Termo

Caio Augusto Siqueira da Silva

October, 2021
1 Estimated time to do - 1h30min

In this problem, we examine a model for a certain type of gun that works by using the
expansion of a gas to propel a bullet. We can model the bullet as a piston. Since we are
assuming atmospheric pressure is negligible, we can assume that the whole setup is in a
vacuum. Also, the gun is insulated.

An ideal monatomic gas of initial temperature T0 is inside a long cylindrical container of

cross-section area A. One side of the container is a wall, while the other side is a piston of
mass M that can slide freely along the container without friction. The total mass of the
gas is m, and it is made up of N particles. Initially, the piston is at rest and a distance
L0 away from the opposite wall. Then, the piston is released. After a time t, the piston
moves at a speed v. Assume that throughout the process, the particles on average move
very fast.

1. Assume that m is negligible. Find v

2. From now on, do not assume that m is negligible.

Find the time at which the pressure at the wall opposite the piston changes. Also,
does it increase or decrease? State all assumptions.

3. From now on, assume t is much smaller than the mean free time of the particles of
the gas, and L0 is much smaller than the mean free path. (During this time interval
t, assume that all the particles still collide many, many times with the walls, but
they don’t collide with each other.) Find v.

4. Find the recoil impulse of the gun over the time t.

5. Let r > 1 be a dimensionless parameter. Suppose at time t, the piston is a distance

rL0 away from the wall; then the piston is stopped, and the gas is allowed to come
to equilibrium (after a time much greater than the mean free time). Find the total
entropy change (throughout the whole process) of the gas in terms of r, and verify
the Second Law of Thermodynamics.

2 Estimated time to do - 2hours(but it could last way longer)

Typically, the Debye model describes well the heat capacity CV of crystals: for absolute
temperatures T much smaller than the so-called Debye temperature TD , CV ∝ T 3 ; at
the opposite limit of T TD, all the crystal lattice oscillations are thermally unlocked and
hence, CV ≈ 3N kB , where N is the total number of atoms.

Surprisingly, the heat capacity of ice behaves in a totally different manner: with a very
good precision and over a wide range of temperatures (from the melting point T0 down
to ca 100 K), its specific heat cV is proportional to the absolute temperature. In what
follows, you may assume that for ice, cV = αT , where α ≈ 7.51J · kg 1 K 2 , and the latent
heat of melting λ = 334 kJ/kg.

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 Consider an isolated system consisting of equal masses m of water at temperature T 0 =
273.15 K, and ice. The ice is at a slightly lower temperature T0 t, where t is of the
order of few kelvins. This isolated system includes also ideal reversible heat engines of
negligible heat capacity. One heat engine is used to produce mechanical energy which is
consumed by another heat engine which is operated as a refrigerator. What is the lowest
temperature T which can be given to a n-th part of the ice (of mass m/n) if 1 ≪ n?

3 Estimated time to do - 1h30min (maybe)

The Peltier element consists of two plates, separated by a large number of semiconductor
blocks ,and it converts electrical energy into heat. It can also work in reverse mode – to
generate EMF because of temperature difference between the plates. The second figure
schematically shows a device based on a Peltier element. The bottom plate is in contact
with

A heat reservoir, a large body whose temperature Tr can be considered constant. The
upper plate is in contact with a body with heat capacity C and temperature T, which
changes over time. A superconducting coil with inductance L is connected between ends
of the element. Initially, T = T0 , T0 > Tr

Under these conditions, the upper body gives the element during the time t the amount
of heat ∆Q = αT I∆t, where α is a constant coefficient, I is the current through the
element. The positive direction of current is the direction from ”plus” to ”minus”. In
this case, the Peltier element generates an EMF, which is equal to ϵ = α(T − T r). The
polarity of the generated EMF (for T > T r) is shown in the figure. The resistance of the
Peltier element is R.
It turns out in this system the periodic change in T(t) and I(t) is possible. In this

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 problem we will investigate the fluctuations at various values of parameters: Tr, T0, C,
α, R which are considered to be known. The initial current in the circuit is zero: I(0)
= 0.The temperature difference between the body and the reservoir can be considered
small: |T − T r| ≪ T r at any time.

