Multivector Review and Training Center

DIRECT CURRENT (DC) MACHINES

PART I

DYNAMO – is a rotating electrical machine that converts mechanical energy into

electrical energy or vise-versa.

Two (2) General Types of a Dynamo:

1. DC Generator
2. DC Motor

Two (2) Majors Parts of a Dynamo

1. Stator – that portion which is stationary; the most important part of which
is the field winding.
2. Armature – that portion which rotates; the most important part of which
is the armature winding.

Two (2) General Types of DC Armature Winding

1. Lap Winding – is one in which the coil ends are connected to
commutator segments that are near one another; adjacent in simplex-lap
winding.
2. Wave Winding – is one in which the coil ends are connected to
commutator segments that are of some distance from one another; nearly
360 electrical degrees.

Coil Pitch – the distance between the two sides of a coil (the no. of slots enclosed
by the two coil sides).
S
YS  K
P
where: YS = coil pitch, in slots
S = total no. of armature slots
P = no. of poles
K = any part of S/P that is subtracted to make YS an integer.

Commutator Pitch – the distance between the two ends of a coil (the no. of
commutator bars between the two coil ends).

For Lap Winding, For Wave Winding,

Cm
YC   m YC 
P 2
where: YC = commutator pitch, bars or segments
C = total no. of commutator bars or segments
P = no. of poles
MRTC - 177
Multivector Review and Training Center

m = plex or degree of multiplicity of the winding

For simplex winding, m = 1 bar or segment

For duplex winding, m = 2 bars or segments
For triplex winding, m = 3 bars or segments
For quadruplex winding, m = 4 bars or segments

Note: (+) – for progressive winding

(-) – for retrogressive winding

Parallel Paths in Lap and Wave Windings.

1. For Lap winding, a = m x P
2. For Wave Winding, a = 2 x m

where: a = no. of parallel paths in the armature (always an even no.)

m = plex of the winding
P = no. of poles

Dead or Dummy Element – an electrically unconnected coil element in the

armature that serves only to keep the revolving structure mechanically balanced.

Frog-Leg Winding – a type of armature winding that combines the features of

ordinary lap and wave windings. It was Allis-Chalmers Manufacturing Company
who developed this type of winding.

Average Generated Voltage in a Conductor


E AVE  x 10  8 volts
t

where: EAVE = average generated voltage in a conductor, volts

 = total flux cut, lines or maxwells
t = time, seconds, during which cutting takes place

General Voltage Equation for DC Generator

 P N Z x 10 8
Eg  volts
60 x a
where: Eg = total generated voltage in the armature, volts
 = flux per pole, lines per pole or maxwells per pole
P = no. of poles, an even number
N = speed of the armature, rpm
Z = total no. of active armature conductors
a = no. of parallel paths in the armature

MRTC - 178
Multivector Review and Training Center

DC Generator – a type of a dynamo that converts mechanical energy into

electrical energy.

Two (2) General Classifications of DC Generator

1. Self-excited DC Generator – is one in which the field winding is
energized by its own armature.
2. Separately-excited DC Generator – is one in which the field winding is
energized from a source of direct current external to the machine called an
“exciter”. An exciter may be a battery or another dc generator of smaller
capacity.

General Types of Self-Excited DC Generator

1. Series Wound DC Generator – its field winding called series field
winding is connected in series with the armature. It is used for constant
current application like in series street lighting.

Schematic Wiring Diagram

Rs

L
O
Vt
A
D

Equivalent Circuit Diagram

Rs

R bc Is

L
Ra Ia O IL
Vt
A
Eg D

MRTC - 179
Multivector Review and Training Center

Formulas:
Ia = I s = I L
Eg = Vt + Va + Vbc + Vs
Eg = Vt + Ia (Ra + Rbc) + IsRs
Pg = EgIa
Pg = Po + Electrical losses
Po = VtIL = IL2RL

Electrical Losses or Copper Losses:

a) Armature winding copper loss, Pa = Ia2Ra
b) Brush contact resistance loss, Pbc = Ia2Rbc
c) Series field winding copper loss, Ps = Is2Rs

Pin = Pg + spL
Pin = Po + Electrical losses + spL
Pin = Po + Total losses

Po Po Pg
 x 100 e  x 100 m  x 100
Pin Pg Pin

where: Ia = armature current

Pg = power generated or developed in the armature
Is = series field current
IL = load current
Pin = input power
Eg = generated or developed or induced voltage in the armature (also
called as open circuit or no-load voltage of the generator)
Po = output power
spL = stray power loss
e = electrical efficiency
m = mechanical efficiency
Vt = terminal or line or output voltage of the generator
 = over-all or conventional or commercial efficiency
Va = armature winding resistance drop
Vbc = brush contact resistance drop
Vs = series field winding resistance drop
Ra = armature winding resistance
Rbc = brush contact resistance
Rs = series field winding resistance
RL = load resistance

MRTC - 180
Multivector Review and Training Center

2. Shunt Wound DC Generator – its field winding called shunt field

winding is connected across the armature. It is used for constant voltage
application like in electric welding.

