is 7695 kPa, rc=1.5. Base on 1 kg/cycle
of a hot-air standard with k= 1.31, determine (a) the percentage clearance, (b) p,V,and T
at each corner point on the cycle, (c) W, (d) e and (e) Pm.

Ans. (a) 5.88%; (b) 0.9443 m, 0.05246 m3, 4468 kPa, 816.5 K, 1406.2 K, 0.07869 m3,
2109.3 K, 296.8 kPa, 976.3 K ; (c) 803.5 kJ; (d) 57.43%; (e) 900 kPa

124
Chapter 7
Review Problems

1. A reciprocating compressor handles 1000 cfm of air measured at intake where p 1= 14 psia
and t1= 80°F. The discharge pressure is 84 psia. Calculate the work if the process of compression
is (a) isothermal, (b) polytropic with n= 1.25, and (c)isentropic.
Answer: (a) -109.5 hp (b) -131.7 hp (c) 143 hp
2. A twin-cylinder, double- acting, compressor with a clearance of 5%draws in oxygen at 450
kPa, 17°C, and discharges it at 1800 kPa. The mass flow rate is 20kg/min, compression and
expansion are polytropic with n= 1.25. Find (a) the work, (b) the heat transferred, and (c) the
bore and stroke for 100 rpm and L/D= 1.20.
Answer: (a) -40.23 kW, (b) -829 kJ/min (c) 21.71 x 25.76 cm
3. A double-acting compressor with c= 7% draws 40 lb per minute of air at 14.7 psia and 80°F
and discharges it at 90 psia. Compression and expansion are polytropic with n= 1.28. Find (a)
the work, (b) the heat rejected, (c)the bore and stroke for 90 rpm and L/D= 1.25.
Answer: (a) 77.68 hp (b) -1057 Btu/min (c) 18.96 x 23.70 in.

4. A 14 x 12-in., single-cylinder, double-acting air compressor with 5.5% clearance operates at

12 rpm. The suction pressure and temperature are 14 psia and 100°F, respectively. The
discharge pressure is 42 psia. Compression and expansion processes are polytropic, with n=
1.30. Determine (a) the volumetric efficiency, (b) mass and volume at suction conditions
handled each minute, (c) the work, (d) the heat rejected, (e) the indicated air hp developed if
the polytropic compression efficiency is 75%, and (f) the compression efficiency.
Answer: (a) 92.7% (b) 247.8 cfm, 16.72 lb/min (c) -18.93 hp (d) -175.7 Btu/min (e) -25.24 hp (f)
77.42%
5. From a test of an air compressor driven directly by a steam engine, the following data and
results were obtained: capacity, 800 cfm; suction at 14.7 psia; discharge at 110 psia; indicated
work of the compressor, 155 hp; indicated work of steam engine, 172 hp. Calculate (a) the
compression efficiency and (b) the overall efficiency.
Answer (a) 90.06% (b) 81.16%
6. An air compressor with a clearance of 4% compresses 14.73 m³/min of air from 97 kPa, 27⁰C
to 462 kPa. If the overall adiabatic efficiency is 61%, determine the indicated horsepower of the
directly connected steam engine.
Ans. 91.39 hp

125
7. Methane is compressed in two-stage, double-acting compressor which is electrically driven at
165 rpm. The low pressure cylinder (30.5 x 35.5 cm) receives 6.86 cu m per minute of air at
96.53 kPa, 43.3⁰C, and the high pressure cylinder (20.3 x 35.5 cm) discharges the methane
at 717.06 kPa. The isothermal overall efficiency is 74%. Find n and the kW output of the
motor. ANS: 80.02%, 90.86%
8. A two-type compressor with a clearance of 6% receives 80 lb/min of air at 14 psi and 85 deg F
and delivers it at 120 psi. The compressions are polytropic with n= 1.30, and the intercooler cools
the air back to 85⁰ F. Find (a) the work, (b) the heat transferred in the various processes, (c) the
work for the single stage machine, (d) the corresponding percentage saving for the-two stage
machine, and (f) the mass of water to be circulated through the intercooler if its temperature rise is
15⁰F ANS: (a) -171.6 hp ; (b) -808.8 Btu/min ; (c) -2938 Btu/min ; (d) -196
hp ; (e) 12.45% ; (f) 196 lb/min

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Chapter 8
Review Problems

1. The turbine section of a Brayton cycle gas turbine receives the hot compressed air at 150
psia , 2100 degrees R expand to 15 psia and develops a gross output of 15,000 hp. Air
enters the compressor section at 15 psia, 500 degrees R. Determine a) mass of air
required, lb/s, b) compressor power required c) net power output, and d) cycle efficiency.
Ans. A) 43.62 lb/s, b) 6895 hp, c) 8195 hp, d) 48.22%

2. In a Brayton cycle air enters the compressor at 101.32 kPa, 32 degrees C and leaves at a
pressure of 808 kPa. The air is heated to 717 degrees C in the combustor. For a net output
of 2125 kW, compute a) the rate of flow of air per second b) the thermal efficiency, and
c) the mean effective pressure.
Ans. A) 10.78 kg/s , b) 44.75%, c) 145.65 kPa

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