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OVERVIEW
The environment is the sum total of the surroundings of a living organism, including natural forces and other
living things, which
STUDY THESE TERMS:

● Ecology - According to Haeckel (1866), ecology refers to the scientific analysis of the interaction between
animals, plants, and their inorganic environment. Put simply, ecology deals with the balance of nature.
● Ethics - Ethics is defined as a moral philosophy or code of morals practiced by a person or group of people
● Sustainable Development - Sustainable development is a development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs DISCUSSION:
● Humankind is a part of the world, and we significantly affect our environment in the same way that
changes in our environment affect us.
● Environment philosophy is the discipline that studies the moral relationship of human beings with the
environment and its non-human contents.
● Philosophers believe that the human person has the ability to change the environment to suit his
purposes.
● It is in an orderly environment where human persons thrive best. Disorders give rise to several problems
and challenges for humankind.
● As a rational being, the person is not only capable of transforming the world, but also of understanding
the laws which govern nature. It can be said that the world is a text which the person can read and
understand in order to live a better life. He may treat it as:
1. A source of raw materials to be used in any way he pleases
2. As something that envelops and surround him, and thus have a unique relationship with it
● This means that persons can help environment become greater than what it originally is
Views on the Attribution of Moral Consideration
1. ANTHROPOCENTRISM
● Refers to a human-centered, or “anthropocentric,” point of view.
● Humans are the only, or primary, holders of moral standing.
● Anthropocentric value systems see nature in terms of its value to humans.
● A world view that considers humans to be the most important factor and value in the Universe.
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● Anthropocentric view suggests that humans have greater intrinsic value than other species.
● Influences ethical judgments about interactions with other organisms.
2. HUMANISM
● Progressive philosophy of life that, without theism or other supernatural beliefs, affirms our ability and
responsibility to lead ethical lives of personal fulfillment that aspire to greater good.
● Affirming the dignity of each human being, it supports that maximization of individual liberty and
opportunity consonant with social and planetary responsibility.
● A democratic and ethical life stance which affirms that human beings have the right and responsibility to
give meaning and shape to their own lives.
3. PATHOCENTRISM
● A philosophical position regarding the difference or similarities in the reaction to pain in humans and
animals.
● Ethical discussion of a major consideration in the study and implementation of bioethics and the use of
living beings in experimentation.
4. BIOCENTRISM
● A philosophical viewpoint that all living organisms, not just humans, are deserving of equal and moral
and ethical consideration.
● The belief that the rights and needs of humans are not more important than those of other living things.
● Basic precepts of the Buddhist ethics are to avoid killing or harming any living thing.
● The Christian saint Francis of Assisi preached to animals and proclaimed a biocentric theology that
explicitly included animals and plants.
5. ECOCENTRISM
● This concept believes that ecology is the central and most significant part of the earth and thus promotes
a nature-based system of values.
● Believes that man is the most advanced species with the brain and ability to take care of all other species
on earth.
● Focuses on the interests of all species and natural features on Earth’s ecosystems, refusing to place any
aspect or species above the others.
● Ecocentrist – Focus on the intrinsic value all these entities in their own right while acknowledging their
instrumental value to one another as part of the natural process.
6. HOLISM
● Etymologically, holism comes from the Greek word “holos” meaning “all” or “total”.
● Concisely summarized by Aristotle in Metaphysics, “the whole is more than the sum of its parts”.
● The idea that all the properties of a given system cannot be determined or explained by its component
parts alone, but the system as a whole determines in an important wat how the parts behave.
