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DIRECT CURRENT (DC) CIRCUITS

PART I – RESISTANCE/NETWORK THEOREMS

Resistance (R). The property of the material that opposes the flow of current.

l l2 V
R=      2
A V A

where: l – length of the conductor in m or ft

A – cross-sectional area in m2 or circular mils (CM)
A – d2 CM; if the diameter (d) of the conductor is in mils
 – specific resistance or resistivity of the conductor material in -m or
-CM/ft
= 1.77 x 10 –8 -m or 10.66 -CM/ft for hard drawn copper (HDC) at
20C
= 1.72 x 10 –8 -m or 10.50 -CM/ft for annealed copper at 20C
= 2.83 x 10 –8 -m or 17.0 -CM/ft for aluminum at 20C
V – volume of the conductor in m3 or ft3

Note: 1 inch = 1000 mils

Variation of Resistance with Temperature. The resistance of metallic

conductors increases with rise in temperature.

R1 = R0 [1 + 0 (t1 - t0)]
R2 = R1 [1 + 1 (t2 - t1)]

where: R0 – resistance of the conductor @ t0; t0 = 0ºC

R1 – resistance of the conductor @ t1
R2 – resistance of the conductor @ t2
0 – temperature coefficient of resistance at 0ºC in oC-1
1 1
0  
t0  T T

T – inferred absolute zero resistance temperature in oC

T = -234.5ºC (for copper)
α1 – temperature coefficient of resistance at t1 in ºC-1
1 1
1  
t1  T t1  T

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α2 – temperature coefficient of resistance at t2 in ºC-1

1 1
2  
t2  T t2  T

ΔT – change in temperature or temperature rise in ºC

ΔT = final temperature – initial temperature, say (t2 – t1)

Ohm’s Law. It states that the ratio of potential difference (V) between any two
points on a conductor to the current (I) flowing through them is constant provided
the physical conditions (e.g. temperature) of the conductor does not change.

V V
 cons tan t OR R
I I

Resistance in series
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + ….. + Rn

Series Circuit Characteristics

VT = V1 + V2 + V3 +….. + Vn
IT = I1 = I2 = I3 = ….. = In
1 1 1 1
= + + ….. +
GT G1 G 2 G n
PT = P1 + P2 + ….. + Pn

Resistance in parallel
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ... .. +
RT R1 R2 R3 Rn

Parallel Circuit Characteristics

VT = V1 = V2 = V3 = … .. = Vn
IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + … .. + In
GT = G1 + G2 + G3 + ….. +Gn
PT = P1 + P2 + ….. + Pn

where: G – conductance in mho -1

G = 1/R

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Current Dividers. If, for two-branched parallel circuit, R1 and R2 are the branch
resistances, IT the total current, then the branch currents are:

 R2   R1 
I1  I T   and I2  IT  
 R1  R 2   R1  R 2 

Voltage Dividers. If, for two resistors R1 and R2 in series, VT is the total voltage,
then the individual voltage drops are:

 R1   R2 
V1  VT   and V2  I T  
 R1  R 2   R1  R 2 

Work, Power and Energy. According to Joule’s Law of Electric Heating, the
amount work required to maintain a current I amperes through a resistance R
ohms for t seconds is given by:

V 2t
W = I2 Rt = VIt = = Pt in watt-sec or Joules
R

The amount of heat produced is given by

work
Q = in kcal or BTU
J

where: J – mechanical equivalent of heat

J = 4.186 KJ/kcal = 778.16 ft-lb/BTU

NOTE: 1 Joule = 107 ergs = 0.24 gm-calorie

Thermal Efficiency. It is the ratio of the heat actually utilized to the total heat
produced electrically.
total amount of heat utilized mCp T
 = =
total amount of heat produced VIt
J

where:  – thermal efficiency

m – mass in gm. or lb
Cp – specific heat constant in cal./gm-oC or BTU/lb-ºF
T – change in temperature or temperature rise in oC or ºF

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T = (tf – ti)
tf – final temperature
ti – initial temperature

Battery – a group of cells that generate electric energy from their internal
chemical reaction.
1. The emf (E) of a battery is the total potential difference established within
the battery between the two electrodes when the battery is not supplying
current.
2. The terminal potential difference (V) is equal to the emf minus the internal
voltage drop.
where: I – the current supplied by the battery
r – the internal resistance of the battery

Note: E and r are constants.

V and I varies with the load.

Faraday’s Law of Electrolysis

First Law. The mass of an ion set free by a current in the process of electrolysis
is proportional to the quantity of charge that has passed through the electrolyte.

