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LECTURE NOTES
CIRCUIT THEORY
2002
circuits4.doc 1
1. INTRODUCTION:
circuits4.doc 1
2.3. Electrical Units Based on SI
3. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS:
Electrical Components
3.2.1. Resistor:
The current through a resistor is directly proportional to the voltage across it.
OHM’s LAW: V = IR
V-I relationship for a resistor
Volts
Amps Ohms
(V)
(A) (Ω)
3.2.2. Inductor
Two parallel plates. The charge on the plates is proportional to the voltage
between the plates:
q = Cv
dq dv
i= =C C: Capacitance (farads)
dt dt
Or
1
dv = idt
C
3.3.1. Symbols:
NODE
3.3.3. Branches:
BRANCH
3.3.4. Loops:
Closed
Open Loop
Loop
3.3.5. Current & Voltage Sign Conventions
For the voltage sign convention (active or passive element) the terminal
with algebraically highest potential is denoted by ' + ' and that with the
algebraically lowest potential by ' - '. Thus the symbol representing a
voltage generator is:
+
+
Voltage Voltage
Rise Drop
-
3.3.6. Open circuit Voltage & Short-Circuit Current
a) Consider any circuit with two free terminals A and B. The open-circuit
voltage at terminals A and B is the voltage which appears at the
terminals with nothing connected between them, ie. infinite resistance
between them.
A
Circuit
Vo/c
B
CIRCUIT ISC
W = Pdt = vidt
PR = vi = i2R = v2/R
4. KIRCHHOFF'S LAWS
It states that the algebraic sum of the voltage drops around any loop, open or
closed, is zero.
V =0
Mathematically:
AroundLoop
Example
2Ω
+ -
+
+
10V
I 3Ω
-
Going round the loop in the direction of the current, I, Kirchhoff's Voltage Law
gives:
10- 2I - 3I = 0
Concluding:
5 I = 10 Therefore, I = 2A
It states that the algebraic sum of all currents entering a node is zero.
Mathematically:
I =0
Into a node
Example:
I2 = -3A
I1= 5A
I3
I4 = 2A
Applying Kirchhoff's current law:
I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 = 0
Substituting:
5 - 3 + I3 + 2 = 0 Therefore, I3 = - 4A (ie 4A leaving node)
5. CIRCUITS
A circuit is an interconnection of components, and as most electrical components are
2-terminal devices, such as a resistor, many of their interconnections can be resolved
into series and parallel branches.
Common Current = I = V1 / R1 = V2 / R2 = V3 / R3
= ( V1 + V2 + V3 )/ ( R1 + R2 + R3 ) = VT / RS
As VT = V1 + V2 + V3 Therefore, RS = R1 + R2 + R3
RS is an equivalent resistor that has the same voltage across it, and the
current through it as that through the 3 resistors in series.
Example
Example:
6. CHARACTERISTICS
6.1. RESISTOR
The V-I relationship for a simple resistor (load line) is given by Ohm's Law which may
be plotted thus:
The resistor can only have values of voltage across it, and current flowing though it,
which are consistent with its characteristic. This is true for any device or system.
An ideal voltage source is represented in the diagram. For this ideal source V is
constant for all I, and its open circuit voltage: Vo/c = E.
We could also make I the dependent variable and plot the characteristic as:
The V-I relationship for the non-ideal source shows that as the current drawn from
the source, I, increases, the voltage drop across the internal resistance, IRi ,
increases. Since E remains constant this reduces the voltage V, available at the
output terminals,
The V-I characteristic can be plotted from the equation, V = E – IRi , as shown in the
above figure. From this equation:
We could of course rearrange our equation to make I the dependent variable and V
the independent variable as shown below:
Example
- 2 I - V + 10 = 0 Therefore, V = 10 - 2 I.
7. VOLTAGE REGULATION:
By comparing the V-I characteristics for the ideal and the non-ideal cases, we can
see how good a representation of constant voltage source is the non-ideal source.
We would prefer to have a voltage source whose terminal voltage remained constant
over a wide range of currents. However, in real life we are usually dealing with non-
ideal sources where, as a result of the internal resistance of the source, the terminal
voltage decreases as the current increases.