● The view that denies that all large-scale social events and conditions are ultimately explicable in terms of
the individuals who participated in.
There are numerous theories to show care for the environment aside from the ecocentric model such as deep
ecology, social ecology and ecofeminism to name some.
A. Deep ecology
For this theory, ecological crisis is an outcome of anthropocentrism, which is already discussed. The
controlling attitude of humankind is extended to nature, when in fact, humanity is part of nature. Deep
ecologists encourage humanity to shift away from anthropocentrism to ecocentrism.
B. Social ecology
For this theory, ecological crisis results from authoritarian social structures. Destroying nature is a reflection
wherein few people overpower others while exploiting the environment for profit or self-interest. Social
ecologists call for small-scale societies which recognize that humanity is linked with the wellbeing of the
natural world in which human life depends.
C. Ecofeminism
This theory argues that ecological crisis is a consequence of male dominance. In this view, whatever is
“superior” is entitled to whatever is “inferior”. Male traits as in the anthropocentric model are superior as
opposed to female traits as in the ecocentric model. Domination works by forcing the other to conform to
what is superior. Nature must be tamed, ordered and submitted to the will of the superior. For the adherents
of this view, freeing nature and humanity means removing the superior vs. inferior in human relations.
These theories value the care, conservation, preservation of nature and humanity. Our search for the meaning
of life must explore not just our own survival but calls for a new socio-ecological order. Erich Fromm
believes that it is about time that humanity ought to recognize not only itself but the world around it. For
Fromm, as human beings our biological urge for survival turns into selfishness and laziness. Fromm argues
that as humans, it is also inherent in us to escape the prison cell of selfishness.
Erich Fromm
Arising from the discussions, Fromm (2013) proposed a new society that should encourage the emergence of a
new human being that will foster prudence and moderation or frugality towards environment: These are
some of the functions of Fromm’s envisioned society:
1. The willingness to give up all forms of having, in order to fully be.
2. Being fully present where one is.
3. Trying to reduce greed, hate and illusions as much as one is capable.
4. Making the full growth of oneself and of one’s fellow beings the supreme goal of living.
5. Not deceiving others, but also not being deceived by others; one may be called innocent, but
not naïve.
6. Freedom that is not arbitrariness but the possibility to be oneself, not as a bundle of greedy
desires, but as a delicately balanced structure that at any moment is confronted with the
alternatives of growth or decay, life or death.
7. Happiness in the process of ever-growing aliveness, whatever the furthest point is that fate
permits one to reach, for living as fully as one can is so satisfactory that the concern for what
one might or might not attain has little chance to develop.
8. Joy that comes from giving and sharing, not from hoarding and exploiting.
9. Developing one’s capacity for love, together with one’s capacity for critical, unsentimental
thought.
10. Shedding one’s narcissism and accepting that tragic limitations inherent in human existence.
The ideals of this society cross all party lines; for protecting nature needs focused conservation, action,
political will and support from industry. If all these sectors agree on the same goals, the possibility of change
would seem to be considerably greater; especially since most citizens have become less and less interested in
party loyalty and slogans.
Human nature defines man, and this nature is revealed through a condition called being-in-the-
world.
What is Freedom?
❖ The power or right to act, speak, or think as one wants without hindrance or restraint.
(en.oxforddictionaries.com)
❖ Strands for something greater than just the right to act. Also, stands for securing to everyone an equal
opportunity for life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. (ieet.org)
❖ Understood as independence of the arbitrary will of another. A free person can do whatever he
chooses as long as he does not break the law and infringe of the freedom of others.
(newworldencyclopedia.org)
A. Aristotle
“All Actions have consequences.”