 Ia 
m = zIt =   It
Fv

Second Law. When the same current passes through several electrolytes for the
same time, the mass of various ions deposited at each of the electrolytes are
proportional to their chemical equivalents.

m1 z
= 1
m2 z2

where: m – mass of ions liberated in gms

a – atomic weight of the substance
z – electrochemical equivalent (ECE) weight in gm/coul.
– the mass of the ions deposited due to the passage of one ampere of
current or one coulomb of charge
v – valency of the substance

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Faraday’s costant is defined as the charge required to liberate one gram-

equivalent of any substance.

Chemical Equivalent (CE)

F =
Electroche mical Equivalent (ECE)

where: F = Faraday’s Number = 96,000 coul/gm-equivalent

Circuit Definitions

Circuit. A conducting path or a system of conducting parts through which an

electric circuit flows or is intended to flow.

Parameters. Various elements of an electric circuit such as Resistance,

Inductance and Capacitance. These may be lumped or distributed.

Linear Circuit. A circuit in which the parameters are constant i.e. do not change
with voltage or current.

Non-Linear Circuit. A circuit in which the parameters change parameters

change with voltage and current.

Unilateral Circuit. A circuit whose properties change with the direction of

operation. A vacuum tube rectifier is an unilateral circuit.

Bilateral Circuit. A circuit having the same characteristics in either direction.

Transmission line is a bilateral circuit.

Electric Network. It is a combination of any number of electric elements, the

impedances of which may be either lumped or distributed, or both, which are
connected in any manner, conductively, inductively or capacitively.

Active Network. A network containing one or more sources of energy.

Passive Network. A network containing no source of energy.

Ideal Constant–Voltage Source. Voltage source whose output voltage remains

absolutely constant regardless of any change in load current. Such a voltage
source must posses zero resistance so that internal voltage drop is zero.

Ideal Constant–Current Source. Voltage source whose internal resistance is

infinite. The resistance of the source is very high compared to the external load
resistance.

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Node. A point at which two or more elements have a common connection.

Branch. A single path containing one element which connects one node to any
other node.

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PART II – MAGNETIC FIELD & INDUCTANCE

Magnetic Field. Exists in a region of space if a moving charge there experiences

a force (other than Friction) due to its motion.

F = qvB sin  (Newton)

where: q – the magnitude of charge in coul. (C)

v – velocity of the charge in m/sec
 – magnetic flux density or magnetic induction in Tesla (Wb/m2)
 – angle between the field lines and the velocity

Note: 1 Tesla = 104 Gauss = 104 lines/cm2 = 1 N/A-m

Magnetic Force on a Current Carrying Conductor

In metric
F = BIL sin  (Newton)

where: B – magnetic induction, Tesla

L – length of conductor, m
I – current in Amp
 – angle between the direction of I and B

In English

BILsin θ
F = (lbs)
11,300,000

where: B in lines/in2 I in Amp L in inches

Torque on a Flat Coil in a Uniform Magnetic Field

 = NIAB sin  (N-m)

where: N – number of loops or turns

A – area of the coil, m2
 – angle between B and perpendicular to the plane of the coil

Note: To determine the direction of rotation of the coil use Right-Hand Rule

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Magnetic Field on a Long straight wire

μo NI
B =
2 πr
where: r = distance to a point from the axis of the wire

Magnetic Field on Center of a Circular coil with N loops

μ o NI
B =
2a

where: a – radius of the circular coil

Magnetic Field in the Interior point of a Long Solenoid

B = onI

where: n = number of turns per meter = N/l

Magnetic Field in the Interior point of Toroid with N loops

μ o NI
B =
2r
where: r – radius of the circle on which a point lies.

Force between Two Parallel Conductors

μ o I 1I 2 l II l
F = = 2 x 10-7 1 2
2πd d

where: l = length of the conductor d = distance between conductors

Coulomb’s Law of Magnetic Forces. The magnitude of force of interaction

between two point magnetic poles is directly proportional to the product of the
pole strength and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the
poles.
1 M1M 2
F = =
4πμoμr r2

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where: M1 & M2 – pole strength in Wb

r – distance between the poles in m

Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction (equations of induced emf)

ΔΦ Δi Δq
e =N =L =R = Bl v x 10-8 (volts)
Δt Δt Δt

Inductance (L). The property of AC circuits which opposes any change in the
amount of current. Its unit is Henry (H).

NΦ μ μ AN 2
L = = o r (Henry)
I l

where: A – area of cross section of the core in m2

l – length of the core in m
 – magnetic flux in Wb
r – relative permeability of the core

Mutual Inductance. The phenomenon by which one circuit causes an emf

induced in the adjacent circuit by induction when flux produced by it is changed.