Schematic Wiring Diagram

L
O
Rf Vt
A
D

Equivalent Circuit Diagram

R bc

L
Ra Ia
Rf O IL
If Vt
A
Eg D

Formulas:
Ia = IL + If
Vt
If 
Rf
Eg = Vt + Va + Vbc
Eg = Vt + Ia (Ra + Rbc)
Pg = EgIa
Pg = Po + Electrical losses
Po = VtIL

Electrical Losses or Copper Losses:

a) Armature winding copper loss, Pa = Ia2Ra

MRTC - 181
Multivector Review and Training Center

b) Brush contact resistance loss, Pbc = Ia2Rbc

c) Shunt field winding copper loss, Pf = If2Rf

Pin = Pg + spL
Pin = Po + Electrical losses + spL
Pin = Po + Total losses

Po Po Pg
 x 100 e  x 100 m  x 100
Pin Pg Pin

where: If = shunt field current

Rf = shunt field winding resistance

3. Compound Wound DC Generator – it has both the series and shunt

field windings which are connected either long shunt or short shunt.

a) Cumulative Compound Generator – the series field flux is aiding

the shunt field to supply power and lighting loads.

a.1 Under Compounded - the full-load terminal voltage is less than

the no-load voltage. It is used when the load is located near
from it.
a.2 Flat Compounded – the full-load terminal voltage is the same as
the no-load voltage. It is used when the load is at a medium
distance from it.
a.3 Over Compounded – the full-load terminal voltage is greater
than the no-load voltage. It is used when the load is far from it.

Percent Voltage Regulation

VNL  VFL
%VR  x 100
VFL

where: %V.R. = percent voltage regulation

VNL = no-load voltage
VFL = full-load voltage

b) Differential Compound Generator – the series field flux opposes

the shunt field flux. It is used in electric welding.

MRTC - 182
Multivector Review and Training Center

Long Shunt Compound Generator

Schematic Wiring Diagram

Rs
L
O
Rf Vt
A
D

Equivalent Circuit Diagram

Rs Is

L
R bc
If Vt O IL
Rf
A
Ra Ia D

Eg

Formulas:
Ia = I s = I L + I f
Vt
If 
Rf
Eg = Vt + Va + Vbc + Vs
Eg = Vt + Ia (Ra + Rbc + Rs)

MRTC - 183
Multivector Review and Training Center

Short Shunt Compound Generator

Schematic Wiring Diagram

Rs

L
O
Rf Vt
A
D

Equivalent Circuit Diagram

Rs

Is

R bc
L
Rf If Ra Ia O IL
Vt A
D
Eg

Formulas:
Ia = IL + If
IL = I s
Vt  Vs
If 
Rf
Eg = Vt + Vs + Va + Vbc
Eg = Vt + IsRs + Ia (Ra + Rbc)

MRTC - 184
Multivector Review and Training Center

4. Separately-Excited DC Shunt Generator – its field winding also called

shunt field winding is connected to an outside dc source (a battery or
another DC generator). It is used for laboratory experiment purposes
where voltages are likely to be varied.

Schematic Wiring Diagram

L
Rf O
Vt
A
D

Equivalent Circuit Diagram

R bc

L
Ra Ia
Rf O IL
If Vt
A
Eg D

Formulas:
Ia = I L
Vf
If 
Rf
Eg = Vt + Va + Vbc
Eg = Vt + Ia (Ra + Rbc)

Note: The following may be included in the design of dc machines:

MRTC - 185
Multivector Review and Training Center

a. Interpole/Commutating pole winding – used to correct the

objectionable commutation effects of armature reaction. This
winding is permanently connected in series with the armature.
b. Compensating winding – used for the purpose of neutralizing the
effect of armature reaction in the zones outside the influence of the
interpoles. This winding is also connected in series with the
armature.
c. Diverter – a low resistance shunt connected directly across the series
field of a compound generator for the purpose of adjusting the degree
of compounding.