Power of Volition - The imperative quality of a judgment of practical
intellect is meaningless, apart from will. Reason can legislate, but only
through will can its legislation be translated into action. The task of
practical intellect is to guide and enlighten it. Will, in fact, is to be
understood wholly in terms of intellect. If there were no intellect, there
would be no will.
● Human beings are rational
● To reason is a divine characteristic
● Reason, will and action drives each other
B. St. Thomas Aquinas
Philosopher and theologian St. Thomas Aquinas was born circa 1225
in Roccasecca, Italy. Combining the theological principles of faith with the
philosophical principles of reason, he ranked among the most influential
thinkers of medieval Scholasticism.
Love is Freedom
All creatures of God, human beings have the unique power to change
themselves and the things around them for the better.
He considers humans as moral agents.

A human being, therefore, has a supernatural, transcendental destiny.
This means that he can rise above his ordinary being of self. This is in line with
the idea of St. Thomas that in the plan of God, a human being has to develop
and perfect himself by doing his daily tasks. Hence, if a human being
perseveringly lives a righteous life, he transcends his mortal state of life and
soars to an immortal state of life.
The power of change, however, cannot be done by human beings alone, but it is
achieved through cooperation with God. Between humanity and God, there is an infinite gap, which God alone
can bridge through his power perfection by participation. This means that it is a union of humanity with God,
Change should promote not just any purely private advantage, but the good of the community.
Four-Fold Classification of Law by St. Thomas Aquinas
1.Social Contract- implicit agreement among members of a society to cooperate for social benefits.
2. Existentialism- philosophical theory or approach which emphasizes the existence of the individual
person as free and responsible agent determining their own development through acts of the will.
3. Behaviorism- theory that human and animal behavior can be explained in terms of conditioning,
without appeal to thoughts or feelings.
4. Freedom- power or right to act, speak or think as one wants without hindrance or restraint
5. Sovereign- describe as supreme power or authority
Theory of Social Contract
● A law of nature (lex naturalis) is a precept of general rule established by reason, by which a
person is forbidden to do that which is destructive of his life or takes away the means of
preserving the same; and to omit that by which he thinks it may be best preserved.
● “Morality consists in the set of rules governing behavior that rational people would accept, on
the condition that others accept them as well.”
Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Social Contract

● Rousseau begins The Social Contract with the famous words
he once wrote: “Men are born free, yet everywhere are in chains.”
From this provocative opening, Rousseau goes on to describe the
myriad ways in which the “chains” of civil society suppress the
natural birthright of man to physical freedom.
● The Social Contract is to determine whether there can be a

legitimate political authority, since people’s interaction he saw at
his time seemed to put them in a state far worse than the good one
they were at in the state of nature, though living in isolation.
● Rousseau argues that it is absurd for a man to surrender his
freedom for slavery; thus, the participants must have a right to
choose the laws under which they live.
▪ Rousseau posits that the political aspects of a society should

be divided into two parts:
⮚ First, there must be a sovereign consisting of the
whole population, women included, that represents
the general will and is the legislative power within the
state.
⮚ The second division is that of the government, being
distinct from the sovereign.
▪ In his book the Social Contract, the state owes its origin to a
social contract freely entered into by its members.
Thomas Hobbes: Social Contract
● English philosopher (1588-1679)

● Developed the Social Contract Theory.
● In earliest history, humans lived in complete freedom in a “state of
nature” – no government and n superior power.
● What people could take by force was theirs – there was no
protective authority.
● Humans overcame this unpleasant society by creating the Social
Contract.
● The state was created by the people to protect the people (Popular
Sovereignty).
● Believed Monarchy was the best government.
● Jean – Jacques Rousseau and Thomas Hobbes differed in their

interpretations. Hobbes developed his idea in favor of absolute
monarchy, while Rousseau interpreted the idea in terms of absolute
democracy and individualism.
Jean-Paul Sartre: Existentialism
● Jean-Paul Sartre, (born June 21, 1905, Paris, France—died April 15,
1980, Paris)
● French novelist, playwright, and exponent of Existentialism.
● Existentialism — is a philosophy acclaiming the freedom of the
individual human being.
● He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1964, but he
declined it.
Sartre’s Principle of Existentialism

● The person is nothing else but what he makes of himself.
● The person is provided with a supreme opportunity to give meaning to one’s life.
● Freedom is therefore the very core and the door to authentic existence.
● The person is what one has done and is doing.
● The person who tries to escape obligations is acting on bad faith.
● Sartre emphasizes the importance of free individual choice regardless of the power of the other
people to influence and coerce our desires, beliefs and decisions.
● “To be human, to be conscious, is to be free to imagine, free to choose and responsible for one’s
life.
B.F. Skinner: Behaviorism

