UNIT 1 VOLUNTARISM - THEORETICAL ISSUES

Contents
Aims and Objectives Introduction Fundamental Aspects of Voluntarism Schopenhauer - Generalised Form of Voluntarism Rousseau - 'General Will' and Praxis of Voluntarism Nietzsche's 'Will to Power' - Negation of Voluntarism Freud's Concept of 'Unconscious' - Unclear State of Voluntarism Voluntarisrn and Sociological Theories of Action Max Weber's Theory of Social Action Talcott Parsons - The Voluntaristic Theory of Action Let Us Sum Up , \ Suggested Readings and References Model Answers

1.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of this unit is to acquaint you with theoretical foundations and essential tenets of voluntarism. We will explain to you the fundamental assumptions of voluntarism as available in western philosophical traditions. Later we will describe the manifestation of voluntarism in sociological theories of action. After studying this unit, you should be able to:
a a

understand the essence and meaning of voluntarism; identify the theoretical assumptions of voluntarism; locate origins, basis and attributes of voluntarism in western philosophical traditions; describe Schopenhauer's generalised form of voluntarism; appreciate the potential for praxis of voluntarism inherent in Rousseau's conception of 'General Will'; assess the constraints on voluntarism in Nietzsche's 'Will to Power'; identify manifestation of voluntarism in sociological theories of action; explain Max Weber's theory of Social Action; and describe Talcott Parson's voluntaristic theory of action.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The social thought of voluntarism is the product of western philosophy. Voluntarism emerged from those philosophical traditions which consider human 'will' as the ultimate source of individual emotions, feelings, thoughts and actions. To begin with, the existence of 'will' is presupposed and later on it is considered as the source of our understanding and awareness about the existence of our own being and surrounding reality. Human will is conceived as the basic nature and cause for understanding and through action, realization of the whole material and non-material world.

Voluntarism, State and Society

Rooted in such philosophical traditions are sociological theories which emphasize the practical manifestations of voluntarism in real life situations in society. The fundamental assurnptioi underlying these theories of social action is that an individual IS capable of conscious thought and self-awareness. Individual action is not simply a reaction to external stimuli; rather, it is the result of conscious meanings, motives, interpretation$ and choices brought into a situation by the individual's expression of free-will. This voluntary approach that gives central importance to the role of 'free-will' and subsequently to individual's voluntary actions has found expression in the building of sociological theories of action. At the very outset, you will learn about the meaning, essence and definitional aspects of voluntarism. w e will explain to you that an ideal state of natural existence, as conceived by Hobbes, entertained vast scope and potential for the realization of voluntarism. However, by positing centralized authoritarian state Hobbes' curtailed the theoretical scope for the true expression of voluntarism. Next, you will learn that the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer is a highly generalised form of voluntarism in which the ultimate source of reality is conceived to be the nature of 'will'. Schopenhauer considered human 'will' as the source of individual volitions, emotidns, desires and consequent actions. His philosophy represents the true spirit of voluntarism and contains an unlinlited scope and potential for the existence and expression of voluntarism in society. After that we will furnish a discussion on some more philosophical interpretations of human 'will' and the consequent praxis of voluntarism. Of particular significance is Rousseau's philosophy which has profound potential and unlimited possibilities for the praxis of voluntarism in real life situations in modern society. In utter contrast to Rouseeau, is Nietzsche's conception of 'will to power' which contains potential for the aggressive praxis of voluntarism. Nietzsche's 'will to power' is germane to create authoritarian structures inimical to the true expression of voluntarism. Next, you will find discussion on Freud's understanding about the constitution of the unconscious mind which broadly falls within the domain of psychoanalysis. At this stnge you will find that leaving the philosophical terrain behind, the discussion enters into the domain of sociological theories of action. You will leam that an important stream in sociological theory emphasizes the practical manifestation of voluntaridm in society. It is devoted specifically to the study of 'individual' within society. These social theories rest on underlying assumptiolls that thinking and conscious individuals are creators of society as they act and inter& (according to their own free-will) in socially meaningful ways in society. The central focus of such theories is on the 'social actor' i.e. the uniqueness of an individual in social relations. Two noteworthy and outstanding sociological theories of action which have stressed the role of 'free will' and individual voluntary actions in their theories belong to Max Weber and Talcott Parsons. Thus, in the end, we will explain to you the most salient features of Max Weber's 'theory of social action' and Parsons' voluntaristic theory of action. The theoretical issues involved in both these theories will help you to understand the real basis of the expression of voluntarism and attendant manifestation of voluntary action in society.

1.2 FUNDAMENTAL ASPECTS OF VOLUNTARISM

In this section we will explain to you the meaning, essence and definitional aspects of voluntarism. We will also acquaint you with Hobbes' philosophy of an ideal state of natural existence of mankind. Based on absolute natural rights, Hobbes visualized all kinds of individual freedom, liberty and choice of action in natural conditions of existence. Such a thinking entertained vast scope and potential for the realization of voluntarism. However, you will learn, that by positing centralized authoritarian state to contain the natural problem of aggression i.e. 'war of all against all', Hobbes, in pure theoretical sense, eclipsed the true spirit of voluntarism.

1.21 Meaning and Essence

The fundamental tenets of modern form of voluntarism are the product of western philosophy. The essence of voluntarism is that an individual's actions should be shaped by his own volitions, desires, feelings and choices. An individual should have the freedom and choice of independent action. Individuals have goal seeking creative urges and these can be realized if they have the liberty of opinion and action in society. The fundamental philosophical assumption involved here is that human will is the source of a person's thought, feeling and emotions. All actions basically emanate from the expression of 'free-will' of human beings. Therefore, only people's actions nurtured by expression of 'free-will' can create a humane world. Social evolution is the product of people's own struggles and strivings. History of mankind is basically a repository of the cumulative actions of individuals in society. Social actions rooted in the expression of 'free-will' contribute to the growth of voluntarism, bringing about democratic and progressive social changes in societ*. Voluntarism is opposed to any kind of deterministic and mechanical thinking about social life. Social controls and rigid rules (characteristics of bureaucratic or authoritarian structures) subdue the expression of free-will, hence suppressing the existence of voluntarism. Such social conditions alienate people from their own actions. They neither understand nor become aware of the consequences of their own actions. They simply become mute witness to social life. Therefore, social actions initiated and directed by any outside agency (for instance state) suppress the expression of people's free-will and limit the growth of voluntarism. The result is either maintenance of 'status-quo' or, at worst, bringing about such social change as may be retrogressive in nature.

Voluntarism

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1.2.2 Definitional Aspect

Voluntarism (Latin voluntas : the will, the desire) is the principle which regards the 'will' as the fundamental basis of individual feelings,, emotions, thoughts and actions. The Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought refers to voluntarism as "any theory that emphasizes the role of the will in mental life, especially thinking and the pursuit of knowledge, or, again in decisions about conduct. In historical, political and social theories about the behaviour of man, voluntarism emphasizes the individual choice in decision making, which it considers as not entirely determined by external conditions". It stands in contrast to deterministic model of human behaviour which excludes 'will' and voluntary action as causative factors in individual experience and in society. Voluntarism assumes that source of person's thinlung, feeling and emotions lies in humin 'will'. Subsequently, such thought and feelings which originate from 'freewill' give shape to actions of a person. To begin with, the existence of 'will' is presupposed and later on it is considered as the source of our understanding and awareness about the existence of our own being and surrounding reality. Human will is conceived as the basic nature and cause for understanding and through action, realization of the whole material and non-material world.

