CHAPTER 2

PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS

1. SCOPE OF PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS

The role of philosophy in education is to provide the student the ability to synthesize,
criticize, assimilate and evaluate a variety and huge mass of knowledge. It is aimed to
make a well-developed man-cultured refined and well rounded. It is an important part
of the student’s total development that will provide opportunities for him to lead a life
worthy of man’s dignity as an individual and as a member of society.

The Importance of Philosophy

The study of philosophy will provide an individual a strong foundation in meeting the
demands of his profession and in coping with the problems brought about by
multifarious activities of man.
Philosophy developed from the concept which recognized man’s essential worth as a
member of society. J. A. Nicholson brought into being on a firm place the importance
of philosophy in the life of a person and of society when he eloquently stated!
“There is no other knowledge that so widens our intellectual horizon and that deepens
thereby both our understanding and our sympathies. It breaks up that “intellectual
crust” of which Wordsworth speaks the “yoke of conventional custom” that thinking
tends fatally to impose upon itself, and/by setting thought free, it permits that full
functioning of the life of the spirit that alone constitute the good life.”
Socrates, an eminent Athenian philosopher, said, “The unexamined life is not worth
living.”
Undoubtedly, the study of philosophy will always be an important feature of human
experience and its importance in the development of the complete social being, ready
to take on his responsibility in this rapidly changing world cannot be over emphasized.

The Three Major Fields of Philosophy

The three major fields of philosophy are:
1. Epistemology It deals with the study of origin, structures, methods, nature, limit
and veracity (truth, reliability, validity) of human knowledge. It also includes logic and
a variety of linguistic concerns and the philosophy of science.
The word “epistemology” is derived from the Greek Word “episteme” which means
“knowledge” and “logos” which means “the study of.” Epistemology as a theory of
knowledge in all its forms and applications of how it is formulated and expressed and
communicated. It also looks into the role of sense experience and how knowledge is
acquired.
2. Metaphysics. It deals with questions of reality-its nature, meaning and
existence. The word “metaphysics” is derived from the Greek word “meta” which
means “beyond” and “physikon” which means “nature” from which is derived the word
physics, the science which deals with matter, energy, force, natural laws and
processes. Metaphysics is also concerned about the nature of mind, self and
consciousness, the nature of religion, such as the existence of God, the destiny of the
universe, and the immortality of the soul. Aside from the nature of reality and the
universe, metaphysics examines time, space, cause and chance.
3. Axiology It deals into the study of values. It analyzes the origin, types and
characteristics, criteria and knowledge of values. It includes values of human conduct,
the nature and justification of social structures and political systems and the nature of
art and its meaning in human experience.
The question of value is a very significant issue not only among philosophers and
social thinkers but also among ordinary people and students. Some questions raised
by ordinary people and students in relation to axiology are! What makes an individual,
thing, place, or event valuable or desirable? Is value a product of mind or it is in the
quality of an object or in an act? Are things valuable only because of the way one feels
towards them, or does he feels toward them, or does he feel a certain way toward
them because of what they are?
The philosophical enterprise is an active imaginative process of formulating proper
questions and resolving them by rigorous and persistent analysis.

Various Perceptions about Philosophy

By and large, in spite of the different ways we use the word “philosophy” in ordinary
speech we tend to think of the discipline as some extremely complex intellectual
activity. We are inclined to imagine the philosopher, personified in Rodin’s statue of
the Thinker, as somebody who sits, pondering questions of the ultimate significance
of human life while the rest of us only have the time or the energy to live it. Sometimes,
when an article is published in newspapers or magazines about the life of an important
philosopher of our contemporary period, for instance, Bertrand Russell, the impression
given is that he had devoted his life to the contemplation of the problems of the world
in a most abstract manner and had arrived at views and theories that may sound
splendid, but seems hardly of much practical value.
While this view has been created by the philosopher and what he is trying to do is for
the interest and well-being of mankind, there is also another image. Social thinkers
and revolutionist such as Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels were the ones who created
the point of view of the Communist ideology; while others like Thomas Jefferson, John
Locke and John Stuart Mill developed the political theories which prevail in democratic
societies today.
It may be noted that, of these various conceptions of the role of philosophy, and
regardless of how remote we think of the activities of a philosopher from our immediate
concerns, it is a fact