● B. F. Skinner was an American psychologist best-known for his
Influence on behaviorism
● Skinner referred to his own philosophy as 'radical behaviorism' and
suggested that the concept of free will was simply an illusion.
● All human action, he instead believed, was the direct result of
conditioning.
● Punishment and Reward - Simply as, you do good you will be
rewarded you do bad you will be punished.
● Dialogue - Dialogue is a deep and genuine relationship between persons
● Intersubjectivity - Intersubjectivity refers to the shared awareness and understanding among persons
● Relationship - Relationship is the way in which two or more concepts, objects, or people are connected, or
the state of being connected.
● Intrapersonal - Intrapersonal means “within a person,” that is, taking place within one person's self or mind.
● Interpersonal - Interpersonal relationship involves social associations, connections, or affiliations between
two or more people.
INTERSUBJECTIVITY – based on feelings or opinions rather than facts.

● It is the condition of a man, a subject, among other men, who are also subject
● It refers to the shared awareness and understanding among persons
● It is made possible by the awareness of the self and the other
Martin Buber
Martin Buber is Jewish existentialist philosopher. He was born in Vienna
and was brought up in the Jewish tradition. In his work I and Thou (Ich and Du)
(1923), he conceives the human person in his/her wholeness, totality, concrete
existence and relatedness to the world.
For Buber, interpersonal is signified by the ‘I-You relation’.
A. I-THOU
⮚ Relationship of mutual and reciprocal connection
⮚ Dialogic in nature
⮚ There is awareness and acknowledgement present between
two people
B. I-IT
⮚ Deeply correspond to isolation
⮚ Monologic in Nature, relationship with oneself
⮚ Both relationships are not constant rather, they can be
interchanged
Karol Józef Wojtyła;
[ˈkarɔl ˈjuzɛv vɔjˈtɨwa]
Saint Pope John Paul II or Karol Wojtyla was born in Wadowice,
Poland. He was elected to the Papacy on October 16, 1978 (264th
pope) and was considered a great pope (88%) during his lifetime. He
was also an architect of Communism’s demise in Poland. In his
encyclical letter, Fides et ratio, he criticized the traditional definition
of human as “rational animal”. He maintains that the human person
is the one who exist and acts (conscious acting, has a will, has self-
determination). And for Wojtyla, the social dimension is represented
by ‘We relation’.
Study these terms
● Social relation -is a blanket term for interactions between two or more people,
groups, or organizations.
● Reciprocity - the practice of exchanging things with others for mutual benefit,
especially privileges granted by one country or organization to another.
● Communal- shared by all members of a community; for common use

● Attachment- affection, fondness or sympathy for someone or something
● Cultivating- try to acquire or develop
Discussion
Have you ever wondered how your environment has shaped who you are? Have you ever considered
your position within this world and among the people you come into contact with on a daily basis? Have you
ever considered the impact your existence has had on the world and the people in it?
The purpose of being human is to interact with others. The individual is by nature a social entity
because of a propensity to put up extra effort to establish links and connections with others.
However, only humans are able to create a SOCIETY, which is an arranged group of people that
regularly interact and share a shared environment and culture. The term "society" can also refer to a close
relationship or amicable association with others, an alliance, a neighborhood, or a union. A group of people
involved in persistent social interaction. Typically subjected to the same political authority and dominant
cultural expectations. Society and its many facets offer resources that guarantee the growth of the human
being.
The society develops the Human beings’ potential
Social Exchange According to the social exchange theory, social behavior is the outcome of an
exchange process. The exchange is meant to maximize gains and cut down on expenses. This idea contends
that individuals balance the advantages and disadvantages of their social ties. They will end or leave the
connection if the hazards are greater than the benefits. Although most partnerships involve some giving and
receiving, this does not imply that the exchanges are always equal. According to social exchange, our decision
to stay in a social relationship depends on how much we value the advantages and disadvantages of each
one.
"Man is by nature a social animal; an individual who is unsocial naturally and

