PHILOSOPHY REVIEWER

“THE HUMAN PERSON IN THE ENVOIRONMENT”

Environmental Philosophy/Environmental Ethics

 The discipline in philosophy that studies the moral relationship at human beings with the environment and it’s
non-human contents.
 Tackles issues such as humanities role in the natural world.

Three major views regarding the relationship between humanity and environment
1. Anthropocentrism - focuses on the significant role of humankind in the world and considers nature as the means
by which humans are able to meet their needs and survive.
2. Biocentrism - believes that humans are not the only significant species on the planet, and that all organisms have
inherent value and should be protected.
3. Ecocentrism - believes that humankind is a part of a greater biological system or community and that we
significant role as stewards or guardians of nature.

Environmental Aesthetics - believes maintaining order in the environment will bring out the natural beauty of the
surroundings and contribute to the well-being of the people and other organisms living in it. Focused on concepts
of beauty in nature.
Environmentalism - this perspective advocates to address the growing environmental problems. Philosophy has a
significant role in the development of environmental awareness and action.
Environmental Ethics - a moral approach that analyzes the relationship between humans and environment. Also
discusses environmental problems caused by human activities and social issues that impact the environment.
Emerged in the 1970s, advocating human responsibility and action with regards to environmental issues.
Social Ecology - an ecological and ethical approach in analyzing society and sees a relationship between social problems
and environmental problems.
Environmental Justice - to the fair distribution of environmental benefits, as well as the burden of meeting environmental
challenges.
Sustainability - relies on the three important principles. environmental integrity, economic efficiency, and equity.
Sustainability or sustainable development. This concept focuses on reconciling human activities and economic
development with the protection of the environment. One of the major ideas of Sustainability is that we must
make wise decisions regarding the use of natural resources to ensure that there is still enough left for future use.
1. Environmental integrity - refers to maintaining the state of the environment. Human activities should
not unduly disrupt the ecosystems and human communities located in the area.
2. Economic efficiency - refers to the prudence in decision-making regarding the use of resources
to ensure that there is minimum to zero waste.
3. Equity - demands that we use our natural resources in such a manner that these are conserved so
that the next generation will be able to use them.
Prudence - is the ability to regulate one's action and behavior.
Frugality - is being thrifty with the use of one's resources.
 “FREEDOM OF THE HUMAN PERSON”

What is freedom?
 Is an intrinsic and essential property of the person. This means that the human person by nature is a free being
and that it is in his or her nature to seek freedom. An important indication of human Freedom is the ability to
make choices and perform actions. Our Freedom to act sets us apart from other beings. Freedom is rooted in the
human person's self determination and the exercise of intellect and free will.

KINDS OF FREEDOM
1. Physical Freedom - refers to the absence of any physical restraint. The person has the freedom or mobility to go
where he or she wants to go. He or she is not impeded in his or her actions by any physical force.
2. Psychological Freedom – it is also called freedom of choice. The person is free to perform actions that he or she
considers right and wise. A person is also free to act or not to act. Psychological Freedom is innate and
cannot be denied a person. No outside Force or influence can compel a person to take action against his
or her will.
3. Moral Freedom - refers to using Freedom in a manner that upholds human dignity and goodness. Freedom is not
an object that a person may use in whatever way he or she pleases. A person must use his or her freedom
to grow as a person.

TWO ELEMENTS THAT DEFINE FREEDOM

Voluntariness – refers to the ability of a person to act out of his or her own free will and self determination. This
means that a person may decide to act or not to act, and these decisions are made out of his or her own free will.
Responsibility - refers to the person being accountable for his or her actions and their consequences. Taking
responsibility can either mean a person voluntarily taking responsibility for his or her own actions, or being held
responsible by other people.

