Voluntary Actions - these are acts originating from the individual performing the act using knowledge about

the
situations of the act.

1. Classifications of Voluntary Actions

A. Voluntary – actions are performed from will and reason.

B. Related to Compulsion - it is considered as mixed of voluntary and involuntary. It is more voluntary if the desire and
choice has been performed and involuntary if it has considered preferences or alternatives.

Example: You are asked to perform a crime and your options are; either you do it and your family survives or you don’t
do it but they will be murdered.

2. Involuntary Actions – are acts done under a) force or coercion and b). ignorance where the doer failed to understand
the effect and feels sorry on the result.

Classifications of Involuntary Actions

A. Under Compulsion – circumstances which are beyond the control of the agent and contributes none to the action.

Example: A person was kidnapped, hence impossible to resist.

B. Through Ignorance of Particular Circumstances. Example: a man steals and ignorant of the law, arrow or gun shot by
mistake.

According to John Mothershead, freedom and obligation are two indispensable conditions for morality to occur.

FREEDOM is understood to be present when one is choosing a course of action, and he or she is taking full responsibility
for consequence of his actions. Importantly, this is anchored to the individual’s moral and rational capacity to discern
what is right and wrong.

In several meta-ethical traditions OBLIGATIONS usually follows or arrives from freedom.

FREEDOM- can be said to be present if the human person is free in making choices in the realm of morality – that is, in
making choices with regards to determining what is the right thing to do in situations and circumstances in his own life.
This can be summarized in our Filipino saying, “Buntot mo, hila mo!” It is taking full responsibility for your actions and
being obliged to do so.

Hence, an action is not in the full extent of morality if a person does something while his or her freedom and rationality
is altered or modified.

This event can happen if the person’s environment highly affects his judgement.

Atty. Jim Lopez in one of his books says that most of the marriages which are tried in civil courts are sagas of unending
throwing of blame and accusations between two lovers. Which can be simply be solved had one of the parties make
himself accountable for a problem which sit between them.
INTELLECTUAL CHOICE VS PRACTICAL CHOICE

A. Intellectual Choice – This is a choice which is deliberately selected based on a moral standpoint. Basically, they are
normative answers about what we ought to do from a moral system that we uphold and its moral principles. These
normative answers would take into consideration the behavior which the society will accept. For example, when you are
to decide in a moral issue, you can try to give intellectual choice as a normative answer. Here you are simply assuming
because you are not, as it were, facing that actual moral situation described in the dilemma. In this case, the answers
that you are inclined to give are prescriptive in this imaginary and hypothetical situation.

B. Practical Choice – a choice which is borne out of psychological and emotional considerations.

PRACTICAL CHOICES- are made when confronted with the actual situation, and usually affected by psychological aspect
of the person embroiled in the moral situation or dilemma.

Psychological and emotional stress and lack of time to deliberate during an actual moral situation may affect a
person’s moral decision in that situation. A person may be so engulfed by emotions that he may sometimes fail to make
the right choice. Likewise, stress could make a person’s practical choice inconsistent with his intellectual choice.

Intersubjectivity is a coined word from the prefix “inter” which connotes “among and between” and the philosophical
term “subject” that is equivalent to a conscious being.

Intersubjectivity would mean in the general sense as “sharing of subjective states by two or more individuals.”

Intersubjectivity is the organic union of the subjective reality and the objective reality of beings. Meaning to say, as a
person, we have a personal regard to self but we cannot deny the fact (objective – fact of reality we all share) that we
live with others so we also regard them as part of ourselves. We tend to place ourselves in others’ shoes and relate to
them in good ways as possible.

The Parable of the Good Samaritan clearly explains the phenomenon of intersubjectivity in the human world.

The Parable of the Good Samaritan- though it focuses on the Kingdom of God, it still validates the importance of
intersubjective relations of man.

Intersubjectivity is universal. It exists when and where humans exist. It is an undeniable reality which thinkers could not
help but discuss. Here are some philosophers who took philosophical inquiry on intersubjectivity:

1. Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.) – one of the main ideas of Confucianism is Ren or “human-heartedness.” It is a virtue
central to man that can be found in his sociality or intersubjectivity. In his philosophy, Confucius stresses order and
harmony in the world. His aims can be achieved through practical, concrete, particular, and perceptual ways.

Confucian thinking on intersubjectivity is practical humanism. There is an emphasis on human actions in sociality. He
calls every man to love the other through actions, not through thoughts.

2. Martin Buber (1878-1965) – is a Jewish philosopher who introduced the “IThou” and “I-It” relationships to embody
his philosophy of intersubjectivity. For Buber, we have to treat another person as a subject (a being different from things
or objects).

Persons are not inanimate objects to be used. They have their own mind and free will, thus, we have to respect others
as we respect ourselves.

“I” refers to the self.

“Thou” or “You” refers to others.