Educational Implications of Philosophy

1. It guides the individual in coming up with the ri.ght decision from a broader
perspective because philosophy provides him the holistic view that undoubtedly be an
integral part of his development.
2. The individual cannot be intimidated by dogmatic statements, and he is
prepared to strive and challenge those who would attempt to control his thoughts.
3. It serves as a bulwark against mental servitude and provides a framework within
which the individual can think and act intelligently.
4. It will always be an important feature of human experience and its importance
in the development of the complete social being ready to take on the responsibility in
this rapidly changing world.
5. It can provide some insights which an individual can see his role in a civilized
society and determine if it has some significance.

The Age of Naturalism vis-a-vis Educational Foundations

Naturalism is a philosophy that views that all objects and events are capable of being
accounted for by scientific explanation. It is a doctrine denying anything in reality that
has a supernatural significance and any theological conceptions of nature are invalid.
There is an utter denial of the miraculous and the supernatural and revelation is
rejected. Truth can be discovered only through nature. The three philosophers who
were considered naturalists were! Thales, Anaximander and Anaximemes.
They were considered naturalists because of their almost exclusive interest in physics
and cosmology.

Synthesis of Naturalism
1. There is only one reality, and that reality is nature.
2. Reality is composed of bodies moving in space.
3. Force or energy is the ultimate reality.
4. Keeping close to the dominated and peaceful ways of nature is the most
acceptable way of adhering to the demands of day-to-day life.

Three fundamental objectives of naturalistic education are:

1. The preservation of the natural goodness of man.
2. Education according to nature
3. Society anchored upon the natural individual rights of man.
4. Naturalism - is aimed at the preservation of that natural goodness and virtue of
the individual and the formation of a society based upon the recognitions of the natural
individual rights.
5. The content of the curriculum should consist of activities and interest
manifested by the child in the process of growing up.
6. Naturalism stood for a democratic and universal type of education. Education
is a basis natural right and therefore, everyone should be educated in the same way.
7. Instead of books and the traditional R’s, Naturalism favoured the informal
exercises of the sense, the muscles and the tongue.

It is interesting to note that ROUSSEAU took the view that man as he came from
nature was good but he became evil through contact with society. he asserts that the
educational aim was to free men from the artificialities and restraints of human society.

Naturalism emphasized the duties of parents in the education of their children by

protecting from artificial society. Parents should develop the children’s inherent
qualities.

The form stages of life and development are:

1. Infancy (birth to 5) - let the experience everything and this should be
accomplished without external compulsion of authority.
2. Childhood (5- 12) - laissez- fair approach. Let the‘ child do nothing and allow
nothing to be done. Do not use books, instead use games and let experience be the
only teacher.
3. Boyhood (12-15) — age of reasons. This is the age when the child’s natural
desire to learn should be developed. The child would then recognize the usefulness
of knowledge.
4. Adolescence (15-20) — perception of human relation arouse. This is the stage
were sex impulse appeared to be strong and reason had to check the sexual desires
and channel them to more desirable outlets. He should develop an ethical point of
view and strive for spiritual inspiration.

The main contribution of naturalism to the educational method was its emphasis on
making the child the center of the educative process.

Man: His Dignity, Rights and Duties

True dignity is in virtuous living.
True dignity and excellence in man resides in moral living that is, in virtue is the
common inheritance of man, attainable equally by the humblest and the mightiest, by
the rich and the poor, and the reward of eternal happiness will follow upon virtue and
merit alone regardless of the person in whom they may be found.
The dignity of the human person requires that every man enjoys the right to act freely
and responsibly. Vatican II lays stress on reverence for man, everyone must consider
his neighbour without exception as another self, taking into account first of all his life
and the means to living it with dignity.
Whatever is opposed to life itself, such as any type of murder, genocide, abortion,
euthanasia or willfull self-destruction; whatever violates the integrity of the human
person, such as mutilation, torments inflicted on body and mind, attempts to coerce
the will itself, whatever insults human dignity, such as sub-human living conditions,
arbitrary imprisonment, deportation, slavery, prostitution, the selling of women and
children; as well as disgraceful working conditions, where men are treated as mere
tools for profit, rather than as free and responsible persons; all these things and others
of their like are infamies indeed. They poison human society, but they do more harm
to those who practice them than those who suffer from the injury. Moreover, they are
a supreme dishonor to the creator.
Although rightful difference exists between men, the equal dignity of persons demands
that a more humane and just conditions of life be brought about. For excessive
economic and social differences between members of one human family or population,
groups cause scandals, and militate against social justice, equity, the dignity of the
human person, as well as social and international peace.