1.2.3 Hobbes' Natural State of Existence

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) in his famous book 'Leviathan' proposed a model of early human development and set the agenda for almost all subsequent western political philosophy. He described an ideal state of nature in which every individual had equal right to every resource available in nature. Every person was free to use any means to acquire such natural resources. However, in the natural condition of existence, some individuals might be physically stronger or more intelligent than others. But no person could be as strong or smart enough as to outlive the danger of a violent death. Faced with such a threat of violent death a person had the right

Voluntarism, State and Society

to defend himself. Thus, for Hobbes, individual rights were borne out of the necessity of self-defence. Now, a constant struggle for acquiring resources and the necessity of self-defence would create a situation of a 'war of all against all' in natural conditions of mankind. But this perpetual condition of 'aggression' and 'war' was not to be in the best interests of human beings. As a solution to this problem of aggression, Hobbes proposed the creation of centralized authoritarian state which he called 'Leviathan'. According to Hobbes, individuals would surrender just enough of their natural rights in bargain for having certain protections from the authority of state. By giving up absolute rights for protection against violent death, individuals would enter in a social contract. Thus entering into a social contract they would create peaceful societies. For Hobbes, in an ideal condition of nature, society is simply a vast population living beneath a very strong authority. The absolute authority, i.e. a Leviathan state (whether monarch, aristocracy or democracy) is the sovereign that would ensure internal peace and common defence. No doubt, Hobbes posited an infinitely authoritarian Leviathan state but below that he granted freedom, liberty and choice of behaviour or action to individuals in society. The sovereign should be ruthless while dealing with violence and aggression (individuals waging war against each other) and matters related to cohesiveness of state. Beyond that, sovereign should keep its hands off people and say little about what an individual does in society. So long as individuals do not harm or pose threat to each other's life, the sovereign should not interfere in their social conduct or behaviour. Further, sovereign should maintain equality of all individuals. Law, for Hobbes, is simply the enforcement of social contract. From the above discussion, it becomes amply clear that Hobbes' granted all types of freedom, liberties, choices of behaviour and actions to individuals based on their natural rights in society. As explained in the beginning of this unit, voluntarism means that individuals have freedom to shape their actions according to their own volitions, desires, feelings or choices available to them. Thus Hobbes' philosophy contains vast potential and scope for the emergence and growth of all kinds of' initiatives related to voluntarism. But he also simultaneously conceived the necessity of a state where no power should be above the sovereign. Again, as noted earlier, any f individuals and suppresses authoritarian structure subdues the expression of free-will o the essence of voluntarism. Hence, by positing an authoritarian state and thus curtailing the absolute natural rights of individuals, Hobbes' philosophy eclipses or diminishes, in pure theoretical sense, the true spirit of Voluntarism.
r

Check your Progress I Note : a) Use the space given below for your answer.
b) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of this unit. 1) The following statements have been based on the text that you have already read. Indicate whether these statements are true or false by putting tickmark (4) in the relevant box.

True False a) The essence of voluntarism is that an individual's actions should be shaped by his own volitions, desires, feelings and choices. [ ] [ ]
b) Voluntarism is opposed to any kind of deterministic and mechanical thinking about life. [ I [ ]

Voluntarism

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c) Voluntarism is the principle which regards 'will' as the fundamental [ ] [ 1 basis of human feelings, emotions, thoughts and actions. d) The starting point of Hobbes' philosophy is that all individuals have absolute natural rights on all the resources available in nature.

[ I [ ]
e) According to Hobbes, struggle for acquiring resources and the necessity of 'self-defence' will not create situations of a 'war of all against all' in natural conditions of mankind. [ I [ ]
f)

As a solution to end the problem of 'violent aggression' in natural conditions of mankind, Hobbes did not entertain the necessity of centralized authoritarian state, called Leviathan. [ I [ ]

g) By surrendering just enough of absolute natural rights for protection against violent death, individuals would enter into a 'social contract' [ I [ ] with the state. h)

he sovereign should be ruthless while dealing with violence and aggression i.e. individuals waging war against each other. Beyond that the sovereign should not interfere in their social conduct or behaviour in society. [ I [ ]
By granting all kinds of freedom, liberties, choices of behaviour and actions to individuals, Hobbes philosophy created vast potential for the growth of voluntarism in society. [ I [ ] By positing centralized authoritarian state Hobbes did not eclipse the true spirit of voluntarism. [ I [ ]

i)

j)

2) List the essential aspects of voluntarism. (Hint : see the text)

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1.3 SCHOPENHAUER - GENERALISED FORM OF VOLUNTARISM

In this section we will discuss the real philosophical foundations of voluntarism. The philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer is considered as a highly generalized form of voluntarism in which ultimate source of reality is conceived to be the nature of will. However, the starting point of Schopenhauer's philosophy was Kant's understanding about reality. In the beginning of this section we will explain to you Kant's understanding of 'Noumenon' and 'Phenomenon'. Later on you will learn how Schopenhauer adapted Kant's Noumenon and identified it with 'will'. We will also discuss how Schopenhauer considered 'will' as the source of individual volitions, emotions, feelings, desires and subsequent actions. His philosophy represents the true spirit of voluntarism and has an unlimited scope and potentialqor the existence and expansion of voluntarism in society.

Voluntarism, State and Society

1.3.1 Kant's Understating of 'Noumenon' and 'Phenomenon'

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), a German Philosopher, in his famous book 'The Critique of Pure Reason' postulated the division of Universe into 'noumenon' and 'phenomenon'. He called the 'noumenon' as the actually existing entity i.e. 'Thing in Itself' (Ding an Sich). Noumenon is the reality which is the foundation of our sensory and mental representations of an external world. Noumena (or things in themselves, German, Dinge-an-Sich) refer to all the things that underlie our experience both of physical and of our own mental states. Kant held that the immediate objects of perception are due partly to external things and partly to our own perceptive apparatus: For Kant, the sensory and mental representations of external reality are mere phenomena. Bertand Russell in his book 'A History of Western Philosophy' noted : "What appears to us in perception, which he (Kant) calls a 'phenomenon' consists of two parts : that due to the object, which he calls the 'sensation' and that due to our subjective apparatus, which he says causes the manifold to be ordered in certain relations. This part he calls the form of the phenomenon. This is not itself; sensation, and therefore not dependent upon the accident of environment; it is always the same, since we carry it about with us, and it is a priori in the sense that it is not dependent upon experience. A pure form of sensibility is called a 'pure intuition' (anschauung); there are two such forms, namely space and time, one for the outer sense, one for the inner." Kant maintained that a study of moral law can take us behind phenomena and provide us with the knowledge whlch our sense perceptions are unable to do. For him moral law iS essentially concerned with the will. Kant noted that the difference between a good man and bad man is basically a difference in world of '-things-in-themselves', and iS also a difference as to volitions. Therefore, according to Kant, volitions must belong the real world i.e. 'noumena'. Volitions do not belong to the world of phenomena i.e. our sensory and mental representations of external reality.