This “IThou” relationship is the most meaningful relationship in the realm of humanity. The “I” is the same with the
“Thou” and there should be mutual relationship between them. We can only recognize the self in the context of the
other. This is a “person-toperson” relationship, “subject-to-subject” relation. We need to accept, respect, be sincere,
and have dialogue with the other.

3. Karol Wojtyla (1920-2005) – He is also St. John Paul II but as a philosopher, we use his real name.

Karol Wojtyla (1920-2005)- for him human action is the foundation of our being.

PARTICIPATION- human reality is also about being with others, so our actions are also directed towards others, this form
of action is now called…

THEORY OF PARTICIPATION- man has the capacity to share himself to others. This affirms the reality that man acts and
exists with others. He is a member of the community of persons, a community of “I-You” or “We.” Since man is a
member of this community, his experience with others gives him meaning and allows him to create meaning with
others.

A. Pre-Industrial Societies

a. Tribal Society - associates it to other meaning such as “primitive society” or “preliterate society.”

TRIBE- denotes a group of peoples living in a primitive setting under a leader or chief.

TRIBE- has become an important technical term which pertains to a political unit in a certain territory. The term’s use is
rooted from Latin which is associated to the political divisions or orders of the Roman empire.

Tribal societies- are small in scale; bound to their spatial and temporal range of relations in terms of society, law, and
politics; and possess a moral code, cult, and wide range of belief system.

The language systems of tribes are unwritten which provides a narrow extent of communication.

Tribal societies- show a self-sustaining structure which is absent in the modern society. This is achieved by the close
connections that exist between tribal organizations, and by the focusing of a leader or person to multiple roles.

Unity and coherence- exist in tribal values that are closely related to social groups and are provided with an intensity
characteristic of all “closed” systems of thought.

b. Feudal Society

Feudalism- refers to the economic, political, and social system that prevailed in Europe from about the ninth to the
fifteenth century.

VASSALS- lesser nobles.

Due to the lack of effective centralized government during this period, kings and lords granted land and provided
protection to lesser nobles known as vassals. In return, these vassals swore oaths of loyalty and military service to their
lords.

SERFS- peasants who were bound to the land and were subject to the will of their lords.

One social class system or economic form was not realized for Europe over the whole Middle Ages.

A new economy after medieval period known as CAPITALISM is still in progress.

Medieval world- is known for its traditional land economy and military service, and an urban society. These led to a
feudal-based social-class system and trade & commerce based on money or capital.

FORMED THE CORE OF THE SOCIETY: urban or town environment, merchants, artisans, and customers.

MANUFACTURE- the most important business to produce goods for sale and buy in the local market economy. Local
products was to have an impact in other areas, such as regional fairs, port cities, and far trade destinations.

B. Industrial society is the one which uses advance technology to drive a massive production industry that will support a
large population.

OBJECTIVE OF AN INDUSTRIAL ECONOMY: the fast and efficient manufacturing of standardized products.

C. Post Industrial Society - is marked by a progress from a manufacturing-based to a service-based economy.

Post industrialization- most evident in countries and regions that were among the first to experience the Industrial
Revolution, such as the United States, western Europe, and Japan.

First to experience the Industrial Revolution: UNITED STATES, WESTERN EUROPE, AND JAPAN.

DANIEL BELL- an American sociologist, first coined the term ‘post-industrial’ in 1973 in his book “The Coming of Post-
Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting,” which describes several features of this kind of society.

Post-industrial societies are characterized by:

a. a shift from the production of goods to the production of services;

b. the replacement of manual laborers with technical and professional workers (computer engineers, doctors, and
bankers) as the direct production of goods is moved elsewhere;

c. the replacement of practical knowledge with theoretical knowledge;

d. focusing to the theoretical and ethical implications of new technologies, which helps society avoid some of the
negative features of introducing new technologies, concerning environment and energy;

e. the development of recent scientific disciplines—that involve new forms of information technology, cybernetics, or
artificial intelligence—to evaluate the theoretical and ethical implications of new technologies;

f. an emphasis on the university and polytechnic institutes which produce graduates who innovate and lead the new
technologies contributing to a postindustrial society; and

g. the changing values and norms which reflects the influences on the society. In an instance, outsourcing of
manufactured goods changes how members of a society see and treat foreigners and immigrants. Also, those individuals
previously occupied in the manufacturing sector find themselves with no clearly defined social role.

DIGITAL SOCIETY AND THE INFORMATION AGE

Digital technologies have wildly affected our interactions and activity in the 21st century.

Digital technologies- significantly changed our way of learning, working and socializing.

In this modern world we rely with the use of modern technology which has led to considering the possible outcome for
the society, concerning how we would take part in interaction, and how we can use these digital tools and
communication channels.
SOCIETY- which are correlated with the progress and development of digital information and communication
technologies to the internet at least.

INFORMATION SOCIETY- plays a vital role with regards to the circulation and control of made-up ideas which affects
political, economic, social and cultural aspects.

These informative societies have paved many opportunities reaching bigger audiences like never before. With a wider
scale of the world’s demography.