1. Let us consider an idealized, fantastic case, when the resistance R is equal to zero
and there is no heat transfer between the heat reservoir and the body due to heat
conduction.
1a) Find the differential equation for I(t). (2 points)
1b) Transform the equation taking into account |T − T r| ≪ T r and find the fre-
quency ω0 of oscillations of the current. (3 points)
1c) Find the dependence of temperature of the body on time: T(t). (1 point)

2. the case described in part 1 is not feasible. Consider the parameters of the sys-
tem that are close to reality. Let the resistance of the element R be known, the
power of heat transfer from the body to the reservoir is determined by the relation
P = k(T − T r), where k is a known constant, heat is conducted uniformly between
the plates. In this case oscillations will be damped.
2a) Find the differential equation for I(t). (3 points)
2b) Show that the nonlinear terms are proportional to I 2 and I ˙I (here dot shows
the time derivative) in the differential equation from 2a) can be neglected. Thus
transform the equation into I” + 2γI ′ + ω 2 I = 0 (equation for damped oscillations).
Find the constants γ and ω in terms of given values. (4 points)
2c) Assuming damping is weak (γ 2 ≪ ω 2 ), find the relative change in current am-
plitude ∆Imax/Imax over one time period. Express your answer in terms of γ and
ω. (3 points)

3. The purpose of this device when it was first invented was to measure the heat
capacity of bodies accurately. Parameters T r, α, k, R, L are known, they have been
measured before accurately. The experimenter has electrical measuring instruments,
an oscilloscope and an alternating voltage generator, the frequency of which can be
changed over a wide range. Describe in short a possible experimental design.

4 Estimated time to do - 3 hours (but it could last way longer)

Consider a sparse electron gas at temperature T = T0 in homogeneous magnetic field.

Initially, the magnetic flux density is B0 , and is increased up to B = 2B0 ; during the
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process, the growth rate of the B-field is kept very small, dB dt
≪ eBm
, where e denotes
the elementary charge, and m — the electron mass. Let us define the characteristic
d(ln B) −1
 
time τ of this process as the typical value of dt
; then, the above given condition
can be rewritten as τ ≫ Be . The sparseness of the electron gas is described by the
m

mean q free path length λ of electrons, and by the mean time interval between collisions
t ≈ λ kT m
. Here we assume that the gas is so sparse that t ≫ τ . Upon reaching the
value B = 2B0 , the B-field strength is kept constant for a very long time T ≫ t, and is

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 later slowly decreased back to the original value B = B0 (the characteristic time of the
process is again τ ). Now, if we wait until thermal equilibrium is reached, what will be the
temperature T ′ of the electron gas? Keep in mind that if a quantum-mechanical system
is slowly (adiabatically) perturbed, it retains its quantum state if the characteristic time
of the process is much longer than 2πh 1
∆E
, where ∆E is the energy level difference between
neighbouring states.

In Lord Kelvin’s archived notes, the description of a cyclic process over a fixed amount of
mono-atomic ideal gas was found (see Figure 3). From time to time, the ink faded, and
information about the direction of some processes was lost. Information about what was
plotted on the abscissa was also faded. It is now only known that one of the following
quantities is present on the x-axis: volume,pressure, temperature or density, and the scale
of this quantity may be in any units. The molar heat capacity of gas C is plotted along
the ordinate. Find the maximum possible efficiency of this cycle.

6 One day, examining the archive of Lord Kelvin, physicist Buck discovered a graph
(see Figure 3) and an explanatory note from Kelvin that revealed that he had studied
isochoric processes. Because of time, ink faded and the coordinate axes disappeared
from the graph, but a note about the last point of the graph survived, having corre-
sponding pressure p = 2000 mmHg and temperature 127◦C. The walls and balls are
small. Buck realized that graph shows dependence of the pressure of the contents
of vessel on temperature and there was some other substance in addition to the air
present that underwent a phase transition. To find out what the substance was, Buck
calculated the saturated vapour pressure of this substance at the point indicated by
the shown question mark.

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 1. What was this substance?

2. What is the pressure and temperature at the point indicated by the question
mark? Justify your answer. Find the temperature of contents of vessel when
30 percent of all the liquid in the vessel has evaporated.