1.3.2 Arthur Schopenhauer - Human 'Will' and Voluntarism

Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) also a German philosopher, in his book The World as W i l l ahd Representation posited that human beings living in the world of 'objects' are essentially living in the realm of desire. He claimed that Kant's 'noumenon' was essentially the same as that in us which we call 'will'. He retained the 'thing-initself' and identified it with 'will'. Schopenhauer's systgm is basically an adaptation of Kant's philosophy. He argued that Kant's demarcation between external objects (knowable only as phenomena) and the 'thing-in-itself' (noumenon) contains a significant omission. This omission is our own body. In fact, human body as physical object is known more intimately to us than any other known object of sense perception. Thus Schopenhauer held that what appears to perception as my body is really my 'will'. The phenomenon corresponding to a volition is a bodily movement, that is why, according to him, the body is the appearance of which 'Will' is the reality. Schopenhauer argued that human bodies have boundaries, occupy space and display some of the properties the same way as other physical objects. In this sense, human body is similar to other physical objects which are known only through our senses i.e. only known as phenomena. Now our consciousness inhabits such a physical body (objects). Yet this consciousness is not commensurate with our body. To make this difference explicit, Schopenhauer noted : our motion is voluntary; we usually are not aware of or have any idea about the functioning of our organs such as lungs, heart, liver, kidneys a& so on at any given moment of time. Our ability and power to contrdl the functioning of these organs is limited. Our organs have an agenda which the conscious mind did not choose. The conscious mind is the servant and not the master of these organs. Thus, on the one hand, our physical body as an outer entity

(similar to all other objects), can be known through sense perceptions and treated as phenomenon. This aspect known through senses is assessable to and constitutive of conscious mind. .On the other hand, its inner essence determined by mysterious and unknown agenda of our organs lies beyond the comprehension of our sense perceptions - hence cannot be given the treatment as phenomenon. This aspect dictated by mysterious agenda lies beyond the comprehension of consciousness and is not constitutive of conscious mind. Schopenhauer visualized that human beings participate in the reality of outside world existing beyond the conscious mind (unachievable through senses) through 'will'. Therefore, he identified Kant's noumena with the desires, needs and impulses which he called 'will'. He further elaborated that by thinking or reasoning, we cannot prove that our understanding of an outside world corresponds with reality. However, without thinlung for a moment, through 'will', we at once become aware that outside world stimulates us. Natural feelings and emotions such as suffering, pain, fear or desire arise instantly and involuntarily. Such an unconscious state of emotion take place prior to any reflection, or inkling of thought and are beyond the control of conscious mind. Thus, for Schopenhauer, the thinking, conscious and rational mind is borne out of pre-reflective and largely unconscious volitions. These unconscious pre-reflective volitions - emotions, feelings and desires, are constitutive of 'will'. Human will has ontological primacy over thought and intellect. Desire is understood to be prior to thought and, in a parallel sense, 'will' is said to be prior to being. 'Will' is the inner content and diiring force of the world. Through 'will' human beings can participate in reality underlying the outside world which otherwise exists beyond mere phenomena. Thus philosophy of Schopenhauer rooted the whole project of human enquiry, knowledge and constitution of rational and conscious mind in human 'will'. Human thought, conscious mind and subsequent actions are the product of a person's own volitions, desires, feelings and emotions i.e. expression of human 'will'. Such human thought and actions which originate or emanate from human 'will' are considered voluntary in nature. The source and essence of voluntarism lies in the free expression of human 'will'. Individual actions based on the unhindered expression of 'free-will' represent the true spirit of voluntarism. This way Schopenhauer's philosophy laid the firm and sound foundations of generalized form of voluntarism. It created unlimited scope, potential and space for the existence and expansion of voluntarism in society. Such voluntarism is free from all such constraints or limitations as are associated with systemic or authoritarian structures. In broader philosophical sense, Schopenhauer's voluntarism is considered as generalized metaphysical voluntarism. However, it may be noted that his methodology is resolutely empirical rather speculative or transcendental.

VO'untarism

Issues

Check Your Progress I1 Note: a) Use the space given below for your answer.
b) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of this unit. 1) The following statements have been based on the text that you have already read. Indicate whether these statements are true or false by putting tickmark (4) in the relevant box. True False a) Schopenhauer adapted Kant's 'noumenon' and identified it with 'will'.

[ I [ ]
b) The starting point of Schopenhauer's philosophy was Kant's understanding about reality. [ I [ ]

Voluntarism, State and Society

c)

Schopenhauer noted that Kant's demarcation between external objects (knowable only as phenomena) and the thing-in-itself (noumenon) contains no such significant omission as our body. [ I [ ] Schopenhauer visualized that human beings participate in the reality of the outside world existing beyond the conscious mind (unachievable [ I [ ] through senses) through 'will'. Human 'will' has no ontological primacy over thought and intellect.

d)

e)
f)

[ I [ ]
Human thought, consciousness and consequent actions are the product of a person's volitions - desires, feelings and emotions, i.e. expression [ I [ ] of human will.

g) Human thought and actions which originate from human 'will' are not [ I [ ] considered voluntary in nature. h) 2) Individual actions based on the unhindered expression of free-will are represent the true spirit of voluntarism. [ I [ ]

Explain in brief, Schopenhauer's notion of 'will' and its significance in relation to voluntarism. (Hint : see the text)

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1.4 ROUSSEAU'S NOTION OF GENERAL WILL PRAXIS OF VOLLTNTARISM

In this section, we will explain to you that in order to overcome the inherent existential contradictions borne out of the original human nature, Rousseu proposed the idea of 'Social Contract' for the smooth functioning of society. Rousseu's 'social contract' is based on the assumption that each individual is under implicit contract to submit his own 'will' to the general 'will' of all the people in society. In the following, we will acquaint you with basic tenets of Rousseau's philosophcal argument and its implications for the expression of voluntarism.

1.4.1 Rousseau's Social Contract, General Will and Voluntarism

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) was a Franco-Swiss Philosopher of the Enlightenment era whose political thought influenced French Revolution and the development of socialist theory. Rousseau's basic contention is that there exists a fundamental division between 'human nature' and 'society'. In the natural conditions of existence, human nature was good, noble and full of compassion and pity for fellow human beings (Rousseau called him a noble savage). The emergence of society and subsequent expansion of civilization has imparted harmful, hostile and corrupting influences to human nature. Rousseau in his 'Discourse on Inequality', traced the evolution and degeneration of human nature from primitive stage to modern society as follows: 12

In the beginning, humans were isolated just like semi-apes but were differentiated from other animals by their capacity of free-will and completeness of survivalpotential vis-8-vis nature. They had a basic instinct and drive for self-preservation and natural disposition of compassion towards fellow beings. Population growth and attending compulsions of associating more closely with each other brought in radical psychological transformation and self-awareness among primitive humans. They learned the importance and value of the 'good opinions' of others as an essential requirement for their own survival and well-being. Rousseau considered this development as the ushering in of a golden era of vigorous growth, of humane values. However, later on, with the advent of agriculture, there occurred an increased interdependence and acute inequalities among human beings. Consequent conflicts led the rich and powerful to invent the idea of first State at some stage of development. Rousseau argued that idea of such a State was conceived as a kind of social contract between most powerful members and' general population. He considered this original contract as a fraudulent form of association since the wealthiest and powerful sections tricked the general population - thus institutionalizing inequalities as a fundamental feature of society. He further noted that such an unequal social contract was inimical to the progress and well being of general population. Advancement in arts and sciences occurred not in response to human needs but because of pride and vanity. The resulting idleness and luxury contributed to the corruption of human beings. Progress in knowledge made governments powerful thus crushing individual liberties. Material progress in reality undermined sincere bonds of comradeship, and replaced it with jealousy, fear, suspicion and so on. Rousseau, in his most important work 'The Social Contract' posited his own version as an alternative to the above discussed 'fraudulent form of association'. Retaining most of the evolutionary arguments noted above, he opined that reason for the degeneration of original primitive human nature (good, noble and compassionate etc.) is to be attributed to a central contradiction inherent in society. The contradiction is : on the one hand human beings are pitted against each other in a fierce, continuous, cut-throat competition; while on the other hand, they are'simultaneously becoming more and more dependent on each other. This two-pronged contradictory process is threatening both their survival and freedom. Roussedu proposed a novel solution to resolve thls contradiction. By entering into a social contract among themselves and abandoning their natural rights, individuals could both preserve themselves and retain their freedom. Rousseau's 'social contract' is based on the assumption that each individual is under implicit contract to submit his own 'will' to the 'general will' of all the people in the society. Submission to the authority of the 'general will' of the people would guarantee that: i) no individual can be subordinated to the wills of others;