Sense of responsibility and living conditions.

A man can scarcely arrive at the needed sense of responsibility, unless his living
conditions allow him to become conscious of his dignity, and to rise to his dignity by
spending himself for God and for others. But human freedom is often crippled when a
man encounters extreme poverty, just as it withers when he indulges in too many of
life's comforts and imprisons himself in a kind of splendid isolation.
A man is more precise for what he is than what he has.
Man is the source, the center, and the purpose of all economic and social life. That is
why every man is called to full development.
It is the image in man which underlies the freedom and dignity of the human person.
It is true that man is called to be like God. But he becomes like God not in the
arbitrariness of his own good pleasure but to the extent that he recognizes that the
truth and love are at the same time the principle and the purpose of his freedom.
Human beings are totally free only when they are completely in the fullness of their
rights and duties. The same can be said about society as a whole.
It is not possible to understand man on the basis of economics alone, to define him
simply on the basis of class membership.

Cultures are the expressions of the meaning of existence.

At the very he art of every culture lies the attitude man takes to the greatest mystery
the mystery of God. Different cultures are ‘basically different ways of facing the
questions of the meaning of personal existence. When this question is eliminated, the
culture and moral life of nations are corrupted. For this reason the struggle to defend
work was spontaneously linked to the struggle for culture and for national rights.
Man who was created for freedom, bears within himself the wound of original sin,
which constantly draws him towards evil and puts him in need or redemption.
Man tends towards good, but he is also capable of evil. He can transcend his
immediate interest and still remain bound to it. The social order will be all the more
stable, the more it takes this fact into account and does not place in opposition
personal interest and the interests of society as a whole, but rather seek ways to bring
them into fruitful harmony. No authentic progress is possible without respect for the
natural and fundamental right to know the truth and live according to the truth.

The satisfaction of human needs is a strict demand of justice.

It is a strict duty of justice and truth not to allow fundamental human needs to remain
unsatisfied, and not to allow those burdened by such needs to perish. A man is
alienated if he refuses to transcend himself and to live the experience of self-giving
and of the formation of an authentic human community oriented towards his final
destiny, which is God.
It there is no transcendent truth, in obedience to which man achieves his full identity,
then there is no sure principle for guaranteeing just relations between people. Their
self-interest as a class, group or nation would inevitably set them in opposition to one
another.

2. THE EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES OF THE WORLD’S GREATEST

PHILOSOPHERS

The emergence of various educational philosophies has been an interesting

subject of study among social thinkers, scholars, educators and students. It is in this
context that there is a need to identify and understand their major contributions in
relation to education.
1. Plato
a. Every individual should devote his life to what is best fitted for him to do.
b. The important function of education is to determine what every individual is by
nature capable and fitted of doing things.
c. Poor leadership will lead to wrong decisions
d. The physical objects are not permanent representations of unchanging ideas,
and that the ideas alone give true knowledge as they are known by the mind.
e. Social justice is giving of what is due to whom it is due.
f. Intellectual aristocracy is the rule of intellectual elite.
g. An individual who should lead society should be endowed with superior
intelligence and possessed impeccable integrity.

