DigitalTelephony

WILEY INTELECOMMUNICATIONS SERIES ANDSIGNAL PROCESSING

JohnG. hoakis. Editor Northeastem University
Introduction to Digital Mobil Communications Yoshihiko Akaiwa Digital Telephony, Sril Etlition John Bellamy E lements of I rfonuttion Theory Thomas M. Cover and Joy A, Thomas Fundame ntals of Telecommunicat ions Roger L. Freeman P ractic al Data Communicat ions Roger L. Freeman Radio SystemDesign for Telecommunications, Znd Edition Roger L. Freeman Telecommunication SystemEngineering, 3rd Edition Roger L. Frceman Telecommunications Transmission Handb ook, 4th Etlition Roger L. Frceman Introduction to Communications Engineering, 2nd Edition Robert M. Gagliardi Optital Communications, Znd Edition Robert M. Gagliardi and Sheman Ksxp Active Noise Control Systemt: Algorithm"s and DSP Implementations Sen M. Kuo and Dennis R. Morgan Mobile Communications Design Fundamentals, 2nd Edition William C, Y, Lee Expen SystemApplications for Telecommunications Jay Liebowitz Digital Signal Esilrndtion Robert J. Mammone, Editor Digital Communication Receivers: Synchronization, Channel Estimation, and Sigtnl Processing Heinrich Meyr, Marc Moeneclaey, afld Stefan A, Fechtel Synchronization in Digital Comntunications, Volume I Heinrich Meyr and Gerd Ascheid Business Earth Stationsfor Telecommunications Walter L. Morgan and Denis Rouffet Wirele ss I nfo rmat ion N etwo tk Kaveh Pahlavan and Allen H. lcvesque Satellite Communicationt: The First Quarter Century of Senice David W. E. Rees Fundamentals of TeIecommunicat fun N etw orks Tarek N. Saadawi, Mos'tafa Ammar, with Ahmed El Hakeem Meteor Burst Communicalions: Theory and Practice Donald L, Schilling, Editor Vector Space Projections: A Numerical Approar:h to Signal and Image Processing, Neural Nets, and, Optict: Henry Stark and Yongyi Yang Signaling in Telecommunitation Networl<s John C. van Bosse TeIecommunication C ircuit D esign Putrick D. van der Puije Worldwide Telecommunications Guide for the BusinessManager Walter H, Vignault Po lynomial Sigrwl P rocessing V. John Mathews and Ciovanni L. Sicuranza ADSL, VDSL, and Multicatier Modulation John A. C. Bineharn

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Telephony Digital
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This book is printed on acid-freepaper, Copyright@2000by JohnWiley & Sons,Inc, All rights reserved. Publishedsimultaneously in Canada. No part of this publicationmay be reproduced, storedin a retrieval systemor transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,mechanical, photocopying, recording,scurningor otherwise, exceptaspermit. ted by Sections107or 108of the 1976United States CopyrightAct, without eitherthe prior written permissionof the Publisher,or authorization thmughpaymentof the appropriate per-copylee to the copyrightclearance center,222Rosewood Drive,Donvers, MA 0t9?3, (s0g)7j0-g400,fax (50g)750_ 4?44.Requests to the Publisherfor permission shouldbe addressed to the Permissions Depaxtrnent, John wiley & sons,ftrc.,605Third Avenue, New york, Irry 10158-0012, (212)8s0-601l,fax (zl?) 8506008,E-Mail: PERMREQ@ WILEY.COM. For orderingandcustomer service,call I-800-CALL-WILEY. lihrary of Congress Cataloging-in-Puhlfuation Data: Bellamy, John,l94l* Digital telephony/ JohnBellamy.*3rd ed. p.cm,- (Wiley series in t'elecornmunications andsignalprocessing) "A Wiley-Lrterscience publication." Includes index, ISBN0-471-34571-7 l. Digital telephone systems. I. Title. IL Series, TK5103.7.844 2000 6?1.385-dc2l 99-34015 Printedin the United Ststesof America 10987654321

To myfather for passingon the enioymentof being an engineer

CONTENTS
Preface Acknowledgment Acronyms / chapter 1 Background and Terminology
3 StandardOrganizations 1.1 Telecommunications 1.? TheAnalogNetworkHierarchY 5 HierarchY 6 1.2.I Bell SYstem U.S.Network 10 I.2.2 Postdivestiture L23 SwitchingSYstems 12 SYstems l8 I-2.4 Transmission "1.2.5 Pair-Gain SYstems24 1.2.6 FDM MultiplexingandModulation 26 Media 28 Transmission 1.2.7 Wideband Impairments 33 1.2.8 Transmission I'2.9 Powerkvels 4l 1.2.10 Signaling 42 1.2.11 AnalogInterfaces46 Network 49 1'Z.lZ TheIntelligent Routing 51 1.2.13 DynamicNonhierarchical System 52 I.2.14 CellularRadioTelephone DataTransmission 54 1.2.15 Voiceband of Digits 56 1.3 TheInfioduction 1.3.1 VoiceDigitization 56 I.3.2 Time DivisionMultiplexing 58
VII