not accidentally is either beneath our notice or more than human," stated the
venerable Greek philosopher Aristotle.
Society comes first, not the individual.
Man cannot exist alone. For him to survive, certain physiological
demands must be met. For him to have a life, he must interact with other
people. No man can free himself from the bonds of interdependence. This
may start between the mother and the embryo and go on till he breathes his
last. While the mother's needs are more mental than physical, the needs of
the embryo are the opposite.
He defines human being as who:
1. Understood
2. Defined
3. Has personal meanings be acquired based on how he functions
Plato-
To address the issue of justice, Plato takes into account the ideal polis,
a group capable of self-government, as well as the connection

between the Republic's institutional design and the achievement of
justice. Since all philosophers seek to understand the ideal polis, Plato
contends that philosopher kings should be in charge.
The ‘kallipolis’, or the beautiful city, is a just city where political rule depends on
knowledge, which philosopher kings possess, and not power.
Although theoretically, it would be ideal if the Republic and the

modern state were ruled by knowledge and not power, power is
crucial in the make-up of political activity. This is one of the flaws in
Plato’s argument, which the essay will discuss.
The question of who should rule emerges, to which the essay will conclude by saying that,
in terms of Plato’s argument, the philosopher kings should not be the
rulers, as Plato is promoting an undemocratic political system led by a
benevolent dictator. At the same time, it is inevitable to pick out some
features of the modern state that are congruent to those of the ideal
polis.
Confucianism- Confucianism's central tenet is the significance of
having good moral character, which can subsequently have an impact
on the world around one through the concept of "cosmic harmony." If
the emperor has flawless moral character, his rule will be peaceful and
beneficent. Conflict and natural calamities are the results of departing
from the tenets of the old. The virtue of ren, or "humanity," which encourages more virtuous actions like
respect, benevolence, and humility, is how this moral character is attained. Confucius thought
that education was crucial to developing this moral character. He
believed that although people may have deviated from the proper
standards of behavior, they are inherently good. Rituals in
Confucianism were designed to bring about this respectful attitude
and create a sense of community within a group.
Karl Marx- Believes that consciousness, sociality, and purposiveness

build up a human person
- Believed that it is the human person himself that produces “human
nature’ being taken from ‘social relations’
- Individuals live their lives through social activities
- Man must take part in the collective process at the same time strive
with one another so that they can be considered as a ‘human being’
-Feelings and roles must be acknowledged
Two types of Human Relationships

1. Exchange Relationships – There is an expectance
2. Communal Relationships – There is willingness/ genuineness
Social Exchange Theory

- Its balance is not always equal
- When the cost outweighs the benefit, relationship is terminated
- Level of fairness varies between relationship (more generous – give a lot. Stingy- won’t give
anything at all)
Attachment Theory
- Believes that people normally feel secure when a ‘significant other’ is present and will feel
anxious if not around
- Human contact is desired
o Need for attachment
o Need for affiliation
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
- Humans reduce their anxiety by getting to know them better
- By knowing people together, behavior can be predicted and trust will be built eventually
Equity Theory
- Concerned not only in rewards but also in fairness
- People value fair or equal treatment which motivates them to maintain their fairness in their
relationships
Minding Relations Relationship
- Happiness in a relationship is created in the mind
Five components of a satisfying relationship
1. Self- Disclosure
2. Respect and Acceptance
3. Cultivating Relationship
4. The principle of reciprocality
5. Continuity
Self- Disclosure
- Partners share intimate information with each other to increase trust which make couples grow
together over time
Respect and Acceptance
- Respect and Acceptance must be maintained no matter how negative the information that was
shared by their partners
Cultivating Relationship
- Enhancing attributions for behaviors people in a minding relationship should make positive
attributions, description, and/or explanation of each other’s behavior
Principle of Reciprocity
- No matter how hard one person tries to establish a positive foundation in a relationship, the lack
of matching response from the partner will ultimately undermine the overall quality of the
relationship.
- For the relationship to last, all five factors must continue throughout the relationship’s life.
Social System - of group of individual actors interacting with each other in a situation that has least a
physical or environmental aspect.