2. Aristotle
a. The end of education is not knowledge alone. It is the union of the innate
intellect of the individual and his will. It is knowledge expressed in action
b. Virtue which is moral excellence, goodness and righteousness is not
possession of knowledge. It is the state of the will.
c. The process of correct thinking can be reduced to ruled like physics and
geometry, and taught to any normal mind.
d. Advocates the practice of moderation.
e. Vices are irrational habits or practices because they often stem from passion
which often goes beyond reason.
f. Advocates scientific approaches to education

3. Socrates
a. Knowledge is wisdom which, in effect, means virtue.
b. The problem of evil is the results of ignorance.
c. Knowledge is virtue and ignorance is vice.
d. Knowledge is the basis of all right actions including the art of living

4. Confucius
a. Development of moral and ethical principles to promote peace and order and
to preserve human dignity.
b. The family should serve as model for correct relations among men.
c. Postulated the golden rule for all men to follow “Treat others as you wish them
to treat you.”
d. Reason and natural law constantly enjoy man to live righteously to offend no
one and to give one his due.
e. Order and harmony should begin in the inner nature of man.
f. Man can enjoy inner peace and harmony and happiness by observing God’s
law which is enshrined in every individual conscience.
g. Emphasized the importance of self-control. “He who conquers others are
strong; he who conquers himself is the greatest victor.”
h. Reason is supposed to rule and regulate the lower craving of man such as
appetites and passions.
i. Justice and love always go together.
j. The coming into being of the perfect man is a perfect social order is simply the
full development of the human personality through the realization of man’s powers and
natural endowments — his physical, intellectual, emotional, political and economic
aspirations.

5. Lao-Tze
a. He emphasized the virtue of passivity, humility and frugality.
b. To achieve happiness, men should bring themselves into harmony with the
TAO which he was not a god but the supreme and governing principle of the universe.
c. To achieve happiness is: “Be yourself, be natural; live in accordance with your
true, good and best nature.

6. Comenius
a. Development of the whole man before he becomes professional.
b. Effective learning is done through the use of the vernacular.
c. Follow the order of natural law.
d. Train for character development.
e. Both boys and girls should be included in education regardless of their
socioeconomic status.
f. Advocated the use of visual aids in classroom teaching.

7. Locke
a. “Tabular rasa” or “blank slate” theory — A child is born with a blank mind neither
good nor bad.
b. Education can help shape the pupil according to the disposition of the teacher.
c. Emphasized formal discipline moral and physical education.
d. Methods of instruction should consider habit formation through drill and
exercise, memorization and reasoning.

8. Rousseau
a. Man is by nature good and virtuous.
b. Development of the child according to his inherent endowments
c. The child is the most important component of the school system.
d. Use of instinctive tendencies as the starting point in any educational pursuit.
e. “Everything is good as it comes from the hand of the author of nature.

9. Pestalozzi
a. Education is a social process of organized growth and development.
b. Education should be in accordance with the laws of natural growth and
development of the child.
c. Lessons were to be learned through direct experience with objects and places
through observation, inquiry and reasoning.
d. Emphasis or method and technique of imparting knowledge and information.
e. Reality is objective and is composed of matter and form; it is fixed, based on
natural law.
f. Knowing consists of sensation and abstraction.
g. Values are absolute and eternal based on nature’s laws.
h. Subject matter curriculum should be humanistic

10. Froebel
a. “Father of Kindergarten”
b. Creative expression should be encouraged.
c. Education should be accompanied with spirit of informality and joy.
d. Self-activity as a means of development.
e. Individual differences should be respected.
f. Knowing is the rethinking of latent ideas.
g. Values are eternal.
h. Play, spontaneous activity should be utilized to promote self-realization.
i. A subject matter curriculum emphasizing the great and enduring ideas of
culture.
j. Social development

11. Herbart
a. Principles of apperception and doctrine of interest
b. Learning should lead to character formation
c. Aim of education should be ethical and moral
d. The leader gets meaning from previous experiences to which it is related.
e. The curriculum should include a wide range of subjects
f. Unity could be achieved through reflection and could be greatly aided by a
correlation of subject matter.
g. Preparation - recall of old ideas in the learner’s experience to which the new
instruction can be related.
h. Preparation - a story, demonstration, experiment or a reading assignment that
included facts or new materials or ideas of the new material.
i. Comparison - connections and associations between the old and the new.
j. Generalization - general principles that are formed from the lesson.
k. Application - putting the new idea to work.