7 Estimated time to do - 1h30min (or way longer if you are not familiar with the type
of trick that needs to be used)w

There is an experimental device consisting of a inner ball and an outer spherical shell,
both concentric, floating in deep space. The space between between the inner ball and
the shell is a vacuum. The radius of the inner ball is r = 0.200m, and the temperature
is kept constant by some internal means. The emissivity of the ball is e = 0.800.
The thermal conductivity of the shell is κ = 1.00 · 10−2 J/(m · s · K) The inner and outer
radii of the shell are R1 = 0.900m and R2 = 1.00m, respectively, and the outer surface
can be considered a black body. The experimental device is at steadystate flow (thermal
stability), the emissivity of the shell’s inner surface is E = 0.800.
The Stefan-Boltzmann constant is σ = 5.67 · 10−8 W m−2 K −4 , and the cosmic microwave

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 background temperature is T = 2.73K. If the heat transferred between the inner surface
of the shell and the outer surface of the shell per unit time is P = 44.0W , then

1. Find the temperature of the surface of the outer shell T2

2. Find the temperature of the surface of the inner shell T1

3. Find the temperature of the ball T0

Consider a ball of monoatomic ideal gas at temperature T which keeps a spherically sym-
metric mechanically stable stationary shape due to its own gravity field. Let the total
mass of the gas be M0, and its molar mass . We shall describe the radial mass distribu-
tion in terms of the total mass M = M (r) inside a sphere of radius r, and the pressure
p = p(r) as a function of distance r from the centre of the spherical gas cloud.

i) (2 points)State the mechanical equilibrium condition for a small parcel of gas of mass
m and volume v at distance r from the centre of the cloud in terms of the local pressure
gradient p′ (r) = dp
dr
, the local value of M(r), and the appropriate constants of nature.
Simplify your expression by noticing that m/v = ρ is the local density of the gas.

ii) Show that the total thermal energy of the gas can be expressed as
Z
U = −α V dp

where V = 43 πr3 , and α is a numerical factorand the integral is taken from the centre of
the cloud, to very far distances from the centre, where the pressure is negligibly small.
Find the value of α.

iii) (3 points) Based on your previous results, show that U = −βEG , where EG is the
gravitational potential enery of the gas, and β < 1 is a positive numerical factor. Find
the value of β.

iv) (1 point) How will the temperature and characteristic radius of the cloud change
in time due to heat radiation? Give a qualitative motivated answer. (The characteristic
radius Rc can be defined as such a radius that half of the mass of the cloud is inside the
sphere of radius Rc .)

v) (2 points) Consider now a similar fully ionized plasma cloud. Assume that plasma
is a macroscopically neutral mixture of electrons and protons. What is the proportional-
ity factor between the total gravitational energy and total thermal energy for the plasma
cloud?

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 Consider a cube of side length a = 1cm, made of aluminium (density ρ = 2.7g/cm3 ,
molar mass MA = 23g/mol). The heat capacitance of one mole of aluminium is given as
a function of temperature in the graph below. The speed of light c = 3·108 m/s, universal
gas constant R = 8.31J/(kgůK). The initial temperature of the cube is T 0 = 300K

i) (1 point) What is the total heat energy of such a cube at the initial temperature T0 ?

ii) (3 points) Now, the cube has 5 faces painted in white (reflects all relevant wave-
lengths) and one face painted in black (absorbs all these waves). The cube is surrounded
by vacuum at a very low temperature (near absolute zero); there is no gravity field. Ini-
tially, the cube is at rest; as it cools down due to heat radiation, it starts slowly moving.
Estimate its terminal speed v1 .

iii) (2 points) At very low temperatures, the heat capacitance of aluminium is propor-
tional to T 3 , where T is its temperature. Which functional dependance f (t) describes
the temperature as a function of time [T = A · f (Bt), where A and B are constants] for
such very low temperatures under the assumptions of the previous question?

iv) (3 points) Now, the cube has 5 faces covered with a thermal insulation layer (you
may neglect heat transfer through these faces). One face is left uncovered. The cube is
surrounded by hydrogen atmosphere at a very low temperature (molar mass of hydrogen
molecules MH = 2g/mol). The cube starts cooling down due to heat transfer to the
surrounding gas; you may neglect the heat radiation. Initially, the cube is at rest; as
it cools down, it starts slowly moving. Estimate the order of magnitude of its terminal
speed v2 . Assume that the surrounding gas is sparse, so that the mean free path of the
molecules is much larger than a. Assume that v2 ≪ cs where cs is the speed sound in
the atmosphere surrounding the cube.