- Regarded as an open system, that is, individuals in a social system have regular interactions
with their environment system.
Four Factors that make up a Social System
First – the social system is composed of two or more individuals which are called actors.
Second – the actors interact with one another physically or environment.
Third – the interaction is goal directed
Fourth- the relationship is mediated by shared symbol.
Social Organizations – are social systems because they are made up of individuals interacting for a common
goal, where each has a part or functions.
Different forms of Society
Pre Industrial Societies

-refers to the different types of societies that existed before the 18th century, or before the industrial
Revolution
- are characterized as having limited forms of production, with limited division of labor and social
stratification.
Pre industrial Societies consists of the following
a. Hunting and Gathering Societies

- Simplest type of societies
- The society survive by hunting and gathering their food
- The Hunter gatherers do not establish permanent houses or villages because they have
constantly moved as they consume the resources of their current environment.
- The social structures of the hunter-gatherers are generally egalitarian and decisions are
arrived at by consensus.
- There may be some hunter gatherer societies with leaders in their group. There are no
superior members in the case of the hunter gatherers societies primarily because they
cannot accumulate possessions.
b. Pastoral Societies
-The pastoral type of societies resulted as some hunter gatherers discovered that the animals
that they have could be tamed and bred.
- they started pasturing the animals they have domesticated.
-Pastoral societies have more members than the hunting and gathering type – around 50 to
200.
-allowed other members of the society to turn their attention into other matters aside from
securing food.
-Started the presence of inequality in the society as wealthier pastoral families handed down
their possessions to their next generations. As a result, there is centralization of wealth and
power to those families who inherited the properties of their ancestors.
c. Horticultural Societies
-A type of society that cultivated plants and it is far from agrarian or agricultural type primarily
because of the difference in technology and land area.
-Limited to simple tools like digging sticks or hoes in a relatively small land area or gardens
which they have to abandon after a couple years.
-Established semi-permanent to permanent houses.
-Like pastoralsocieties in terms of development. This led to the production of other goods that
were made available for trading.
-The owning of more wealth and properties than others made some families superior to others.
Inequality was established in horticultural societies.
d. Agrarian Societies
-the invention of new materials and methods for cultivating plants and animals gave rise to
agrarian societies.
-the most important innovation related to the development of agricultural lands is the
invention of the plow.
-the agrarian society has several innovations that increased the production of goods, such as
the invention of wheel
-other innovations include the use of wind power for sailboats, the invention of writing and
numerical notation, and the invention of the calendar.
-the advanced agrarian societies benefited from other technological innovations ranging from
metallurgy and weaving, to marine vessels and military equipment.
e. Industrial Societies
- The accumulation of information and the continuing innovations and technological

development of the agrarian societies paved the way to industrial societies.
Factors that led to transition
a. Advancement in water transportation
b. Further advancement in agricultural techniques and practices
c. Establishment of the printing press
- Technology swiftly evolved in industrial societies resulting in even more efficiency in
production.
- This eventually led to a problem of overproduction.
f. Educational Society
- Education is the process of receiving or
giving systematic instruction, especially in school
or university.
- It is composed of people whose main role is
to transfer knowledge or information within an
educational institution.
g. Virtual/ Social Networks