V01untari5m - Theoretical lssues

ii) people would obey themselves since they have collectively and willingly entered into such a 'social contract'; and iii) sovereignty would be in the custody of the people since they themselves become authors of law. Rousseau claimed that, in the absence of law or morality, original human nature has tendency to degenerate into brutish conditions. Therefore, it is of paramount importance that human race must adopt institutions of law rooted in the authority of the 'general will' or perish forever. Since lack of law entails a form of ignorance and succumbing to one's passions, certain constraints of law would be beneficid for individuals in This of 'general will' is not the simple of individual wills, rather' it is 'Onceived for funhering and maximizing the interests and freedoms of an individual in society.

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Voluntarism, State and Society

Rousseau's concept of submission of an individual will to the authority of the general will and subsequent constraints of mutually agreedlauthored laws, in a pure theoretical sense, again eclipses the essence and true spirit of voluntarism. However, since the authority of sovereignty is invested in the 'general will' of the people (not alien to individuals) and individuals have entered into 'social contract' through the expression of 'free-will'; Rousseau's philosophy has immense profound potential and unlimited possibilities for unleashing the praxis and growth of voluntarism in real life situations in modem society.

1.5 NIETZSCHE'S 'WILL TO POWER' NEGATION OF VOLUNTARISM

In this section, we will acquaint you with the basic aspects of Nietzsche's conceptulisation of 'Will to Power'. You will learn that such an expression of human will is fraught with aggressive praxis of voluntarisln having potential to subdue other beings in society. Hence this conckption is a serious obstacle to the true expression of voluntarism. We will also explain to you essential tenets of Freud's pathbreaking concept of 'constitution' of the. unconscious mind. You will learn that Freud's conception of about the potential and expression of voluntarism in real 'unconscious' is not expl~cit life situations in society. Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (1844-1900) was an elusive, complex and highly controversial German Philosopher. His concept 'will to power' is amenable to diverse interpretations. A notoriously deliberate and woefully distortive interpretation (because of selective editing and false projection of his work by his sister Elisabeth ForsterNietzsche) was given by Nazi intellectuals to justify their political agenda. Nietzsche, in his youth, was influenced and motivated by Schopenhauer's philosophy; however, he later on turned out to be an ardent critic of him. Niet~scheargued that Schopenhawer's notion of 'will' was simply a 'will to live'. This understanding is built upon the idea that survival, sustenance and development of one's own life is the $ole motivation for human beings. Contrary to this, Nietzsche posited his own version of 'will' as 'will to power'. The human beings are not just driven by the sinlple need of survival. Rather, they are motivated by a higher need to acquire and use power in order to dominate over other beings. In the process they also intend to make others weaker and subjugate them to their own will. Therefore, Nietzsche considered his version of 'will to power' as 'primary' while regarding Schopenhauer's 'will to live' as secondary in nature. Notwithstanding other versions, an elementary interpretation of 'will to power' is as follows : The sole driving force in nature is creative energy. The releasing and expansion of creative energy is the fundamental causal power behind all the natural phenomena in Universe. All other causalities are reducible to the essential causal power of creative energy. Nietzsche's 'will to power' is not limited to psychological or subjective aspects; rather, it has cosmic dimensions. Nietzsche visuaIized his theory of 'will to power' has sufficient potential to furnish, ultimate foundation for explaining everything, i.e., societies, individuals or even nature of matter in universe. Let us understand the manifestation of Nietzsche's 'will to power' with regard to living beings. An animal's most basic instinct is considered by Nietzsche as 'will to power'. It is &onsidered even more fundamental than the survival instinct and subsequent acts of self-preservation. Survival instinct is merely considered as an epipheno~nenonof the basic drive of 'will to power'. According to Nietzsche, the very initial interaction of living beings with the outside world is through the, basic instinct of 'will to power'. Subsequently, the understanding and interpretation of

world also emanate from the exercise of 'will to power'. Hence, all manifestation of the outside world are nothing else but 'will to power'. In rudimentary form the 'will to power' is a sort of desire to exert one's will in the act of 'self-otrercoming'. This preliminary urge to exert one's will, to begin with, may be unconscious effort of willing. However, initial unconscious desire is built up so intense that it is like a kind of pent-up frustration of the will. Release of this intense frustration (energylpower) caused human beings to become conscious, in the first place. Subsequently, all other instincts including the survival instinct (will to survive) of a person are manifestations of this basic instinct of 'will to power'. For Nietzsche, even aggression is the energy which a person channelizes towards self-mastery. He considered consciousness itself to be a form of instinct. Furthermore, both negative (violence, lying, domination etc.) and positive (love, praise etc.) acts are again caused by 'will to power'. All higher forms of human behaviour can be reduced to the 'will to power'. Even a philosopher's claim of 'will to truth' ( a desire to b e a dispassionate seeker of objective truth) is nothing else but a manifestation of the 'will to power'. Nietzsche's concept of 'will to power' contains the spirit and immense potential of Voluntarism. The concept, at the same time, is impregnated with a fierce and aggressive drive for the expression of voluntarism. Because of this aspect, an individual's voluntaristic expressions or actions may come into direct confrontation with others. Such excessive voluntaristic expressions intend to make others weak with the sole aim to dominate over them. This kind of aggressive praxis of voluntarism by any individual negates and neutralizes the very essence of voluntarism since it subjugates and subordinates other beings in the over-jealous pursuit of 'will to power'. The concept is also germane to create authoritarian structures inimical to the idea of individual freedom of thought, creations, choices etc., i.e., true expression of voluntarism in society.