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Determine or estimate the net heat flux density P between two parallel plates at distance
L from each other, which are at temperatures T1 and T2 , respectively. The space between
the plates is filled with a monoatomic gas of molar density n and of molar mass M. You

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 may use the following approximations:
1. The gas density is so low that the mean free path λ ≫ L;
2. T1 ≫ T2 .
3. When gas molecules bounce from the plates, they obtain the temperature of the
respective plates (for instance, this will happen if they are absorbed/bound for a short
time by the molecules of the plate, and then released back into the space between the
plates).
4. You may neglect the black body radiation.
5. ”Estimate” means that the numeric prefactor of your expression does not need to be
accurate.

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Brunt-Vais¨al¨a Oscillations: A balloon containing inert gas Helium is used to study

the weather. It rises up and rests at an equilibrium height in the atmosphere, where its
weight is exactly balanced by the upward buoyant force. We shall assume ideal gas law to
hold for all processes and neglect the mass of the balloon. If the balloon is displaced ver-
tically, it is often found to oscillate about the equilibrium position. The frequency of this
oscillation is called “Brunt-Vais¨al¨a” frequency. We shall investigate this phenomenon.

(a) Suppose the balloon is displaced upwards adiabatically from the equilibrium posi-
tion. In the displaced position, let Tb and mb be the temperature and molar mass of the
gas in the balloon. Let Ta and ma be the temperature and molar mass of the outside
atmosphere at the same level. Let dT dz
b
and dT
dz
a
be the rate of change of temperature with
height for the gas in the balloon and the outside air respectively where the positive z axis
is vertically upwards and z is the height from the ground.
Derive and Calculate the lapse rate (Γa = dT a/dz) for atmosphere given that the molar
mass of air is 29kg · kmol−1 and the gas constant is R = 8.31J · K · mol−1 . Assume that
acceleration due to gravity (g) remains constant and all air processes are adiabatic.

(b) Assuming that the pressure inside the balloon is the same as that outside, derive
an expression for Γb = dTdz
b
in terms of the molar specific heat at constant pressure (Cb )
of the gas in the balloon.
2
(c) Obtain an expression for the vertical aceleration ( ddt2z ) of the balloon in terms of
the temperatures and molar masses.

(d) Find the equilibrium height (z0) in terms of molar masses, Cb and relevant quan-
tities? Assume that for both ballon and air, T = T0 at z = 0.

(e) State the condition for balloon to oscillate simple harmonically. Also obtain the
frequency of oscillation (ω) for balloon.

(f) Calculate approximately the time period (τ ) of the oscillating balloon if T0 = 300K in a
balloon consisting of Ar-He mixture in the mass ratio 1:1 (Atomic Weights of Ar = 36amu
and He = 4amu).

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Consider a star of mass M and radius R. Assume that its density is uniform.

1. Its gravitational potential energy U can be calculated by considering the work done
in bringing a thin layer of materials and depositing on the surface of a spherical

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 protostar of radius r when r gradually grows from 0 to R. Calculate U. Express your
answer in terms of G, M and R, where G is the gravitational constant.

2. Assume that the star is made up of protons and electrons, both behaving as ideal
gases. It is known that during the formation of the star, half of the loss in grav-
itational potential energy is converted to thermal energy, while the other half is
radiated away. Derive the temperature T of the star in terms of G, M, R,m and
kB , where m is the average mass of protons and electrons, and kB is the Boltzmann
constant.

3. Derive the gas pressure Pg of the star in terms of G, M and R.

4. The virial theorem states that the total pressure in a star is related to the gravita-
tional potential energy by P = −b VU . What is the value of b?

5. At high temperature, photons in the star also contribute to the pressure. Derive
the radiation pressure Pr by applying the kinetic theory of gases in a cubic box of
volume L3 , in which the momenta of the photons are described by the de Broglie
relation. Express your result in terms of the photon energy density u.

6. It is known that the photon energy density is given by u = aT 4 , where a is de-

termined from fundamental constants. Show that PPgr ∝ M c . What is the value of
c?