Maximum Efficiency of a DC Generator. The efficiency of a dc generator is

maximum when:

Variable losses = Constant losses

For dc shunt generator,

Variable losses = Ia’2 (Ra + Rbc)

Constant losses = If2Rf + spL

Hence,
Po ' x 100
max 
Po '  Variable losses  Cons tan t losses
Vt I L ' x 100
max 
Vt I L '  I a ' R a  R bc   I f2 R f  spL
2

where: max = maximum efficiency

Po’ = output power at maximum efficiency
Vt = terminal or output voltage (assumed to be practically constant)
IL’ = load current at max
Ia’ = armature current at max

For dc shunt generator, Ia = IL + If (but If is negligible compared to IL). Therefore,

neglecting If makes Ia = IL. Hence at max,

Variable losses = Constant losses

Ia’2 (Ra + Rbc) = If2Rf + spL

where: Ia’ = IL’ by neglecting If,

IL’2 (Ra + Rbc) = If2Rf + spL

MRTC - 186
Multivector Review and Training Center

Advantages of Parallel Operation of DC Generators

1. for greater efficiency of operation
2. for continuity of service
3. for repair and maintenance problems
4. serves as an added capacity as the service demands changed

Conditions to be met for ideal parallel operation of

I. DC Shunt Generators
1. Same voltage ratings
2. Same polarities

II. DC Compound Generators

1. Same voltage ratings
2. Same polarities
3. With equalizer connection

If condition (1) is not met, the generators will not deliver power in proportion to
their KW ratings.

If condition (2) is not met, there will be big current that will circulate in the
armature windings of the generators which may damage the windings.

If condition (3) is not met, the generators will operate in unstable equilibrium. One
may become a motor to be supplied by the other generator. There will be
“motorization”.

MRTC - 187
Multivector Review and Training Center

DIRECT CURRENT (DC) MACHINES

PART II

DC Motor – a type of a dynamo that converts electrical energy into mechanical

energy.

General Types of DC Motor

I. Series Wound DC Motor – its field winding also called series field winding is
connected in series with the armature.
Speed Characteristic: Variable Speed
Torque Characteristic: High Starting Torque
Uses: For elevator, crane, conveyor, hoist, gear drive, etc.
To reverse the direction of rotation of this motor, interchange the brushes.
Caution: Never start this motor without load or remove the load while it is
operating for it will “race” or “run away”.

Schematic Wiring Diagram:

Rs

Vt

Equivalent Circuit Diagram:

Rs

IL Is R bc

Ra Ia
Vt

Eg

MRTC - 188
Multivector Review and Training Center

Formulas:
IL= Is = Ia Po = Pb – spL
Vt = Eb + Va + Vbc + Vs Pin = VtIL
Vt = Eb + Ia (Ra + Rbc) + IsRs Pin = Po + Total losses
Pb = EbIa Pin = Pb + Electrical losses

Po Pb Po
 x 100 e  x 100 m  x 100
Pin Pin Pb

where: IL = line current

Pb = power developed in the armature
Is = series field current
Po = output power
Ia = armature current
Pin = input power
Vt = terminal or line voltage
spL = stray power loss
Eb = back or counter emf
 = conventional or over-all or commercial efficiency
Ra = armature winding resistance
Rbc = brush contact resistance
e = electrical efficiency
Rs = series field winding resistance
m = mechanical efficiency

II. Shunt Wound DC Motor – its field winding also called shunt field winding is
connected across the armature.

Speed Characteristic: Nearly constant or adjustable speed

Torque Characteristic: Medium starting torque
Uses: For fan, blower, pump, grinder, etc.

To reverse the direction of this motor, interchange the brushes or reverse the
connection of the shunt field winding terminals with respect to the armature but not
both.
Caution: Never open the field circuit while this motor is operating for it will
“race” or “run away”.

MRTC - 189
Multivector Review and Training Center

Schematic Wiring Diagram:

Vt Rf

Equivalent Circuit Diagram:

IL R bc

Ra Ia
Vt Rf If

Eg

Formulas:
IL = Ia + If Pb = EbIa
Vt = IfRf Po = Pb - spL
Vt = Eb + IaRa + IaRbc Pin = Po + Total losses
Vbc = IaRbc Pin = VtIL

where: Vbc = brush contact resistance drop

If = shunt field current
Rs = shunt field winding resistance

III. Compound Wound DC Motor – it has also the series field and the shunt field
windings which are connected either long shunt or short shunt.
Speed Characteristic: Variable speed or adjustable speed
Torque Characteristic: High starting torque
Uses: For elevator, conveyor, crane, milling machine, punching machine,etc
MRTC - 190
Multivector Review and Training Center

To reverse the direction of rotation of this motor, interchange the brushes.