12. Spencer
a. Knowledge acquired that is best for use in life is also the best for the
development of power.
b. Emphasis on physical activity
c. Science oriented curriculum
d. Societies are bound to change
e. Opposed to free public education; those who really want an education should
work hard to acquire the means to attain it.

13. John Dewey

a. Learning by doing
b. Education is life, not preparation for life.
c. Education is a social process
d. Education is growth and a continuous reconstruction of experience.
e. The center of education is the child’s own social activities
f. f. The school is primarily a social institution

It is interesting to note that the various philosophies of education of the world's

greatest philosophies that have tremendous influence to education are applied today.

3. CLASSICAL AND CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHIES

The various schools of philosophies are:
Idealism
Naturalism
Reconstructionalism
Existentialism
Perennialism
Essentialism
Progressivism
Realism
Pragmatism

 IDEALISM
- The word ‘idealism’ signifies two terms: ‘idea’ and ‘ideal’.
- Plato conceived of ideas as the basis of his philosophy.
- His philosophy of idealism which represents more of ideas can better be known
as idealism.
- It is an old philosophy.
EXPONENTS:
- Plato (427-347 BC)
- Kant (1724-1804)
- Hegel (1770-1831)
- Frobel (1732-1852)
- Dayananda (1825-1883)
- William T Haris (1835-1909)
- Tagore (1861-1950)
CONCEPT OF IDEALISM
Idealism is a philosophical position which adheres to the view that nothing
exists except an idea in the mind of man, the mind of God or in a super or supra-
natural realm. It deals with certain basic questions of human life. It holds that mind or
spirit, as each man experiences it in himself, is fundamentally real and that the totality
of the universe is somehow mind or spirit in its essence. To the idealist the reality is
spiritual in nature rather than physical, mental rather than material. Ideas are eternal
and unchanging.
CHARACTERISTICS OF IDEALISM
1. The universe exists in spirit.
2. Mechanical explanation of the universe is inadequate.
3. Teleological explanation of the universe.
4. Man is central in creation.
5. Emphasis upon normative and social sciences.
6. Normative description of the universe.
7. Conceptualism.
8. Universe is knowable.
9. Greater emphasis upon the mental or spiritual aspect of the universe.
IDEALISM AND EDUCATION
An idealist’s concept of education is something which leads one to the highest
moral conduct and deepest spiritual insight. Education, according to idealism, is a
spiritual necessity and not a natural necessity. Education must convert original nature
of man into spiritual nature. In the words of Rusk, ‘Education must enable mankind
through its culture to enter more and more fully into the spiritual realm’.
IDEALISM AND AIMS OF EDUCATION
Idealism has greatly contributed to the aims of education. They are:
1. Exaltation of Human Personality.
2. Universal education.
3. Enrichment of cultural environment.
4. Cultivation of moral Values.
IDEALISM AND DISCIPLINE
Self-insight and self-analysis are the main disciplinary factors
IDEALISM AND TEACHER
Teacher should be:
1. Role model
2. Friend, philosopher and guide
3. Perfector of mind
4. Compendium of all virtues.
5. Co-worker of God.
6. Apostle of peace and progress.
7. Maker of democracy.
8. Priest of man’s spiritual heritage.
9. Personification of reality.
IDEALISM AND CURRICULUM
Idealism attaches great importance to those subjects which provide significant
knowledge and wisdom. These experiences correspond to various activities through
which one has to acquire the highest good and inherent values.
IDEALISM AND METHOD OF TEACHING
Questioning Discussion Lecture Method Imitation

