By Prajwal Kumar A

 Application of Fourier’s law to 1D systems

 1D systems are where change in temperature

is exist or measured only along one
direction(say x)

 cylindrical and spherical systems are one-

dimensional when the temperature in the
body is a function only of radial distance and
is independent of azimuth angle or axial
distance
 First consider the plane wall where a direct
application of Fourier’s law Equation may be
made
 Integration yields
 q=−(kA/x)(T2 −T1)
 when the thermal conductivity is considered
constant. The wall thickness is x, and T1 and
T2 are the wall-face temperatures. If the
thermal conductivity varies with temperature
 according to some linear relation
 k =k0(1+βT ), the resultant equation for the
heat flow is
 q=−(k0A/x)[(T2 −T1)+ β/2(T2 2−T12)]
 If more than one material is present, as in the
multilayer wall shown in Figure,

 The analysis would proceed as follows: The
temperature gradients in the three materials
are shown, and the heat flow may be written:

 q=−kAAT2 −T1xA=−kBAT3 −T2xB=−kCAT4

−T3xC

 Note that the heat flow must be the same

through all sections.
 Solving these three equations simultaneously,
the heat flow is written
 q= (T1 −T4)/[xA/kAA+xB/kBA+xC/kCA]
 Hence,
Heat flow= thermal potential
difference/thermal resistance
∆𝑇𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝑞=
∑𝑅𝑡ℎ
1. Cylinders

 Ar =2πrL

(𝑇𝑖−𝑇𝑜)
 𝑞= 2Π𝐾𝐿 𝑟
ln⁡( 0 𝑟 )
𝑖

(𝑇1−𝑇4)
 𝑞 = 2Π𝐿 ln⁡(𝑟2/𝑟1) ln⁡(𝑟3/𝑟2) ln⁡(𝑟4/𝑟3)
+ +
𝐾𝐴 𝐾𝐵 𝐾𝐶
2. Spheres

 A=4πr2

(Ti −To)
 𝑞=4πK 1 1
−
𝑟𝑖 𝑟0
 kA
 q = h1A TA − T1 = (T -T2)=h2A(T2-TB)
∆x 1

𝑇𝐴−𝑇𝐵
 𝑞= 1 ∆x 1
+ +
ℎ1𝐴 𝑘𝐴 ℎ2𝐴

 q=UA∆Toverall

 1/UA =1/h1A+∆x/kA+1/h2A
 2Π𝐿(𝑇𝑖−𝑇𝑜)
 𝑞= ln⁡(𝑟0 𝑟 ) 1
𝑖 +
𝑘 𝑟0 ℎ

𝑘
 𝑟𝑜 =
𝑕
 To understand the systems in which heat is
generated internally

 Ex: nuclear reactors, electrical conductors,

chemically reacting systems

 Study the heat source systems of plane wall,

cylinder and also with convection
 𝑑2𝑇 𝑞
 + =0
𝑑𝑥2 𝑘

 Boundary conditions:
• T=Tw at 𝑥 = ±𝐿

• T=To at x=0

𝑇−𝑇𝑤 𝑥2
 =1−
𝑇𝑜−𝑇𝑤 𝐿2
 𝑑 2𝑇 1 𝑑𝑦 𝑞
 + + =0
𝑑𝑟2 𝑟 𝑑𝑥 𝑘

 The boundary conditions are

• T =Tw at r =R
at r =0
𝑑𝑇
•
𝑑𝑟

 The final equation is

𝑞
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑤 = (R2-r2)
4𝑘
 In dimensionless form
𝑇−𝑇𝑤 𝑟 2
=1−
𝑇𝑜−𝑇𝑤 𝑅

𝑞
 Where 𝑇𝑜 = 𝑅2 − 𝑟 2
𝑘

 For a hollow cylinder with uniformly distributed

heat sources the appropriate boundary conditions
would be
 T =Ti at r =ri (inside surface)
 T =To at r =ro (outside surface)
 T =−qr2/4k+C1 ln r +C2
 The heat that is conducted through a body must frequently
be removed (or delivered) by some convection process.
Ex: furnace wall
 In heat-exchanger applications, a finned-tube arrangement
might be used to remove heat from a hot liquid.
 The heat transfer from the liquid to the finned tube is by
convection. The heat is conducted through the material and
finally dissipated to the surroundings by convection.
Sketch illustrating one-dimensional
conduction and convection through a
rectangular fin.
 Consider the one-dimensional fin exposed to a surrounding
fluid at a temperature T∞ as shown in Figure
 The temperature of the base of the fin is T0.
 Energy in left face=energy out right face + energy lost by
convection

𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑑2𝑇
 −𝑘𝐴 − 𝑘𝐴 + 𝑑𝑥 = ℎ𝑃𝑑𝑥(𝑇 − 𝑇∞)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥2

𝑑2𝑇 𝑕𝑃
 − 𝑇 − 𝑇∞ = 0
𝑑𝑥2 𝑘𝐴
 One boundary condition is
θ =θ0 =T0 −T∞ at x=0

 The other boundary condition depends on the physical

situation. Several cases may be considered:

 CASE 1: The fin is very long, and the temperature at the end
of the fin is essentially that of the surrounding fluid.

 CASE 2: The fin is of finite length and loses heat by

convection from its end.

 CASE 3: The end of the fin is insulated so that dT/dx=0 at

x=L.
 fins are surfaces that extend from an object
to increase the rate of heat transfer to or
from the environment by increasing
convection.

 fin efficiency: the effectiveness of a fin in

transferring a given quantity of heat, nf

 𝑛𝑓 𝑞𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
= 𝑞 ⁡
𝑖𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑡 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝
⁡ ⁡ ⁡ ⁡ ⁡ ⁡

 Imagine two solid bars brought into contact as
indicated in Figure 1

 the sides of the bars insulated so that heat flows

only in the axial direction

 They may have different or same k value

 actual temperature profile through the two

materials varies approximately as shown in Figure
2
 𝑇1−𝑇2𝐴 𝑇2𝐴−𝑇2𝐵 𝑇2𝐵 −𝑇3
 𝑞= 𝑘𝐴 = 1 = 𝑘𝐵
∆𝑥𝐴 ℎ𝑐𝐴 ∆𝑥𝐵

𝑇1−𝑇3
 𝑞 = ∆𝑥𝐴 1 ∆𝑥𝐵
+ +
𝑘𝐴𝐴 ℎ𝑐𝐴 𝑘𝐵𝐴

 the quantity 1/hcA is called the thermal

contact resistance and hc is called the contact
coefficient
 There are two principal
contributions to the heat transfer at
the joint:

 1. The solid-to-solid conduction at

the spots of contact

 2. The conduction through

entrapped gases in the void spaces
created by the contact
 𝑇2𝐴−𝑇2𝐵 𝑇2𝐴−𝑇2𝐵 𝑇2𝐴−𝑇2𝐵
 𝑞 = 𝐿𝑔 𝐿𝑔 + 𝑘𝑓𝐴𝑣 = 1
2𝑘𝐴𝐴 + 2𝑘𝐵𝐴𝑐
𝐿𝑔 ℎ𝑐𝐴
𝑐

1 𝐴𝑐 2𝑘𝐴𝑘𝐵 𝐴𝑣
 ℎ𝑐 = + 𝑘𝑓
𝐿𝑔 𝐴 𝑘𝐴+𝑘𝐵 𝐴

 Here Ac=contact area, Av=void area