7. Calculate the ratio PPgr for the Sun. You may use the following parameters a =
7.565 · 10−16 JK −4 m−3 , G = 6.673 · 10−11 N m2 kg −2 , m = 8.368 · 10−28 kg, MSun =
1.989 · 1030 kg, kB = 1.381 · 1023 JK −1

8. For stars more massive than the Sun, the radiation pressure becomes increasingly
significant and the star becomes unstable. This implies that there is an upper limit
on the mass of stable stars. Suppose the radiation pressure becomes equal to 1/3
the gas pressure at this limit. Calculate the temperature in terms of a, kB , m , M
and R.

9. Using the virial theorem in part (d), find this upper limit of stellar mass. Express
your answer in units of solar mass.

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Consider a balloon which has thick rigid walls and from which all the air has been pumped
out. Now, the valve of the balloon is slightly opened, and the balloon is slowly filled with
the air from outside. Find the temperature of the air inside the balloon once the air flow
has stopped (since a mechanical equilibrium has been reached). The room temperature
is T, the balloon walls have low heat conductance and heat capacitance so that heat flux
through the walls can be neglected.

23 Estimated Time to do - 2hours

Black holes are the most mysterious objects in our universe. A black hole is surrounded
by an event horizon (horizon for short). Anything that falls through the horizon into
the black hole cannot escape. If a black hole is stationary, not rotating, has no electric
charge, then the horizon is spherical, with radius R = 2GE/c4 , which can be also written
as R = 2GM/c2 using Einstein’s energy-mass relation E = mc2 . Here G,c, M , and E are
the Newton’s constant, speed of light, and mass and energy of the black hole, respectively.
The horizon area is thus A = 4πR2 . The singularity “inside” the black hole is one of
the greatest mysteries in the theory of gravity, since the energy density of the singularity

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appears to diverge and the classical general relativity fails to operate there.
In the following, we will discuss the formation, thermodynamics and rotation of black
holes, and how a civilization may use black holes as power plants.
Note: To avoid the usage of general relativity, in this problem, no concepts about curved
spacetime will be introduced. You do not need to think about curved spacetime when
working on this problem.

PART A. FORMATION AND PROPERTIES

We study a simple formation mechanism of black holes. Consider a spherical shell of
photons (quanta of light) is moving towards the center of the shell to form a black hole.
The self-interaction of the photons can be ignored.

1. Assume that the wavelength of photons is short enough, and thus the shell is thin
(this short wavelength assumption only applies for this Question A1, and may not
apply for later questions), which of the following describes the formation of the
horizon and the singularity of a black hole?

2. Suppose the photons in the shell all have wavelength λ. Thus, the energy of each
photon is E = c/λ, where is the Planck’s constant. To make a black hole with
horizon radius R, what is the number of photons N needed?

3. For a shell of N photons, the entropy can be written as SN γ = αkbc1 N c2 . Here

kb is the Boltzmann’s constant and α is a dimensionless constant of order 1. (In
the below analytical formulae, α should be kept explicitly. In order of magnitude
estimations, can be set to 1.) Find integer numbers c1 and c2

4. Taking λ = R, we have the entropy of the black hole S = SN γ .(If λ > R the photons
are too non-local to form a black hole. Thus, the λ = R photons carry the largest
amount of information.) Write S in terms of R, α and the constants of Nature

5. Based on the black hole entropy formula, which of the physical observation is in-
correct? Choose one from the below answers.
A. Black hole entropy is an interdisciplinary research direction of thermal, quantum
and gravitational physics.
B. The black hole entropy is an extensive quantity which scales as the volume of

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 the black hole.
C. The existence of black entropy indicates that black hole should contain many
microstates.
D. Black holes are gravitational systems with non-perturbative quantum effects,
and are thus a key to quantum gravity.

Part B. Entropy bounds of nature

It is conjected that black holes are the densest objects of nature, not only in energy, but
also in entropy and information. Based on this observation, estimate the quantities in
Part B. By estimate, you need to get the correct order of magnitude. Order one coeffi-
cients may be neglected.

1. Nowadays, computer hard disks store information with a day-by-day increasing

information density. However, to store information, enough number of states, and
thus enough entropy is needed. This is understood from Boltzmann’s statistical
interpretation of entropy: S = kb ln Ω where Ω is the possible number of states of
the system. Consider a spherical hard disk in the vacuum, with capacity 1T b = 1012
bit. What is the minimal radius of this hard disk?