 NATURALISM
Naturalism is concerned with ‘natural self’ or ‘real self’. Dr. Premnath observes,
‘Naturalism is an attitude rather than a specific system of philosophy’. James Ward
says, ‘Naturalism is the doctrine that separates nature from God, subordinates spirit
to matter and set up unchangeable laws as supreme’.
EXPONENTS
- Democritus (460-360 BC)
- Epicurus (341-270 BC)
- Bacon (1562-1626)
- JA Comenius (1529-1670)
 - Rousseau (1712-1788)
- Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)
CONCEPT OF NATURALISM
Naturalism is a distinct philosophy according to which reality and nature are
identical and that beyond nature there is no reality. According to Naturalism, ‘material
world is the real world’. It emphasizes ‘matter’ and the physical world. It does not
believe in sentimentalism, spiritualism and supernaturalism. Naturalism believes that
nature alone contains normal and the only final answer to all philosophical problems.
PRINCIPLES OF NATURALISM
1. Child centered education.
2. Education as the natural development of the child’s power and capacities.
3. Negative education in early childhood.
4. Education should be based on child’s psychology.
5. The role of teacher should be that of a guide.
CHARACTERISTICS OF NATURALISM
1. Nature is the ultimate reality.
2. No distinction between mind and body.
3. Scientific Knowledge.
4. Inductive Method
5. Values are resident in nature.
6. Man-an offspring of nature.
7. Senses are the gateways of knowledge.
8. Laws of nature are unchangeable and the whole universe is governed by them.
NATURALISM IN EDUCATION
Naturalism may be regarded as a revolt against the stereotyped system of
education. It believes that education should be strict conformity with the nature of the
child. The cores of naturalistic thoughts in education are: Naturalism is against the
autocratic and intellectual pretension. It rejects all authority that interferes with the
spontaneous development of children. Naturalism gives the central position to the
child. Naturalism gives maximum freedom to child.
NATURALISM AND AIMS OF EDUCATION
1. Self-Expression- Naturalists believe that students should be provided with an
opportunity to express their ideas and talents.
2. Self-Preservation- In naturalistic point of view, self-security or self- preservation is
an unavoidable aspect in life and education should enable the child to develop these
qualities.
3. Redirection of human instincts- Naturalists believes that each child is born with
certain instincts, which are the guiding force behind all human conduct.
4. Struggle for existence- Naturalists says that individual child may have to face
several painful and stress laden situations in the physical world.
5. Education according to nature- While educating the child, his whole nature i.e,
tendencies, developmental status, capacities, instincts, likes and dislikes should be
considered.
6. Perfect development of individuality- Education should aim at developing the aim at
developing the child into joyous, rational, balanced useful and mature person.
NATURALISM AND DISCIPLINE
 - Naturalism gives freedom to the child to grow in the natural way.
- There is no external discipline required.
NATURALISM AND TEACHER
Should be:
An observer Able to understand nature of the child Stage setter
NATURALISM AND CURRICULUM
1. No rigid curriculum.
2. Focal point should be with simplicity and objectivity.
3. Study of past experiences.
4. Literary and aesthetic culture.

 RECONSTRUCTIONISM
The reconstructionist philosophy is based on early socialistic and utopian ideas
of the 19th century. It is society-centered philosophy.
Exponents: Theodore Brameld is often considered the originator of the term
reconstructionism in 1950.
CONCEPT OF RECONSTRUCTIONISM
The social issues of the 1930s according to George Counts involved racial and
class discrimination, poverty and unemployment which are similar to present issues.
This is a crisis philosophy appropriate for a society in crisis, which is the essence of
our society today.
RECONSTRUCTIONISM AND EDUCATION
1. The reconstructionists seek a curriculum that emphasizes cultural pluralism,
equality and futurism.
2. Critically examines the cultural heritage of a society as well as entire civilization.
3. Is not afraid to examine controversial issues.
4. Is deliberately committed to bring about social and constructive change.
5. Cultivate a future planning attitude that considers the realities of the world.
6. Enlists students and teachers in a definite program to enhance cultural renewal and
interculturalism.
RECONSTRUCTIONISM AND AIMS OF EDUCATION
Strengthen control of the schools by and for goal-seeking interests of the
overwhelming majority of mankind.
RECONSTRUCTIONISM AND CURRICULUM
For reconstructionism analysis, interpretation and evaluation of problems are
insufficient commitment and action by students and teachers are needed.
RECONSTRUCTIONISM AND TEACHER
Teacher should measure upto their social responsibilities.