xvll

xtx xxl

CONTENTS

1.3.3 Dataunder Voice 63 1.3.4 DigiralMicrowaveRadio ffi 1.3.5 FiberOpticTransmission 65 1.3.6 DigitalSwitching 65 1,.3.7 Digital NerworkEvolution 67 References69 Problems 7l Chapter 2 Why Dlgital? . 2.1 Advanrages of Digital VoiceNetworks 7j 2.1.1 Ease of Multiplexing 7j 2.1.2 Ease of Signaling i4 2.1.3 Useof Modern Technology 75 2.1.4 Inregration of Transmission andSwitching 77 2.1.5 Signal Regenerarion 78 2.1.6 PerformanceMonitorability79 2.1.7 Accommodation of OtherServices g0 2.1.8 Operability at Low Signal-to-Noise/Interference Ratios 80 2.1.9 Ease of Encryption 8l 2.2 Digital SignalProcessing 8l 2.2.1 DSPApplications Bz 2.3 Disadvantages of Digital VoiceNetworks g4 2.3.1 Increased Bandwidth 84 2.3.2 Needfor Time Synchronization85 2.3.3 Topologically Resrricred Multiplexing g5 2.3.4 Needfor Conference/Extension Bridges g6 2.3.5 ftrcompatibilities with AnalogFacilities g7 References88 Chapter 3 Volce Digitizatlon Pulse AmplitudeModulation 93 3.1.1 Nyquist Sampling Rate 94 3.1.2 Foldover Distortion 95 3.2 Pulse CodeModulation 98 3.2.1 Quantization Noise 99 3.2.2 Idle Channel Noise l0Z pCM 103 3.2.3 Uniformly Encoded 3.I 91

73

CONTENTS iX

3.?.4 Companding 106 Coding 108 3.2.5 EasilyDigitally Linearizable 116 Companding 3.2.6 Syllabic 3.2.7 AdaptiveGainEncoding 119 Redundancie$121 3.3 Speech AmplitudeDistributions 122 3.3.1 Nonuniform I22 3.3.2 Sample-to-SampleCorrelation 122 3.3.3 Cycleto-CycleCorrelations Correlations 123 3.3.4 Pitch-Interval-to-Pitch-Interval 3.3.5 InactivityFactors 124 Densities IZ4 Specnal Long-Term 3.3.6 Nonuniform Densities 127 Spectral 3.3.7 Short-Term 3.4 Differential PulseCodeModulation 127 3.4.1 DPCM Implementations 129 3.4.2 HigherOrderPrediction l3l 3.4.3 AdaptiveDifferentialPCM 131 3.5 DeltaModulation 133 Overload 134 3.5.1 Slope Coding 136 3.6 AdaptivePredictive Coding 138 3.7 Subband 3.8 Vocoders 141 Vocoder 142 3.8.1 Channel Vocoder lM 3.8.2 Formant Coding 144 3.8.3 LinearPredictive Coding 147 LinearPredictive 3.8.4 Enhanced-Excitation 151 3.9 Encoder/DecoderSelectionConsiderations 3.9.1 VoiceQuality 151 for NonvoiceSignals 152 3.9.2 Transparency Enors 153 of Transmission 3.9.3 Tolerance 3.9.4 Delay 154 3.10 ITU-T CodingStandards 154 References 155 Problems 158 Ghapter 4 Dlgital Tranemission and Multlplexing 4.1 Pulse Transmission 162 Intederence 164 4.1.1 Intersymbol 4.1.2 Timins Inaccuracies 164

161

CONTENTS

4.1.3 InsufficientBandwidthl& 4.1.4 AmplitudeDistortion 165 4.1.5 Phase Distortion 165 4.2 Asynchronous versus Synchronous Transmission 165 4.2,.1 AsynchronousTransmission 166 4.2.2 SynchronousTransmission I6i 4.3 Line Coding L7l 4.3.1 LevelEncoding L7I 4.3.2 BipolarCoding 173 4.3.3 Binary N-ZeroSubstirution 176 4.3.4 PairSelected Ternary L19 4.3.5 Ternary Coding 180 4.3.6 DigitalBiphase 181 4.3.7 DifferentialEncoding 183 4.3.8 Coded Mark Inversion 183 4.3.9 Multilevel Signaling 184 4.3.10 Partial-Response Signaling 185 4.4 Eror Performance 189 4.4.1 SignalDetection 190 4.4.2 NoisePower 190 4.4.3 Enor Probabilities191 4.5 PerformanceMonitoring198 4.5.1 Redundancy Checks 198 4.5.2 SignalQualityMeasurements201 4.5.3 FramingChannel Errors 203 4.5.4 Performance Objectives 2O3_ 4.5.5 ForwardErrorCorrection 2O4 4.6 Time DivisionMultiplexing 207 4.6.I Bit Interleaving ver$us Word Interleaving 208 4.6.2 Framing 209 4.6.3 DSI Extended Superframe Zl5 4.7 Time DivisionMultiplex LoopsandRings 216 References 219 Problems 221 Chapter 5 Digltal$witching 5.1 SwitchingFunctions ZZE 5.2 Space DivisionSwitching 227 5.2.1 Multiple-StageSwitching Z3O ZZs