Voluntarism

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1.6 FREUD'S CONCEPT OF UNCONSCIOUS MIND - UNCLEAR STATE OF VOLUNTARISM

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), an Austrian, was the founder of psychoanalytic school of psychology. He argued that all declarations about human thoughts and actions as expressions of free-will are in fact delusions. Individuals are never aware of the real reasons underlying their conscious thoughts and actions. He proposed the path breaking concept of the 'unconscious'. It meant that origins of the thoughts lies somewhere below the surface of the conscious mind. And the awareness about reality exists in the form of various layers constituting the unconscious mind. According to him dreams, provided an access to working of the unconscious mind. In his famous work, 'The Interpretations of Dreams' he proposed the existence of the 'unconscious' and even elaborated a method to study it. According to Freud, the category of 'repression' is of critical importance and relevance to the understanding and working of the unconscious. People generally experience painful and unbearable thoughts, emotions and feelings. Such unpleasant memories could be. removed from the immediate consciousne~s but could not be banished from mind. As people try to 'repress' and banish these thoughts and feelings, their memories gradually constitute and become part of the 'unconscious'. Freud considered, the process of 'repression' as a non-conscious act and choice, and decision regarding what is to be repressed was made by the 'unconscious'. In fact unconscious was, for Freud, both a cause and effect of 'repression'. He opined that there was a layer called 'pre-conscious' in between the conscious and unconscious. Furthermore, the three variants of unconscious were considered as follows:

Voluntarism, State and Society

i)
ii)

the descriptive unconscious is constituted by all the features of mental life of which an individual has no subjective awareness; the dynamic consciousness is constituted by mental process and contents which an individual banishes from consciousness as a defensive mechanism against unpleasant memories;
organised according to principles different from those governing the conscious mind. Later on Freud replaced this idea of system consciousness with the concept of ego, super-ego and id.

iii) the system consciousness refers to repressed mental process which becomes

Freud believed that realization of enlightenment, positivism (scientific comprehension of empirical reality acquired by observation of facts through sense perceptions) and rationalism is only possible by developing an understanding and mastering the functioning of the unconscious mind. The primacy and special importance, accorded by Freud, to the constitution and working of the 'unconscious' is of direct relevance to the essence of voluntarism. Freud claimed that all conscious rational thought, feelings and actions can be best understood by unravelling the mysteries of the unconscious. However, the very process of the constitution of the unconscious is the product of a reverse movement, i.e., from the 'conscious' to 'unconscious'. In this sense, the actual nature and expression of voluntarism remains unclear. Beyond that, the Freudian understanding of the 'unconscious' falls broadly within the domain of psychoanalysis. Since the Freud's concept of 'unconscious' is one of the major contributions, our discussion of it here has a specific purpose, so that learner becomes aware of it and is able to compare it with earlier discussed philosophical traditions. Till now, we have made an effort to bring out the fundamental basis and essential features as conceived in various philosophical traditions. The remaining part of this unit will be devoted to highlight the theoretical aspects as available in sociological literature.

Note: a) Use the space given below for your answer.

b) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of this 1) The following statements have been based on the text that you have already read. Indicate whether these statements are true or false by putting tickmark (4) in the relevant box. a) Roussean's 'social contract' is based on the assumption that each individual is under implicit contract to submit 'indiqidual will' to the 'general will' of all the people in the society. b) Rousseu's notion of 'general will' is the simple collection of individual wills of all the people in society. c) Rousseu's philosophy has unlimited potential for the praxis of voluntarism d) Nietzsche in his youth was not influenced by Schopenhauer's philosophy.

f)

Neitsche's 'will to power' becomes an obstacle to the true expression [ I [ ] of voluntarism in society.

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g) Freud propounded the pathbreaking concept of the 'Unconscious'.

[ I [ ]
h) In Freud's 'constitution of the unconscious mind' the actual nature and [ I [ ] true expression of voluntarism remains unclear.
2) List the essential features of Rousseau's notion of 'general will' and social contract.

(Hint : see the text)

1.7 VOLUNTARISM AND SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF ACTION

In the preceding sections we have discussed the philosophical foundations of voluntarism. We have explained the fundamental aspects of those philosophical traditions which consider human 'will' as the ultimate source of individual emotions, feelings, thought and actions. Rooted in such philosophical traditions are sociological theories which emphasise the practical manifestations of voluntarism in real life situations in society. The fundamental assumption underlying these theories of social action is that : an individual is capable of conscious thought and self-awareness. Individual action is not simply a reaction to external stimuli; rather, it is the result of conscious meanings, motives, interpretations and choices brought into a social situation by the individual's expression of free-will. Such voluntary approach that gives central importance to the role of 'free-will' and subsequently to individual's voluntary actions has found expression in the building of theories of social action. In the following text, we will explain in brief, the inherent distinctions in sociological theory so that you are able to identify the nature of action theories which are oriented towards subjective consciousness and consider it as a means of explaining the roots of social action. a) An important and predominant stream in sociological theory is devoted to the study of society as a whole. Such theories are interested in examining the broad societal dynamics which influences and shapes the behaviour of individuals. These theories are mostly structural is nature, and give central importance to the impact of society (as a whole) or its constituent structures on the activities and actions of individuals or sections of people. For instance, Karl Marx's analysis is devoted to the study of such structures as modes of production, capitalism, state, class-structure, class-struggle and so on. Similarly, Ernile Durkheim in his social theories has given importance to such structures or concepts as social solidarity, social facts, division of labour and so on. These theories mainly analyse the nature and characteristics of structures and the crucial relationship among these structures in society. They generally tend to ignore the 'individual' or actual real people and various aspects of actionslinteractions in which individuals are normally engaged in society. b) Another equally important stream in sociological theory is devoted specifically to the study of 'individual' within society. These social theories rest on the

Voluntarism, State and Society

underlying assumptions that thinking and conscious individuals are creators of society as they act and interact (according to their own free-will) in socially meaningful ways in society. The central focus of such theories is on the 'social actor', i.e. on the uniqueness of an individual in social relations. The main importance and emphasis is given to the study of interactions among social actors in society. For such theories of social action, the key to the real understanding of society lies in the analysis of: i) ii) the distinctiveness of an individual actor; individual's freedom and choice (free-will) of actions;

iii) individual's own understanding and interpretations of the meaning of social action; and
iv) the consequent relationships among individuals in society. Sociological theories of action can be broadly classified further into two types as follows: Theories of action which are oriented towards subjective consciousness and consider it as a means of explaining the roots of social action. 'Action Theories' of Max Weber and Talcott Parsons belong to this kind of understanding of social action. Both entertain the voluntaristic image of the individual actor and have stressed the role of 'free-will' and individual voluntary actions in their theories. Essential aspects of these important theories will be discussed in the next two sections of the unit. Theories of social action which are oriented more towards the human activities and pragmatics of action or performance of action seen as social conduct. These theories are concerned with the nature and description of action, details of performance of action, and subsequent interactions and value judgment of others in society. The perspectives of 'symbolic interactionism' and 'ethnomethodology' have been developed to provide alternative explanations for such social actions. Because of limitation of space and specific concerns of this unit, these perspectives will not be discussed here in the text.

1.8 MAX WEBER'S 'THEORY OF SOCIAL ACTION'

Max Weber, a German social thinker, extensively analysed various structures of society, viz., religion, authority, bureaucracy, capitalism and so on. He also developed concepts such as domination, class, status and power which deal with structural aspects of society. However, the real foundation underlying the vast corpus of his academic work is the 'theory of social action'. Weber attempted to develop a comprehensive understanding of an individual actor and nature and characteristics of different types of 'actions' in society. His ultimate unit of analysis remained the uniqueness of a concrete individual actor. The central theoretical focus remained on the subjective meanings which conscious human beings attach to their 'actions' or 'intdractions' within specific social contexts. For Weber, actions or behaviour devoid of an individual's own subjective understanding fall outside the purview of sociological theory. In the context of our earlier discussion (see preceding sections) regarding the essence and roots of voluntarism in some prominent philosophical traditions, the most important aspect to be noted here by the learner is that : Inherent in Weber's 'theory of social action' is the voluntary approach which emphasises the individual's voluntary actions and places stress on 'free-will'. It means that a human being is capable of conscious

thought and self-awareness. Human action is not simply a reaction to external stimuli; rather, it is the result of the subjective meanings, motives and interpretations brought into a social situation by the 'actions' of an individual actor. Social reality is continuously evolving because it is created by individual's own actions and expression of 'freewill'. It is not something fixed and inevitable where an individual is simply a mute witness to the existing social conditions.