CONCEPTS OF FREEDOM:
1. Positive Freedom - refers to the capacity and opportunity of individuals to pursue their own goals, desires and
self-realization. It emphasizes the presence of enabling conditions and resources that empower
individuals to make meaningful choices and lead autonomous, self-determined lives. Associated with the
philosopher Isaiah Berlin
2. Negative Freedom - refers to the absence of external constraints or interference in an individual's ability to make
choices and act according to their own will. It emphasizes the of obstacles, coercion, or limitations
imposed by others or by external forces. Ensures individuals that they have liberty to act without
interference. Also associated with the philosopher Isaiah Berlin.
3. Absolute Freedom - also known as unlimited or unrestricted Freedom, is a theoretical concept that suggests
complete and unrestrained liberty for individuals, where there are no constraints, regulations, or
limitations on their actions.

ARISTOTLE PERSPECTIVE ABOUT HUMAN FREEDOM

 According to Aristotle, human Freedom is closely tied to the concept of virtue and the pursuit of eudaimonia,
which is often translated as "happiness" or "flourishing. Power or Volition.
ST. THOMAS AQUINAS PERSPECTIVE ABOUT HUMAN FREEDOM
 Freedom is spiritually and love. Love rather than law to bring out transformation.
 LOVE - is in consonance with humanity's free nature, for law commands and complete. St. Thomas emphasizes
the freedom of humanity but chooses love in governing humanity's life. Since God is love, then love is the guiding
principle Of humanity toward his self-perception and happiness his ultimate destiny.
THOMAS HOBBES, JEAN JACKQUES ROUSSEAU AND JOHN LOCKE (THEORY OF SOCIAL CONTRACT)
Social contract - an agreement where individuals sacrifice an amount of their freedom and submit to a higher
authority.
 “INTERSUBJECTIVITY”

What is intersubjectivity?
 Our human nature not only enables us to recognize, but SELF (that defines our individuality), it is also enables us
to recognize that the other human beings also possess a SELF.
 We are able to relate meaningfully with other human beings because we consider ourselves as ESSENTIALLY THE
SAME.
 Interpersonal relations- according to philosophers, is the notion of recognizing the SELF in the other.

TWO LEVELS OF “SELF-OTHER” INTERACTIONS

1. The simple awareness of the existence or the other.
2. The awareness of self as being seen by others.

Seeming - where an individual presents himself or herself in a certain way when dealing with others. Persons take on
roles.

HOW DOES INTERSUBJECTIVITY DEFINE OUR INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER PERSONS?

1. Empathy – or the ability to share emotions, is an important aspect of an intersubjectivity. This emotions is driven
by a person’s awareness that the other is a person with thoughts and feelings. Empathy enables us to
experience another person’s emotions, such as happiness, anger and sadness. In a manner of speaking,
sympathy is “feeling with” and empathy is “feeling in.”
2. Availability – is the willingness of a person to be present and be at the disposal if another.
3. Ethics of care – is an ethical theory that emphasizes the moral dimension of relationships and interactions. This
moral perspective encourages individuals to help other people, most especially the vulnerable.

Alienation – A person that adopts this negative view is said to be experiencing alienation. This arises when a person ceases
to view the other as a distinct and authentic person and merely considers the other person as a mere object or a
means to satisfy personal interests.
Helen Keller (1880-1968) – was an American author, political activist, and the first deaf-blind person to earn bachelor’s
degree.
Nicholas James “Nick” Vujicic (born 1982) – an Australian evangelist and motivational speaker who was born with
phocomelia, a condition in which a person is born with no arms or legs.
Roselle Ambubuyog (born 1980) – is the first visually-impaired Filipino to graduate summa cum laude from Ateneo de
Manila University in 2001. Roselle lost her eyesight at the age of six due to an illness.
 “THE HUMAN PERSON IN SOCIETY”

THE SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY

Enlightenment philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean Jacques Rousseau were among the
most prominent social theorists who tackled the origins of human society. To fully understand the true character of
society, they imagined humans as living in a so-called “natural state,” removed from modernity and civilization.