 EXISTENTIALISM
It is mainly European philosophy that originated years before the turn of the
century but became popular after World War II
Exponents:
- Maxine Greene.
- George Keller.
- Van Cleve Morris.
CONCEPTS OF EXISTENTIALISM
According to existentialist philosophy, people are thrust into a number of
choice- making situations. A person creates his or her own definition and in doing so
makes his or her own essence. We are what we choose to be. The essence we create
is a product of our choices, it may vary with individuals.
EXISTENTIALISM AND EDUCATION
1. Existentialism believes that the most important kind of knowledge is about human
condition and the choices that each person has to make.
2. Education is a process of developing consciousness about the freedom to choose
and the meaning of and responsibility for one’s choices.
EXISTENTIALISM AND CURRICULUM
The curriculum would avoid systematic knowledge on structured discipline and
students are free to select from many available learning situations.
EXISTENTIALISM AND TEACHER
Teacher cultivates personal choice and individual self-definition
EXISTENTIALISM AND METHOD OF TEACHING
Experimentation Self-expressive activities Method and media that illustrates
emotions, feelings and insight.

 PERENNIALISM
Perennialism is the oldest and conservative educational philosophy, is rooted
in realism.
Concept of Perennialism :
- Perennialism relies on the past.
- Unniversal knowledge and cherished values of society.
- A view of the unchanging nature of the universe, human nature, truth,
knowledge, virtue, beauty and so on.
PERENNIALISM AND EDUCATION
As Robert Hutchins, a long time advocate of perennialism noted: “The function
of man as man is the same in every society.” The aim of the educational system is the
same in every age and in every society where such system can exist, it is to improve
man.
PERENNIALISM AND CURRICULUM
It draws heavily on defined disciplines or logically organized bodies of content-
what proponents call ‘liberal education’, with emphasis on language, literature,
mathematics, arts, and science.
PERENNIALISM AND AIMS OF EDUCATION
To develop the rational person and to uncover universal truth by carefully training
the intellect.
Character training is also important as a means of developing one’s moral and
spiritual being.
PERENNIALISM AND TEACHER
An authority in the field whose knowledge is unquestionable.
A master of the subject and discipline and must be able to guide discussion
PERENNIALISM AND METHOD OF TEACHING
Socratic method: oral exposition, lecture and explication.
  ESSENTIALISM
This philosophy is rooted in both idealism and realism and surfaced in the
1930s as a reaction to progressivism.
Exponents: The ideas of essentialism were formulated by William Bagley and later
developed by Arthur Bestor and Admiral Hyman Rickover.
CONCEPT OF ESSENTIALISM
According to essentialists, the school curriculum should be geared to the
fundamentals or essentials. Essentialism today is reflected in the public demand to
raise academic standards and to improve the students work and minds.
ESSENTIALISM AND CURRICULUM
Essentialism rejects subject such as art, music, physical education, home making
and vocational education as fades and frills and thus appeal to those who favour
limiting educational expenses.
ESSENTIALISM AND AIMS OF EDUCATION
To promote the intellectual growth of the individual.
To educate the competent person.
ESSENTIALISM AND DISCIPLINE
The philosophy believes in tough discipline and training and a good deal of home
work and serious studies permeate the curriculum.
ESSENTIALISM AND TEACHER
The teacher is considered as; Master of particular subject.
An authority because of the high standards he or she holds.
A person who holds control over the classroom with minimal student input.

 PROGRESSIVISM
Progressivism is developed from pragmatic philosophy and as a protest against
perennialist thinking in education.
CONCEPT OF PROGRESSIVISM
Progressivism is considered a contemporary reform movement in educational,
social and political affairs. Dewey viewed the school as a miniature democratic society
in which students could learn and practice the skills and tools necessary for democratic
living.
PROGRESSIVISM AND EDUCATION
According to the progressive thought, the skills and tools of learning include
problem solving methods and scientific inquiry. This philosophy places emphasis on
how to think and not what to think. Progressive education focused on the child as the
learner rather than on subject, emphasized activities and experiences rather than
verbal and literary skills and encouraged cooperative group learning activities rather
than competitive individualized lesson learning. This philosophy also cultivated cultural
relativism that critically appraised and often rejected traditional value commitments.
PROGRESSIVISM AND AIM OF EDUCATION
To promote democratic social living.
PROGRESSIVISM AND CURRICULUM
The curriculum is interdisciplinary in nature.
 Curriculum is based on student’s interests, involves the application of human
problems and affairs.
PROGRESSIVISM AND TEACHER
The role of teacher:
Serves as a guide for students in problem solving and scientific projects.
Leader of group activities.
Involves students in planning activities.