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1.8.1 Ideal Types, Verstehn and Rationalisation

Before we explain to you Weber's Ideal types of social action, it is of paramount importance for you to learn about the elementary aspects of three significant concepts which are intertwined with Weberian approach to social action viz. 'Ideal Types', 'Verstehn' and 'Rationalization'. i)

Ideal wpes

Weber developed the notion of ideal types as a conceptual and methodological tool to understand and analyse social reality. A social scientist always faces a typical dilemma while choosing conceptual apparatus. If the concepts chosen are too general in nature, there is likelihood of missing distinctive specific details of a phenomenon. Again, if concepts are too specific, chosen to explain the particularities of a phenomenon, they leave no room for comparison with other related phenomena. To avoid this difficulty, rather to escape this dilemma, Weber conceptualized the notion of 'Ideal Types'. An 'Ideal Type' is conceived as an abstraction which is 'an approximation to an average or pure type'. 'Ideal Type' is developed to capture the essence of some social thought, activity, action or phenomenon. Such ideal type can later on be referred to for explaining similar or related social thoughts or activities or actions or phenomena. In fact, an ideal type is an analytical construct which serves the investigator as a measuring rod to ascertain similarities as well as deviations in concrete phenomena or case-studies. Ideal type is a methodological device in the form of abstractions which emphasize the core or central elements of a phenomenon. Other similar or related phenomena can be analysed with reference to the core or central elements of such an ideal type. Weber did not attach any positive or negative value judgments to ideal types. For him, ideal types basically offered guidance for the construction of hypothesis. They also furnished a fundamental method for conducting comparative studies. Weber developed a model of an ideal-type bureaucracy as 'a rational form of administration that performs with maximum efficiency'. The essential characteristics of an ideal type bureaucracy are : rational and efficient methods of administration, standardised rules, well-defined hierarchy, legitimate forms of authority, objectivz decision making (no space for arbitrariness or favouritism), hiring and promotion to occur on the basis of merit, rewards to be given for performance and so on. For Weber, a good example of an ideal type bureaucracy having most of such characteristics is a 'University'. Besides that, no bureaucracy in the real social world may conform exactly to this ideal type since there is often favouritism, bending of rules or inefficient administration and so on. But there may be many bureaucratic structures in society displaying large number of characteristics attributed to an idea-type bureaucracy. Thus, the analytical construct of an ideal-type bureaucracy becomes a reference model for the study of other bureaucratic structures of society. Thus, Weber postulated many more 'ideal types' such as ideal types of action, ideal types of authority, notion of 'Protestant Ethic' as an 'ideal type' for understanding evolution of capitalism and so on. The construction of such ideal-types facilitated Weber's extensive analysis of society.

Voluntarism, State and Societv

ii)

Verstehn

This approach called Verstehn is very much important and central to Weberian analysis. Literal translation of Verstehn (German Pron. Ferstehn) is 'understanding' or sympathetic understanding. Weber postulated that by putting oneself in the place of others, sociologists can better understand the subjective meanings which social actors attach to their actions. This method of Verstehn (sympathetic understanding) facilitates a social scientist to take on the role of other social actors in society so as to develop an understanding of their actions from their own vantage position. The aim is not to pass positive or negative value judgment on the actions of others, but rather to understand the motives and meanings which individual actors attach to their actions. This helps to discern and examine the perceptions, motives, views and interpretations the same way as individual actors perceive their own actions in society. Such an approach does not rely just on empirical data; rather it uses it creatively to consider how social actors actually perceive their action and social situation. Weber throughout employed this approach of interpretive understanding (Verstehn) while extensively analysing social action, social relationships, social structures, cultural significance and historical causes of events and so on. iii) Rationalization Max Weber argued that one of the most important characteristics of modem societies is rationalization. He considered traditional forms of conduct or actions as irrational or non-rational. Traditional thought or actions are generally guided by unknown mysteries of nature, viz., magical, supernatural or religious beliefs. People's actions, in earlier era, were mostly nurtured by non-rational thinking. Weber argued that 'rationalization' is a long drawn historical process that has transformed modelm societies. The social conduct or actions of individuals within modem structures of society are governed by rationalization. According to Weber, rationalization means that individual's thoughts or actions are rooted in reason and based on enlightened assessment or calculation of situation. Following aspects are associated with Weber's understanding of rationalization :
I

Calculability - By choosing certain sound assumptions and methods, individual

actions can be based on a prior calculation for achieving the desired results.

Efficiency - Individual actors desire to achieve certain ends or goals; hence they choose the best available means to achieve such ends or goals. Predictability - Individuals working in organizations are subject to certain norms,
ethos, rules, regulations and structure of authority. By adhering to established procedures, the outcome or results of actions can, to a greater extent, be predicted in advance.

Tools and Technology - The application of scientific method, tools, technologies, contemporary information technology and so on ensures greater predictability of desired ends or goals.
The uncertainties about the achievement of desired ends or goals can not be completely eliminated. However, by the applical.ion of sound scientific assumptions, methods, tools and procedures, uncertainties about the outcome of ends or goals can be brought under control and chances of occurrence of uncertainties can be substantially reduced.
-

Control over Uncertainties

These above noted principles of rationalization are inherent to most of the actions/ activities taking place in modem social and economic organisations. Actions governed by rationality result in efficiency and produce sound gainful end results within such modem organisations. Weber considered rationality as a prerequisite necessity for the efficient functioning of any organisation. He visualised that rationalization is progressively talung over more and more spheres of society. However, he cautioned that though rationalization contributes to efficiency and predictability, it also sometimes. stifles individual initiative. innovation and spontaneity in social life.

1.8.2 Weber's Ideal Types of Action

Weber classified all social actions into four types with different consequences for the individual and society. He considered these ideal types of action very important for understanding human behaviour. We have explained here the essential aspects and unique features of each type of action. i)

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Goal Oriented Rational Action

This type of action is distinguished by the fact that individual actor conceives his goal clearly. Accordingly, the individual selects appropriate rational means with a view to achieve the desired end or goal. Individual employs the most effective means for attaining an immediately practical end-result. For example, an architect conceives an idea, prepares the design and executes the plan to build a house. He makes informed decisions regarding materials, costs, time and other inputs based on rational choices. This way the building plan is successfully implemented to achieve the desired goal. More examples of this type are : an entrepreneur's actions to increase profits; rational actions of bureaucracy; a consumer exercising rational choices while purchasing desired commodities in market. Weber noted that this type of actions based on rationalization are the hallmark of modem societies. ii) Value Oriented Rational Action This type of action is an end in itself rather than a means to achieve some practical or gainful result. The desired end in such an action is simply to fulfill a socially determined commitment to a particular value system pertaining to religion, faith, honour, sacrifice and so on. Weber noted that individual actions belonging to this category are dictated by the conscious belief in ethical, aesthetical or religious value systems prevalent in society. The action is independent of the immediate prospects of gain or the notion of success or failure. For example, a soldier will sacrifice his life in the battlefield in defence of motherland. A caption of a ship will prefer to sink along with the sinking ship. The consideration in such actions is not the practicality, or gainful pursuit of an actor. Despite all the risks and sacrifice, the individual action is very much considered rational. In such a situation, the individual acts not to obtain an extrinsic result but to remain faithful to a society nurtured idea of duty and honour.