WESTERNERS- have access to sources and technologies which enables them to connect with enough activities whether
economic, social, political, or educational. We can manipulate the phasing of learning (e.g. free sources) or businesses
(e.g. online selling) without a large sum of money used as a capital and we can share our ideas and perspectives to the
international audiences as we connect beyond.

DIGITAL CITIZEN- a person who is knowledgeable and responsible enough to effectively use different social platforms in
the internet. They often engage in useful topics and issues that will help build a better society, politics and government.

CITIZEN- defined as an individual character who is viewed as a member of a society while citizenship considers an
individual’s behavior in terms of rights, obligations and functions of said citizen.

OBLIGATIONS AND DUTIES OF A CITIZEN: work, taxation and obedience of laws.

RIGHTS OF A CITIZEN:
• civil rights such as freedom of speech and expression
• to stand for what we believe in
• rights to a private life; political rights, or the right to vote and social rights to health care and welfare.

Being a digital citizen requires active participation online, not just access and use.

“Being Digital Citizens” (2015) Isin and Ruppert- suggest that if we constitute ourselves as digital citizens, we have
become subjects of power in cyberspace.

We are enacting ourselves on the internet, considering and understanding the opportunities presented by this medium,
such as anonymity, communication, and influence.

We can use digital technologies to engage and participate on many levels in society and political life.

Virtual worlds and disembodied relations: lack commitment.

We can always create a new self when our avatars die or when it has become undesirable. We can always ignore
message. Virtual realities remove risks; and because we do not want to risk, we patronize the virtual world.

Commitment is hard. To commit is to risk.

VIRTUAL WORLD- one’s anonymity lessens, if not completely removes risks.

By a futile click to like. People in the modern technological society ultimately make no real commitments.

THE DISEMBODIED SUBJECT

DISSATISFACTION AND FRUSTRATION of the human person with bodily limitations drive the person to prefer a
disembodied human relation.
DISEMBODIED SUBJECT- does not mean that in the technological society, human persons are no longer living with their
bodies.

The disembodied interaction among people is aggravated by modern technological devices.

The different gadgets that are produced today support disembodied human relations.

THE KIND OF HUMAN INTERACTION- was still present just two decades ago, is obviously altered now.

The practice of selfie is another move towards disembodied human relations.

People used to approach other people to take their photos. But the regained popularity of selfie gave people the idea
that they do not need the other to take photos. And the invention of the monopod aggravates the condition.

MONOPOD- allows us to take group selfies without missing a member of our group. It has solidified the person to take
our photos.

The virtual society and the technological devices today are starting to reshape the human person and human
interactions and relationships.

NEGATIVE EFFECT OF VIRTUAL SOCIETY AND TECHNOLOGICAL DEVICES:

• People seem to start manipulating personalities as they exhibit different behaviors in different worlds.
• People fall in love in virtual worlds.
• Someone breaks up with a partner through a text message.
• Human relations seem to start losing an important element in living – commitment.

Virtual worlds and disembodied relations lack commitment.

Phenomenological Notion of Death

According to Martin Heidegger (1889-1976) in his book Being and Time, death is (a) certain, (b) indefinite, (c) one’s
property, (d) non-relational, and (e) not to be outstripped.

Death is certain.

As part of humanness, we are all born (in Heideggerian sense, we are “thrown”) in the world.

WORLD- is governed by time.

HUMANS are existing in time, thus, as being thrown in the world, we have beginning and since we are finite beings, we
also have end – death.

BIRTH AND DEATH- two things we cannot remove from our existence. Whether we like it or not, we will die.

WHAT IS DEATH?
• Death is INDEFINITE.
• Death is IMPENDING, meaning to say, it can happen anytime. We do not know exactly when. That is why, we
should try to live the best life that we can for we never know the day of our end.
• Death- is ONE’S PROPERTY. The death of the person belongs to him. Nobody can experience his death except
himself. There can be no proxies or substitutes for a person in experiencing death.
 • Death is NON-RELATIONAL. This means that when we die, we die alone. We have no choice but to face it on our
own.
• Death REMOVES ALL OUR RELATION TO OTHERS. In contemplating death, we realize our own individuality and
independence from the world.
• Death is NOT TO BE OUTSTIPPED.
• Death CANNOT BE TAKEN AWAY FROM A PERSON. Even the person himself cannot remove the possibility of
death in his life.

One cannot make himself live forever. Even though we see in fiction movies the idea of immortality, death, in real life is
a definite reality which we nothing can be done to be outstripped.

Death and Authenticity

We may accept the reality of death as it is, but it also reminds us that we have to value life while we have it.

Things that remain within our control are those which belong to life. While still alive, we have choices to take.

AUTHENTICITY- is an idea mostly used in existentialism which means having true and meaningful existence.

SOREN KIERKEGAARD- said that we have to avoid the crowd – the majority of the society which we think that should be
the pattern of our lives.

Another reason why we fail to lead an authentic life is FEAR.

As we accept death, we realize the value of having a true life – an authentic life!