 REALISM
Realism is also sometimes called objectivism. It is concerned with the existence
of things. Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) was a naturalist as a realist. Complete living
is the aim of education and also the aim of life. Realism is the theory that holds the
existence of objects is real.
EXPONENTS
- Aristotle (383-322 BC)
- John Locke (1690-1781)
- Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841)
- Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)
CHARACTERISTICS OF REALISM
1. Existence of objects is independent of knowledge.
2. Qualities are inherent in known objects.
3. Knowledge does not affect the object.
4. Knowledge of objects is direct.
5. Objects are common.
6. Relation between object and thought.
PRINCIPLES OF REALISM
1. Worldly realities of everyday life are true.
2. It does not believe in the existence of any absolute truth.
3. It accepts only sensory experiences of the external world as real.
4. It looks at man like a physical being controlled by rules and laws.
5. Real knowledge is obtained by analysis and experiencing sensations.
6. It advocates the methods and principles of physical science for acquired knowledge.
REALISM AND AIMS OF EDUCATION
The realistic aim of education is a happy and integrated life. According to the
American educationalist Franklin Bobit, happiness in life may be achieved by
fulfillment of human responsibilities and obligations such as: Activities concerned
with language Activities concerned with hygiene Citizenship activities Ordinary
social activities Leisure activities Activities of mental health Religious activities
Activities concerning race-preservation Vocational behaviour activities.
Vocational activities.
REALISM AND CURRICULM
It prefers subjects and activities which can prepare children for day to day living.
Science and vocational subjects enjoy predominant position in curriculum followed
by arts, literature and languages.
REALISM AND METHODS OF TEACHING
 Realist thinkers emphasize objectivity, knowledge of scientific facts and knowledge
of the real.
The method of teaching should change according to the requirement of the child

 PRAGMATISM
Pragmatism is midway between idealism and naturalism. According to James,
the term ‘pragmatism’ is derived from the Greek word ‘pragma’ which means action or
practice or activity from which in the words ‘practice’ and ‘practical’ have been derived.
Charles Pierce introduced this word philosophy. It suggests an emphasis upon the
practicalities of life and the practicable is the real. It is an American philosophy typical
in nature and practical in approach.
EXPONENTS
- John Dewey
- Williams James
- S Kilpatrick
- Charles S Pierce
CHARACTERISTICS OF PRAGMATISM
1. Pragmatism, a revolt against traditionalism and absolutism.
2. Rejects ultimate values.
3. Thought in subordinate to action.
4. Pragmatism as instrumentalism
5. Pragmatism as experimentalism
6. Pragmatism as humanism
7. Philosophy as theory of education.
8. Man creates his own values.
9. Faith in democracy.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF PRAGMATISM
1. Truth is not absolute, but changes according to time, ideal and place.
2. The work gives satisfaction and pleasure is practical and useful.
3. Aims and beliefs of life are not certain because truth is changeable.
4. Knowledge on the basis of activity.
5. Education of sociability.
PRAGMATISM IN EDUCATION
1. It gives a clear-cut concept of education based upon a close relationship between
theory and practice of education.
2. Education as a social necessity.
3. Progressive education.
4. Freedom and worth of the individual.
5. Education is a continuous process.
PRAGMATISM AND AIMS OF EDUCATION
1. The aim of education is more education.
2. Harmonious development of an individual.
3. Continuous reconstruction of experiences.
4. Social efficiency.
5. Continuous growth.
6. Personal and social adjustment.
PRAGMATISM AND CURRICULUM
Principle of utility form.
Principle of interest of the child.
Principle of integration.
Principle of organization.
Principle of activity and experience of the child.
PRAGMATISM AND METHOD OF TEACHING
Does not believe in a fixed method of teaching.
Their emphasis is on child’s activities, integration and experimentation.
PRAGMATISM AND DISCIPLINE
Pragmatism favors social ideas
Activities develop self-control and hence no problem in discipline.