iii) Emotional or Affectual Action

This type of action is determined by an individual's affective or emotional state of mind. The action may be impulsive and emotional but the whole behaviour certainly has some meaning associated with it. The method of achieving the end is not carefully calculated and rational choices are not exercised in this type of action. Such action is not considered rational in any sense of the term as for example, the impulsive slapping of child by a mother. The action is dictated immediately by the emotional state of mind of the mother. The action takes place without any careful calculation or prior consideration of exercising rational choices. The action has some meaning associated with it, in the sense, that mother's intention is to correct the behaviour of the child. A recent example is the famous head-butt administered by Zinedine Zidane (France) hitting an Italian player in the chest in the final Football Match during World Cup, Germany, 2006. Such action is not to be judged with reference to a goal or system of values but by the emotional state of an actor in a given set of circumstances. iv) Traditional Action This type of action is determined by social beliefs and customs. With the passage of time, beliefs and customs prevalent in society become almost a second nature of a person. Thus individual actions are more or less habitual, dictated by various traditions.

Voluntarism, State and Society

An individual need not imagine a goal; rather he simply acts according to given beliefs, customs or traditions. Further, such action is neither determined by any valuesystem nor is dictated by impulsive emotions. The individual simply obeys the reflexes which have been nurtured and conditioned by already existing traditions. Weber considered that this type of actions are utmost important because they form the basis for the perpetuation of authority and legitimacy of the social system. People feel dutybound to abide by customs and traditions. Consequently social order is created, maintained and acquires legitimacy in the minds of people.

1.9 THE VOLUNTARISTIC THEORY OF ACTION

The voluntaristic theory of action was developed by American sociologist, Talcott Parsons (1902-79). He attempted to build an 'action theory' by integrating the works of h s predecessors such as Emile Durkheim, Vilfredo Pareto and Max Weber. The outcome was the voluntaristic theory of action which, for Parsons, represented a synthesis of useful assumptions and concepts of utilitarianism, positivism and idealism. The most significant aspect to be noted here is that this single 'action theory' was based on the fundamental assumption that 'individual action' is voluntary, intentional and symbolic in nature. The theoretical system of Parsons accorded central place to the 'subjective consciousness' of an individual so as to build a general theory of action systems. The starting point of his analysis is the 'unit act' performed by an individual. He further examined the ways in which various 'unit acts' orient and combine together in order to create the institutions and structures of society.

1.9.1 Unit Act

Parsons noted that every scientific analysis begins by taking into consideration some smallest unit viz. atom, molecule, metre and so on. Similarly for the analysis of social action the basic entity is the 'unit act' performed by an individual. Essential characteristics of 'unit act' are : i) An actor, i.e., in individual with a mind and body who is able to perform some kind of action.

ii) An end, i.e., outcome or result of an action. Each 'individual act' must have some purpose or end - a future process related to the orientation of the 'action'. iv) Situation - An actor initiates an 'act' withn a particufar situation. Two aspects of the situation are The conditions of actions over which the individual actor has little or no control. For instance, the pre-given natural environment or social structure within which an action is being performed; and Means of action over which the individual does have some control. For instance in a workplace situation, individual actor (worker/employee) has no eontrol over the structure of an enterprise. But the actor certainly can exercise certain degree of control on the specific tasks performed or in relating with customers, subordinates or superiors and so on. v) Normative Orientation - According to Parsons, the means can not be selected at randoin since the orientation of a particular act to meet certain ends is determined by norms. The actor always has some prior understanding of framework of values or norms prevalent in a social structure. Since society provides 'actors' with a normative set of rules for concrete behaviour, there is always a normative orientation to social action. Hence, for Parsons, the e-ssentialcomponents of the unit act are : an active conscious actor (individual) with particular ends (goals), a range of available choices, a situation

imposing certain constraints (environment or social structure), and a normative orientation. Such an Action, according to Parsons is 'rational' but he cautions that it need not be ascertained objectively by the social scientist. Rather, the frame of reference must remain subjective, i.e., a social scientist must take into account the point of view of the actor whose actions are being examined in a particular situation.

Voluntarism - Theoretical Issues

1.9.2 Essential Elemeqts of Voluntaristic Action

Parsons conceptualised voluntarism as the subjective decision-making process of individual actors but he considered such decisions as the partial outcome of various kinds of normative and situational constraints imposed by a social structure. Broadly stated, voluntaristic action has the following essential elements : Actors are individual persons; Actors are seen as having goal seeking urges; Actors give due considetxtion to alternative means in order to achieve the goals; Actors are faced with a variety of situations such as biological and environmental constraints which affect the selection of means of goals; Actors are governed by values and norms which in turn influence the decisions about selection of a goal and choices to be made regarding means; and Action involves actors; actors make subjective decisions about suitable means to attain particular goals; the overall process is influenced by normative set of rules and conditions available in a situation. Figure 1.1 depicts this basic conceptualization of voluntarism. The process shown in the diagram is termed as the Unit Act. Social action involves a succession of such Unit Acts by one or more actions within a social situation. Norms, Values and other Ideas

Means, Means, Actor Means, Goal

Figure 1.1: The Units of Voluntaristic Action Source : Jonathan, H.Turner, The Structure of Social Action (1987) p-61

1.9.3 Social Action

The action systems which Parsons attempted to develop are basically built upon the action approach of Max Weber. As discussed earlier in this unit, Weber's ultimate analysis remained embedded in the uniqueness of a concrete individual actor. He placed emphasis on the subjective meanings which conscious individuals attach to their actions or 'interactions with others' in order to achieve an end or goal within specific social contexts.

Voluntarism, State and Society

For Parsons, social actions has the following characteristics : Social action is voluntary or voluntaristic. No doubt social action is constrained by a limited number of available choices in a situation but social actor has the option to choose a particular action he or she intends to follow to meet certain ends. Thus in the ultimate sense, the voluntaristic character remains manifest in the social action performed by an actor. Social action is subjective in that social action has an internal orientation. Similar to Weber's actor, it attaches subjective meanings to individual social action and attaches due consideration to others in a social situation. However, at the same time, the actor has his or her preferences and goals. Again, such voluntaristic action is oriented by individual preferences and attempts to meet individual goals. Social action is governed by framework of norms and values of a culture and social structure. Thus Parsons attempted to furnish a more evolved explanation of social action than provided by his predecessors in earlier theories. This approach to social action is considered more inclusive than that of Max Weber since it is contextualised within the culture and social order. Further, Parsons envisaged the actor as determining goals, choosing between alternatives, and acting in the context of norms and values available in a social situation. Since social action takes place within a social system, the social action itself contributes to define, create and maintain the social system. Later on Parsons developed an exhaustive and elaborate analysis of various social structures of society in his work The Social System. Further analysis of Parson's work falls beyond the scope of this unit, since our sole aim is to acquaint you with the essential aspects of voluntaristic theory of action.

Check Your Progress IV

Note: a) Use the space given below for your answer.
b) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of this unit.