μ o μ r AN 1 N 2
M = k L1L 2 = in Henry
l

where: k – coefficient of coupling

N1, N2 – respective number of turns
L1, L2 – respective self-inductances of the two coils

Inductances in series Inductances in parallel

When M assists L1 & L2 When M assists L1 & L2

L1L 2  M 2
LT = L1 + L2 + 2M LT =
L1  L 2  2M

When M opposes L1 & L2 When M opposes L1 & L2

L1L 2  M 2
LT = L1 + L2 - 2M LT =
L1  L 2  2M

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Ohm’s Law of Magnetic Circuits

mmf NI μ μ ANI
= = = o r (Weber)
  l

where:  = reluctance of the magnetic circuit (reciprocal of permeance)

Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field

1 2
WL = LI (Joules)
2

Β2
WL = (Joules/m3)
2μ oμ r

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PART III - ELECTROSTATICS, CAPACITANCE

AND INSTRUMENTATION

Electrostatics. The study of the behavior of static electricity.

Coulomb’s Law

1  Q1Q 2 
F =   (Newton)
4πεo  ε d2 
 r 
where: F – the force of attraction or repulsion between two charges
Q1, Q2 – respective charges in coulomb
d – distance between the two charges in meters
o – permittivity of free space or vacuum = 8.854 x 10 –12 F/m
r – relative permittivity of the medium (1.0 – for air)

Note: 1 statcoulomb = 3.3356 x 10 –10 coulomb

Electric Field Strength at any point within an Electric Field

F Q
E = = 9 x 109 (N/C or volts/m)
Q εrd 2

Electric Potential at a point on the Electric Field

work Q
V = = 9 x 109 (N/coulomb or Volts)
Q εrd

Flux Density
ψ
D = = o r E (coulomb/m2)
A
where:  – electric flux, coulomb
A – area at which the stream of electric flux is passing, m 2

Capacitance (C). The measure of the ability to store an electric charge or the
property of AC circuits that opposes any change in voltage.
Q
C = (coulomb/volt or Farad)
V
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For an isolated sphere

C = 4orr (Farad)
where: r – radius of the isolated sphere in a medium of relative permittivity r,
meter

Capacitance of Concentric Sphere

ab
 with outer sphere earthed: C = 4or (Farad)
ab
b2
 with inner sphere earthed C = 4or (Farad)
ba
where: a, b – radii of two concentric spheres
r – relative permittivity of the dielectric between two spheres

Capacitance of Parallel Plate Capacitors

A
 Uniform dielectric medium C = 4or (Farad)
d

where: d – thickness of dielectric medium, meter

A – area of each plate, m 2
r – relative permittivity of the medium

o A
 Composite dielectric Medium C =
d1 d2 d
  .....  n
 r1  r 2  rn

where: d1, d2 ….. dn – thickness of the dielectric medium

r1, r2 ….. rn – the corresponding relative permittivity of the dielectric
medium
o A
 Partly Air Dielectric Medium C = (Farad)
t
dt
r
where: d – air gap, meter
t – thickness of dielectric medium

Capacitance of Multiple Plate Capacitor

A
C = (n – 1) 4or (Farad)
d
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where: n – number of parallel plates

d – separation distance between two plates

Capacitance of Cylindrical Conductor

2  o Al
C= (Farad)
r
ln o
ri

where: ro – outside radius of the conductor, meter

ri – inside radius of the conductor, meter
l – length of the cable, meter

Capacitances in Series Capacitances in Parallel

1 1 1 1 1
    .....  CT = C1 + C2 + C3 + ….. + Cn
CT C1 C2 C3 Cn
VT = V1 + V2 + V3 + ….. + Vn VT = V1 = V2 = V3 = ….. = Vn
QT = Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = ….. = Qn QT = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + ….. + Qn

Energy Stored in a Capacitor

1 1 Q2
WC = CV2 = QV = (Joules)
2 2 2C

Energy Density. It is the energy stored in the field in the region between the
plates per unit volume of dielectric medium.

1
= orE2 (Joules/m3)
2

Ammeter and Voltmeter

Shunt Resistance of an Ammeter. Low resistance connected in parallel to the

range or full scale deflection on an ammeter.

Rm
Rshunt = (ohms)
( N  1)

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where: Rm – meter resistance or coil resistance

N – meter multiplier
– ratio of the full scale deflection and the coil rated current
I
N L
Im

Series Resistance of the Voltmeter. Large resistance connected in series to

extend the range or full scale deflection of the voltmeter.

Rseries = Rm (N – 1) (ohms)

where: Rm – meter resistance or coil resistance

N – meter multiplier
– ratio of the full scale deflection and the coil rated voltage (Vc)
V
N L
Vm

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