- Refers to all components that are part of a
society’s culture based on the functional rather
than the physical.
- It specifically enhanced telecommunication
systems and computing technology that people
use to interact with each other within the said
society.
● Death is the end of all biological functions that sustain a living organism.
● Senescence or aging is the process of gradual decline of the human body.
● Lifespan the length of time for which a person or animal lives or a thing function.
● Eternal oblivion, the belief that the person’s consciousness is completely erased upon death.
● Grief is the natural reaction to death and dying; deep sorrow, especially that caused by someone's
death.
DISCUSSION:X`
What is death?
Death is considered to be a natural occurrence, and as a person advance in age, the certainty of death is seen
in the gradual decline of the human body. Changes that characterize senescence include the decline of the
senses such as sight and hearing, gradual loss of vitality and mobility, mental decline, and increased frailty
and susceptibility to injury or disease.
How does the prospect of death give significance to our lives?
A major question that philosophers consider when discussing death is what happens to the person when he
dies. The dualist perspective believes that the mind or spirit, being incorporeal, persists after the body’s
demise. This thinking gives rise to the idea of an afterlife. Also, a controversial topic related to the belief in
the existence of the afterlife is the phenomenon known as “near death experience.” These experiences often
include the person having an “out-of-body experience’” where the person views his or her body or the events
surrounding his or her apparent death from distance. The opposite view, the belief in the afterlife is eternal
oblivion. This perspective denies the existence of a non-corporeal, immortal aspect in man, and considers
death as the end of a person’s existence.
▪ Ludwig Wittgenstein echoes Heideggerr’s view on the acceptance of death. A person cannot hope to
achieve immortality but he or she can achieve a certain degree of timelessness if he or she learns to
“live in the present.”
▪ Karl Jaspers considers death as the most significant “limit situation,” and that one should have the
capacity to alter his or her perspectives and ideas to be able to live with the fact that he or she is
destined to die.
▪ Erik Erikson defines death as an important aspect in the development of man. In the later stages of
life, man undergoes a challenge of balancing his life between ego integrity and despair. Ego integrity
refers to a person achieving his or her life’s purpose or having come to terms with his or her life. The
successful maintenance of a balanced and productive life as one ages will result in wisdom which is
defined by Erikson as a view of life undaunted by death.
How should one face death and loss?