I)

The following statements have been based on the text that you have already read. Indicate whether these statements are true or false by putting tickmark (4) in the relevant box. True False a) An important stream of sociological theory rests on the assumption that thinking and conscious individuals are creators of society as they act and interact according to their own free-will in socially meaningful ways in society. [ I [ ] b) Action theories of Max Weber and Talcott Parsons have stressed the role of free-will and voluntary action in sociological theory. [ ] [ ] c) Weber's theoretical focus was never on subjective meanings which conscious human beings attach to their 'actions' and 'interactions' within specific social contexts. [ I [ ] d) Weber developed the notion of 'Ideal Type' as a conceptual and methodological tool to understand and analyse social reality. [ ] [ ] e) The approach called verstehn is very much important and central to Weberian analysis. ( ] [ I

f)

Weber did not consider 'rationalisation' as an important characteristic of [ I [ ] modem societies.

Voluntarism

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g) Weber classified all social actions into four main types with different consequences for the individual and society. [ I [ ] h) Parson's action theory is based on the fundamental assumption that individual action is voluntary, intentional and symbolic in nature.

[ I [ ]
i) j) The starting point of Parson's general theory of action is not the 'Unit Act' performed by an individual. [ I [ ] Parson's conceived that each 'individual act' must have some purpose or end or goal. [ I [ ]

2) List the main features of Parson's notions of voluntaristic action. (Hint : see the text)

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1.10 LET US SUM UP

The fundamental tenets of voluntarism lie embedded in the western philosophical traditions. In this Unit, we have explained to you, the theoretical issues inherent in voluntarism as retrieved from the social thought propounded by some eminent philosophers in the West. We have furnished a very limited and focused discussion of the relevant ideas of Thomas Hobbes, Arthur-Schopenhauer, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche and Sigmund Freud. Later, we have described the salient features of a particular stream of sociological theory that emphasized the practical manifestations of voluntarism in the analysis of society. At the very outset, we have described meaning, essence and definitional aspects of voluntarism. Next, we have furnished a discussioi on Hobbes's conception of an ideal state of natural existence in which every individual had equal right to every available resource in nature. Hobbes granted all types of freedoms, liberties, choices of behaviour and actions to individuals based on their natural rights in society. His philosophy contained vast potential for the emergence and expression of all kinds of initiatives pertaining to voluntarism. However, by positing an infinitely authoritarian state in order to contain the ensuing situation of 'War of all against all', Hobbes in pure theoretical sense, curtailed the scope for the true expression of the essence of voluntarism. We have also explained the fundamental tenets of voluntarism as retrieved from the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer - the true architect of voluntarism. Schopenhauer retained Kant's notion of 'noumenon' and identified it with human 'Will'. Hence, he anchored the project of human enquiry, knowledge and constitution of conscious and rational mind ultimately in human will. For him, human thought, consciousness, and consequent actions are the product of individual's own volitions, desires, feelings and emotions, i.e., expression of human 'Will'. Such human thought or actions which originate or emanate from human will are considered 'voluntary' in nature. The

Voluntarism, State and Society

source and essence of voluntarism lay in the free expression of human will. Individual actions based on the unhindered expression of 'free-will' represent the true spirit of voluntarism. Thus Schopenhauer's philosophy laid the firm and sound foundations of generalized form of voluntarism. Next, we have discussed Rousseau's conception of 'social contract' that is based on the assumption that each individual is under implicit contract to submit his own 'Will' to the 'General Will' of all the people in society. Now, submission of an individual 'will' to the authority of the 'general will' and consequent constraint of mutually agreedauthored laws, again in pure theoretical sense, eclipses the essence and true spirit of voluntarism. However, since the authority of sovereignty is invested in the 'general will' of the people (not alien to individuals) and individuals have entered into 'social contract' through the expression of 'free-will', Rousseau's philosophy contains immense profound potential and unlimited practical possibilities for unleashing the praxis and growth of voluntarism in real life situations in modem societies. Further, we have explained that Nietzsche's concept of 'Will to Power' contains the essence as well as immense potential for the expression of voluntarism. But the concept, at the same time, is impregnated with a fierce and aggressive drive for the expression of voluntarism. Hence, an individual's voluntaristic expressions of actions may come into direct confrontation with others in real life situations. Such excessive voluntaristic expression intend to make others weak with the sole aim to dominate over them. This aggressive praxis of voluntarism by an individual negates and neutralized the very essence of voluntarism. It subjugates and subordinates other beings itl the over-jealous pursuit of 'Will to Power'. The concept in also germane to create authoritarian structures inimical to the true expression of voluntarism in society. Though somewhat unrelated, we have furnished a discussion of Freud's conceptualisation of the 'constitution of the unconscioii: mind', since it broadly falls within the domain of psycho-analysis. Since it represents a reverse movement from 'conscious' to the 'constitution of unconscious', the nature and potential for the expression of voluntarism in society remains unclear. , We have further explained that rooted in the above philosophical traditions are sociological theories which emphasize the practical manifestations of voluntarism in real life situations in society. The fundamental assumption underlying such theories of social action is that an individual is capable of conscious thought and action. Individual action is not simply a reaction to the external environment; rather it is the outcome of conscious meanings, motives, and choices brought into situation through the expression of free-will by an individual. This approach gives cerltral importance to the role of free-will and consequently to the individual's voluntary action in society. Hence, in the last, we have discussed sociological theories of action which are oriented towards the individual's subjective consciousness as a means of explaining the roots of social action. The most significant and outstanding action theories are that of Max Weber and Talcott Parsons, which have stressed the role of free-will and individual voluntary actions in sociological analysis. We have explained the essential features of Weber's theory of social action and Parson's voluntaristic theory of action.

'

1.11 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

Adams, Bert N. and Sydie, R.A., Sociological Theory, Thousand Oaks : Pine Forge, 2001. Aron, Raymond, Main currents in Sociological Thought, Harmondsworth : Penguin Books Ltd. 1979 (Reprint).

Deleuze, Gilles, Nietzsche and Philosophy (trans, by Hugh Tomlinson), London : The Athlene Press, 1983. Easthope, Antony, The Unconscious, London : Routeledge, 1999. Freud, Sigmund, (Trans. by James Strachey, Edited by James Strachey and Augela Richards), Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis, Vol-I, Harmondsworth : Penguin Books Ltd. (1987 ed.). Parsons, Talcott, The Social System, New York : Free Press, 1951. Parsons, Talcott, The Structure of Social Action, New Delhi : Amerind Publishing Co. Ltd. 1974. Ritzer, George, Sociological Theory (3d edition), New York : McGraw Hill, 1992. Russel., Bertrand, A History of Western Philosophy, London : Simon and Schuster, Inc. Copyright 1972, (year of pub. not given) Simpson, David, (Ed.), The Origins of Modem Thought : German Aesthetic and Literacy Criticism from Lessing to Hegel, Cambridge : University Press 1988 (chap 13 Schopenhauer from the World as Will and Representation ) pp. 331358. I Turner, Jonathan H., The Structure of Sociological Theory (4" Indian Edition), Jaipur: Rawat Publications. 1987. Weber, Max, Economy and Society :An Outline of Interpretive Sociology, New York: Bedminster Press, 1968.

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1.12 MODEL ANSWERS

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Check Your Progress I

1) a) True
f)

b) True g) True

c) True h) True

d) True i) True

e) False
j)

False

False

Check Your Progress 11

1) a) True
f)

b) True g) False

c) False h) True

d) True

e) False

True

Check Your Progress I11

1) a) True
f)

b) False g) True

c) True
h) True

d) False

e) True

True

Check Your Progress IV

1) a) True
f)

b) True g) True

c) False h) True

d) True
i)

e) True
j)

False

False

True