2. Consider a clump of matter with mass Mm , (and thus energy Em ,) and radius Rm ,.
When this clump of matter falls into a black hole (the black hole has existed before
the clump of matter falls in), we require that Rm should be not greater than the
horizon radius of the initial black hole, to make sure this clump of matter can fall
in. Denote the entropy of this clump of matter as Sm ,. Find a universal upper
bound of Sm , in terms of Rm and Em , but independent of parameters of the black
hole, or Newton’s gravitational constant G.

3. For a 1Tb hard disk with 1nm radius, what is the minimal mass of the hard disk?

Part C. Black hole Temperature and radiation

1. Find the black hole temperature T in terms of horizon radius R.

2. HAWKING RADIATION: According to the Stefan-Boltzmann law, an object

with a temperature T should radiate. Calculate the radiation power P in terms of
the horizon radius R.
Note: the Stefan-Boltzmann constant σ can be written in more fundamental quan-
2π 5 k4
tities as σ = 15c2 hb3

3. Primordial black holes are a conjected type of black holes, which has existed almost
from the “born” of the universe till now. Denote the mass of the primordial black
hole by Mp when it has just formed in the primordial universe. For the primordial
black holes that still exist now, estimate a lower bound for their Mp (ignore the
accretion of the primordial black holes)

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PART D. ROTATING BLACK HOLES
Realistic black holes are typically rotating, due to the angular momentum conservation
of in-falling matter. With rotation, the first law of thermodynamics of a black hole is
dE = T dS + ΩdJ, where Ω can be understood as the angular velocity of the horizon,
and J the angular momentum of the black hole. In the following, we consider the Ω 0
parameter regime.

1. Now, we let the black hole to interact with a clump of matter outside the black
hole.After non-adiabatic interaction, part of the matter falls into the black hole,
such that the change of energy and the change of angular momentum of the black
hole satisfies dE = λdJ, where λ is a constant. Find the range for λ for the black
hole to lose energy after the interaction

In D1 we have found out the principles of extracting energy from black holes. In
practice, we study an explicit toy model of how matter extract energy from a toy
“black hole” in Newtonian mechanics (i.e. no special relativity or general relativity
needs to be considered). This is a simplified version of the so-called Penrose process.
Let’s model the rotating black hole as a rotating sticky ring with radius R, initially
with mass Mi uniformly distributed on the ring, and angular velocity Ωi . Its center
of mass is initially at rest. We neglect the gravitational effects of this ring (i.e. the
ring does not source a gravitational force in our approximation).
Now, consider a composite particle AB (there is a force to bind A and B, but the
binding energy is negligible), where part A and part B has mass MA and MA ,
respectively. A and B are considered as point mass.

Step1: the composite particle AB moves toward the center of the black hole with
an initial velocity vin

Step2: AB stick on the black hole surface, and rotate together with the black
hole

Step3: B got absorbed by the black hole. To simplify the calculation, assume
here (in D2 and D3) that after absorbing B, the black hole is still a uniform ring
with radius R, and its new mass is Mi + MB .

Step4: At the moment B got completely absorbed, the binding between B and
A disappear, and then A moves freely to the tangent direction of the black hole in
the black hole reference frame

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 Steps 2, 3, 4 happen fast enough, such that the amount of rotation of the ring
during these steps is negligible.

2. Find the condition that the ejected kinetic energy Kout for particle A is greater than
the initial incoming kinetic energy for the composite particle Kin = 12 (MA +MB )vi2 n,
in the form of Ωi > ... or Ωi < ...

Suppose a civilization uses a rotating black hole as a power plant, by repeatedly

using the model and process described in D2, and make use of the difference in
incoming and outgoing kinetic energy.
The black hole is initially at rest with mass M and angular velocity Ω. Each time,
the civilization throws composite particle AB with the same initial velocity vin
with respect to the civilization themselves. The composite particle AB has mass
MA , MB ≪ M . Again, to simplify the calculation, just as in D2, we model the black
hole by a uniform ring with fixed radius R although its mass grows by absorbing B.
This process is repeated as long as energy can be extracted from the black hole.
When the process is repeated, the civilization keeps at rest in the vin direction (the
horizontal direction in the figure in D2), but follows the motion of the black hole
in the directions perpendicular to vin .

3. At the moment when no net energy can be extracted from the black hole, the
civilization stops throwing matter in. What is the terminal angular velocity ΩT of
the black hole when the civilization stops throwing matter in?

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