Throughout our life, we have faced various experiences related to death and the most powerful experiences
related to death are often those of loved ones, particular friends and family members. Grief is the natural
reaction to death and dying. The experience of grief often involves a multitude of emotions such as sadness,
anxiety, anger, and guilt.
Psychological studies on grief have yielded several views on how humans deal with death, dying, and loss.
The earliest description of the phenomenon of grief was put forth by Elisabeth Kubler- Ross.
● Denial- the dying person initially expresses disbelief regarding his or her situation; those who hear of
death of a loved one often refuse to believe the news at first.
● Anger- the person expresses frustration with his or her situation.
● Bargaining- the dying person often voices his or her wish that his or her life be prolonged, and that he
or she is willing to do whatever it takes to survive.
● Depression- the dying person experiences intense sadness and exhibits disinterest in life and its normal
routines.
● Acceptance- this is the last emotional stage of grief when the person finally comes to terms with his or
her impending death and has embraced his or her mortality.
What is life’s meaning?
The question of the meaning of life is one that interests philosophers and non-philosophers alike. The question
itself is notoriously ambiguous and possibly vague. In asking about the meaning of life, one may be asking about
the essence of life, about life’s purpose, about whether and how anything matters, or a host of other things.
“Existence rather than Essence” For Nietzsche, the meaning of life is to live authentically and powerfully,
creating one’s own goals and values. Those of us who live by a moral code, be it religious or otherwise, are
weak and only get in the way of the “supermen.” His strongly aesthetic vision perceives life as a work of art
and all of us our own artists. Personal choices are not constrained by moral philosophy or objective forms of
truth. In Nietzsche’s ideal world, we would return to nature and welcome the chance to be creative every
moment that we are awake. Individual freedom found in liberal democracies is repudiated in favor of
unrestrained freedom found in individual strength. Nietzsche's contribution to existentialism was the idea
that
men must accept that they are part of a material world, regardless of what else might exist. As part of
thishuman potential.
Who am I and why am I here?
“The immoral person literally becomes a slave of his desire.” - Socrates
● A great teacher in Athens around 469 BC, believes that knowing
oneself is a condition to solve the present (Bervesluis, 2000)
● For Socrates, for a person to be happy, he has to live a virtuous life.
virtue is not something to be taught or acquired through education,
but rather it is merely awakening of the seeds of good deeds that
lay dormant in the mind and heart of a person.
● PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE – One does not only know the rules of right living, but one lives them. Hence,
true knowledge means wisdom, which in turn, means virtue.
● SOCRATES MAJOR ETHICAL CLAIMS:
1. Happiness is impossible without moral virtue.
2. Unethical actions harm the person who performs them more than the people they victimize.
Plato- “Only the dead have seen the end of war.”
• CONTEMPLATION in the mind of Plato means that
the mind is in communion with the universal and
eternal ideas.
• THEORY OF IMMORTALITY – The body is the source of endless
trouble to us by reason of the mere requirement of food, and is liable also to
diseases, which overtake and impede us in the search after true being: it fills
us full of love, lusts and fears, and fancies of all kinds, and endless foolishness.
Aristotle- “We ought, so far as it lies within our power, to aspire to immortality, and do all that we can to live
in conformity with the highest that is within us; for even if it is small in quantity, in power and preciousness,
it far excels all the rest.”
• Realizing your Potential - Aristotle’s account of change calls upon actuality and
potentiality (Hare et al., 1991).
• Everything in nature seeks to realize itself – to develop its potentialities and
finally realize its actualities.
• Entelechy – Greek word for “to become its essence”, also means nothing
happens by chance.
• The natural world is divided into two categories: Non-Living things and living
things (Price, 2000)
• All things are destructible but the Unmoved Mover (God) is eternal,
immaterial, with pure actuality or perfection.

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OVERVIEW

STUDY THESE TERMS:

1. A source of raw materials to be used in any way he pleases

Views on the Attribution of Moral Consideration

● Refers to a human-centered, or “anthropocentric,” point of view.

● Humans are the only, or primary, holders of moral standing.

● Anthropocentric value systems see nature in terms of its value to humans.

● Influences ethical judgments about interactions with other organisms.

1. The willingness to give up all forms of having, in order to fully be.

2. Being fully present where one is.

3. Trying to reduce greed, hate and illusions as much as one is capable.

“All Actions have consequences.”

B. St. Thomas Aquinas

He considers humans as moral agents.

Four-Fold Classification of Law by St. Thomas Aquinas

Theory of Social Contract

Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Social Contract

● The Social Contract is to determine whether there can be a

▪ Rousseau posits that the political aspects of a society should

Thomas Hobbes: Social Contract

● English philosopher (1588-1679)

● Believed Monarchy was the best government.

● Jean – Jacques Rousseau and Thomas Hobbes differed in their

Jean-Paul Sartre: Existentialism

Sartre’s Principle of Existentialism

B.F. Skinner: Behaviorism

INTERSUBJECTIVITY – based on feelings or opinions rather than facts.

● Communal- shared by all members of a community; for common use

"Man is by nature a social animal; an individual who is unsocial naturally and

a group capable of self-government, as well as the connection

Although theoretically, it would be ideal if the Republic and the

Karl Marx- Believes that consciousness, sociality, and purposiveness

Two types of Human Relationships

Social Exchange Theory

physical or environmental aspect.

Four Factors that make up a Social System

Different forms of Society

Pre Industrial Societies

Pre industrial Societies consists of the following

a. Hunting and Gathering Societies

- The accumulation of information and the continuing innovations and technological

g. Virtual/ Social Networks

How should one face death and loss?

What is life’s meaning?

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