Social Contract - an agreement where individuals sacrifice an amount of their freedom and submit to a higher authority.
In this way, society is able to function and meet the needs of the many, ensuring the survival of humanity.
Thomas Hobbes persons in their natural states are governed by their desires and these often lead to conflict with their
fellowmen. Society, therefore, is the means by which people seek to control their natural tendencies and impose
order Individuals who establish societies enter into a “social contract.”
John Locke considered persons in their natural states as more cooperative and reasonable, and that society is formed
through the consent of the individuals that organized it.
JoJean Jacques Rousseau ideas on the social contract led him to advocate the concept of the “general will.”
John Rawls redefined the social contract and explained that human beings approach social cooperation in a rational
manner in order to meet their individual self-interests. He imagined humans as having a “veil of ignorance”, or
no knowledge of one’s own characteristics such as gender, race, or social status. In this state, humans would
naturally seek a just and fair society in an effort to look out for their own interests.
David Gauthier described people’s self-interest as a significant factor in building and maintaining societies.
The common good refers to the social conditions which enable persons and groups to fulfill their goals and achieve well-
being. The common good applies to all members of society. This means that not only do all members benefit
from it, all have the responsibility to work for it.

DIFFERENT FORMS OF SOCITIES

 Hunting and gathering Society – The earliest and simplest form of society is small, nomadic, and family-
oriented. It lacks a permanent territory, has a simple hierarchy, treats members equally, and makes
decisions through consensus, resulting in less defined roles and division of labor.
 Pastoral societies — involve the domestication of animals for a stable food supply, leading to larger settled
communities that produce surplus resources.
 Horticultural societies — practice small-scale plant cultivation and animal domestication, being semi-nomadic to
manage resources. Roles are clearly defined by gender, resembling pastoral societies, and surplus goods
may lead to inequalities. Early societies were family-centric with gender-based task assignments,
restricting behaviors based on tradition.
 Agrarian or Agricultural — societies represent an evolution from pastoral and horticultural ones, focusing on
large-scale and long-term crop cultivation and animal domestication. These societies employ improved
technology and tools for farming, leading to increased production and a growing population.
 Feudal society — born from Medieval conflicts in Western Europe, revolves around land ownership. Lords grant
vassals land rights, and peasants, in turn, work the land. Social hierarchy is clear, with lords at the top
and peasants at the bottom.
 Industrial society — relies on specialized machinery, stemming from the 18th-century Industrial Revolution,
leading to advancements in production, transportation, and communication.
 Post-industrial society — is characterized by a shift towards knowledge, information, and service-based
economies. Led by advanced technology, the focus has moved from industry to the generation,
manipulation, and sale of information.
 Virtual society — stemming from a post-industrial era, forms through communication technology and the
Internet. The freedom in virtual worlds enables engagement in diverse activities and access to various
forms of information.
 “INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HUMAN PERSON”

HOW DOES THE REALITY OF DEATH DEFINE OUR LIVES

 Death is commonly understood as the end of bodily functions which signals the end of a person's life. It also
refers to the separation of the body and the spirit. As mentioned earlier, the human person is an embodied
spirit. The body, being material, is bound by the laws of time and space and is subject to growth, death, and
decay. The spirit, being immaterial, will continue to exist even after the body has passed.
 Self-determination – the capacity to choose and act for oneself.
 Temporal existence – his or her life is temporary he or she is not a being who exists permanently and fro
eternity.

THE TERM END CAN BE UNDERSTOOD IN TWO WAYS

1. terminus which means the full stop or end of a line.
2. telos which means "goal, purpose, or fulfillment."

Happiness - According to an Ancient Greek philosophy, it is as an achievement and it must be gained by living a
productive and moral life.

HOW DO I DEFINE TRUE HAPPINESS?

1. Noble good - is one which is pursued for its own sake; it is good in itself. Love and friendship are some examples.
2. Useful good - is considered good so long as it serves as a means to an end; its goodness is found only from what
it can provide. For example, money is good as it can buy you something.
3. Pleasurable good - is good so long as it provides some form of pleasure, though it does not have to be physical.

WHY DO WE SUFFER?
Suffering - takes place when we patiently endure unpleasantness, discomfort, and pain.
 physical suffering, when we experience physical sensations such as discomfort, hunger, distress, and pain.
 mental suffering, which involves emotional and mental states such as depression, anxiety, fear, loneliness, and
grief.