A. Long Shunt – adjustable speed.

Schematic Wiring Diagram:

Rs

Vt Rf

Equivalent Circuit Diagram:

IL
Rs Is

R bc
Vt Rf If
Ra Ia

Eb

Formulas:
IL= Ia + If
Vt = IfRf
Vt = Eb + IaRa + IaRbc + IaRs
Vbc = IaRbc

MRTC - 191
Multivector Review and Training Center

B. Short Shunt – variable speed.

Schematic Wiring Diagram:

Rs

Vt Rf

Equivalent Circuit Diagram:

Rs

IL Is

R bc

Ra Ia
Vt If Rf

Eg

Formulas:
IL = I S = I a + I f
Vt = IfRf + ILRs
Vt = Eb + IaRa + IaRbc + ILRs
Vbc = IaRbc

MRTC - 192
Multivector Review and Training Center

DC MACHINES
PART 3

Force Exerted in a Motor Conductor

BIL
F dynes F  BI ab L dynes
10

where: F = force exerted, dynes

B = flux density, gauss (lines/cm2)
I = current through the conductor, amperes
L = length of the conductor, cm
Iab = current through the conductor, abampere

I
Note: I ab 
10

Total Force Exerted in the Motor Armature

ZBIL
FT  FZ FT 
10

Ia ZBI a L
but I  , therefore FT 
a 10a

where: FT = total force exerted, dynes

Z = total no. of armature conductors
Ia = total armature current
a = no. of parallel paths in the armature

Motor Developed Torque/Armature torque

Td  FT x r
ZBI a Lr
Td 
10a

where: Td = developed torque, dyne-cm

r = average distance of Z conductors from the center of rotation, cm

Note: 445,000 dynes = 1 lb

30.48 cm = 1ft

MRTC - 193
Multivector Review and Training Center

Motor Torque Relations

Pb  Eb I a watts
But
xPxZxN
Eb  x 10  8 volts
60 x a
Therefore,
xPxZxN
Pb  x 10  8 x I a watts eq. 1
60 x a
Also,
2 Td N
Hp dev 
33,000

where: Hpdev = developed horsepower in the armature, hp

Td = developed torque, lb-ft
N = speed of the armature, rpm

33,000 ft  lb
Note: 1 hp 
min
Therefore: Pb  Hp dev 746 
2Td N
Pb  746  watts L L L eq. 2
33,000

Equating 1 and 2,
xPxZxN 2Td N
x 10 8 x I a  746
60 x a 33,000
33,000 x 10 8 P x Z
Td  x x  x Ia
602746 a

 0.1173  P x Z 
Td     x  x Ia ft  lb
 10  a 
8

Td  kI a lb  ft

where: k = proportionality constant

 0.1173  P x Z 
k   
 10  a 
8

MRTC - 194
Multivector Review and Training Center

Therefore,
Td  kI a ft  lb

1) For a series motor,

At light loads,  is directly proportional to Ia ( = k1Ia)

Td = k(k1Ia)Ia
Td = k2Ia2  a parabola

At heavy loads,  is practically constant ( = k1)

Td = k(k1)Ia
Td = k2 Ia  a straight line

2) For a shunt motor,

Shunt field current (If) is practically constant for all conditions of loading.

 remains substantially constant also ( = k1)

Td = k (k1) Ia
Td = k2Ia  a straight line

Motor Speed Relations

For a given dc motor,
xPxZxN
Eb  x 10  8 volts
60 x a
Eb  kN

P x Z x 10 8
where: k
60 x a
k = proportionality constant

Percent Speed Regulation

No  load speed  Full  load speed

%S.R.  x 100
Full  load speed
N NL  N FL
%S.R.  x 100
N FL

MRTC - 195
Multivector Review and Training Center

Acceleration of DC Motors

At the instant of starting, Eb = 0 since N = 0, therefore

Eb = Vt – Ia (Ra + Rbc)
0 = Vt – Ia (Ra + Rbc)
Vt
Ia 
R a  R bc

From the above equation, since the armature circuit resistance (Ra + Rbc) is very
small, the armature tends to draw high and excessive value of armature current. To
prevent this, an external resistance (called starting resistance) must be inserted in
series with the armature. As the motor accelerates the starting resistance may be
cut out gradually, because Eb rises, until the entire external resistance is ultimately
cut out (or short-circuited), under which condition the motor is connected across
the line and running at full speed.

Prony Brake - a device used to determine the output KW and output torque of an
electric motor.

MRTC - 196