The usual method of characterising the change in the terminal voltage V. with change
in current drawn from the voltage generator is to specify the regulation of the
generator. This is a measure of how constant V remains as the source goes from the
'no load' condition to the 'full load' condition as explained below. It is particularly
important when considering transformers and electrical machinery.
V
Ri VOC = E V = E-IRi
B
+
E I
+ V
-
A
I
No-load condition means that no load resistor is connected between A and B
V = Vno-load = 10V.
∴ V = Vfull-load = 2A x 4Ω = 8V
(Alternatively, V = 10 - 2A x 1Ω = 10 - 2 = 8V)
Quite often, particularly in a complex circuit we need more information than just the operating
conditions which we could obtain from the characteristics, but at the same time we are not
interested in every voltage and current in the circuit as would result from a loop current
analysis. For example, consider the circuit of a DC transmission system such as that found in a
car, we may be confronted by this multi-loop circuit.
Appliance of
interest say
Lead Resistance
radio
I A
V
+
V
B
Appliances, Lights, Motors etc
If we are interested only in what current is drawn by the load (radio), clearly we have quite a
task ahead of us, if we set up, say 4 loop equations, and find every loop current. It would be a
decided advantage if we could replace everything to the left of line AB by a much simpler, yet
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT. By equivalent we mean having the same V-I characteristics at the
terminals A and B.
Thevenin's Theorem gives us just such an equivalent circuit. In fact it is a method of modelling
or simulating the behaviour of a complex circuit whose actual configuration may be unknown,
but whose characteristics at its output terminals are well known.
It states that any complex, linear, active or passive 2 terminal network may be
modelled by an ideal voltage source in series with a resistor.
RT
Linear I I
ET
V + V
Network
V
I
ISC =ET/RT
Example:
Consider the following linear network, determine the V- I characteristic at its output
terminals, then calculate the Thevenin's equivalent of the circuit, plot its V-I
characteristic and see if there is any connection:
I1 2Ω I 4Ω A
+
50V
I2 V
2Ω
-
B
Derivation of the V- I characteristic at terminals A and B using Kirchoff's laws:
Using Kirchoff's current law.
I1 − I 2 − I = 0
Using Kirchoff's voltage law around first loop:
50 - 2I1 - 2I2 =0
Using Kirchoff's voltage law around second loop:
2I2 - 4I - V = 0
V OC = 2 5V
S lo p e = d V /d I = -5 Ω
I
IS C = 5 A
Y1
Y1
x1 x2 (x1+x2) X
If an output is a linear function of an input parameter y = f(x) and y=0 when x=0.
then f(x1+x2) = f(x1) + f(x2) = y1 + y2
F1
D1
F2
D2
F1+F2
D1+D2
If the deflection of the beam is completely linear or that the only region we are studying is the
linear region then if:
we apply a force of F1 and get a deflection D1
we apply a force of F2 and get a deflection D2
Then if we apply a force of F1+F2 we will get a deflection D1+D2.
Another similar example using the same beam is shown below only now the forces are
applied at different positions.
F1
D1
F2
D2
F2 F1
D1+D2
The same superposition applies....
If:
we apply a force of F1 and get a deflection D1
we apply a force of F2 and get a deflection D2
Then if we apply a force of F1 and F2 we will get a deflection D1+D2
So we can for such a system do tests or analysis of the system and apply forces separately and
look at the systems reaction. The result of applying both forces simultaneously is the sum of
the individual reactions.
Superposition in circuits
The same principle may be used in analysing circuits.
ie if cause and effect are linearly related then the total effect of several causes is the sum of
the effects of the individual causes .
Consider the circuit below.
R1 V2
+
+
I3
V1
R2 R3
We could analyse this circuit by doing loop analysis or writing down all the node equations
but it can be simpler to solve two separate simpler circuits and find the currents due to each
voltage source individually and then to sum the results.
+ I31 I32
V1
R2 R3 R2 R3
I3 = I31 + I32
2) put current source back and replace the voltage source V1 by a short circuit and
calculate I32.
R1
I32
R2 I2 R3
Again
I3 = sum of effects of each source taken individually.
I3 = I31 + I32