CONTENTS

5.3

5.4

5.5

5.6

L.ee Graphs 234 5.2.2 BlockingProbabilities: Jacobaeus238 5.2.3 BlockingProbabilities: 5.2.4 FoldedFour-WireSwitches 242 5.2.5 Pathf,rnding243 5.2.6 SwitchMatrix Control 24 Time Division Switching 246 5.3.1 AnalogTime DivisionSwitching 246 5.3.2 Digital Time Division Switching 247 Switching 251 Two-Dimensional 5.4.1 STSSwitching 255 5.4.2 TST Switching 257 5.4.3 No. 4 ESSToll Switch 262 75 Digital PBX 264 5.4.4 System Systems 265 Digital Cross-Connect andSegregation 267 5.5.1 Consolidation 5.5.2 DCSHierarchy 268 Equipment 269 Cross-Connect 5.5.3 Integrated in an AnalogEnvironment 27O Digital Switching

Switching 270 5.6.1 Zero-Loss 5.6.2 BORSCHT 272 5.6.3 Conferencing 272 References273 Problems 274

Chapter6 Dlgltal Modulatlon and Radlo Sy$tsms

6.1 Digital Modulation 279 6.1.1 AmplitudeModulation 280 Shift KeYing 284 6.1.2 Frequency 6.1.3 Phase ShiftKeying 288 AmplitudeModulation 30I 6.I.4 Quadrature Modulation 309 AmplitudeandPhase . 6.1.5 Carrierless 6.1.6 Partial-Response QAM 310 311 6.1.7 Trellis-CodedModulation 315 6.1.8 MulticarrierModulation 6.2 Filter Partitioning 317 3I7 6.2.1 Adjacent-Channellnterference 318 6.2.2 OptimumPartitioning Specifications 320 6.3 Emission

277

xll

coNTENTS 6.4 RadioSystern Design 322 6.4.1 Fade Margins jZZ 6.4.2 System Gain 323 6.4.3 Frequency Diversity 3.26 6.4.4 Space Diversity 327 6.4.5 Angle Diversity 327 6.4.6 AdaptiveEqualization 3ZB 6.4.7 RouteDesign 3ZB References 329 Problems 332

,,/ Chapter 7

Network Synchronization Controland Management 7.1 Timing 336 7.1.1 TimingRecovery: Phase-Locked Loop 336 7.1.2 ClockInsrabitity 337 7.I.3 Elastic Stores 339 j4Z 7.1.4 JitterMeasurements 7.2 7.1.5 Systematic Jitter 345 Timing Inaccuracies 346 7.2.1, Slips 346 7.2.2 AsynchronousMultiplexing 351 7.2.3 WaitingTimeJitter 359 NetworkSynchronization361 7.3.I Plesiochronous 362 7.3.2 Networkwide PulseStuffing 363 7.3.3 MutualSynchronization3M 7.3.4 NetworkMaster 364 7.3.5 Master-SlaveSynchronization 365 7.3.6 Packetization 366 7.3.7 NetworkTiming Performance Measurements366 U.S.NetworkSynchronization 370 7.4.1 Synchronization Regions 370 7.4.2 PrimaryReference Sources 372 7.4.3 1996AT&T Synchronization Architecrure j73 NetworkConhol 373 1.5.1 Hierarchical Synchronization Processes374 NetworkManagement 376

335

7.3

7.4

7.5 7.6

coNrENrs xlll Control 376 7.6.1 Routing '7.6.2 Flow Control 377 References380 Problems 382

-6apter I

Systems FiberOptlcTransmisslon
Ll Elements 386 System FiberOpticTransmission 8.1.I OpticalFiberFundamentals387 Transducers390 8.1.? Electrical-to-Optical 393 8.I.3 Optical-to-ElectricalTransducers for FiberOpticTransmission 395 Line Codes mBnB Line Codes 396 8.2.I Codes 399 8.2.2 Bit Insertion DivisionMultiplexing 401 Wavelength FiberSystem Design 403 andSplices 404 8.4.1 FiberConnectors 404 Switching Protection 8.4.2 Gain 405 8.4.3 System SONET/SDH 406 Overview 408 8.5.1 SONETMultiplexing 409 8.5.2 SONETFrameFormats and Administration, 8.5.3 SONETOperations, Maintenance 4l I Justification 4I4 FramingandFrequency 8.5.4 Payload 417 Tributaries Virtual 8.5.5 MaPPing 422 8.5.6 DS3PaYload MaPPing 423 8.5.7 E4 PaYIoad 8.5.8 SONETOPticalStandards 425 8.5.9 SONETNetworks 426 SONETRings 429 Ring 4Zg Path-Switched 8.6.1 Unidirectional 43I Ring Line-Switched 8.6.2 Bidirectional

383

8.2

8.3 8.4

8.5

8.6

References 433 Problems 434 Chapter I Digital Moblle Telephony Digital Cellular 437 9.1 NorthAmerican Format 438 9,1.1 D-AMPSTransmission 437

xlv

coNTENTS 9.1.2 D-AMPSSpeech Coding 43l.9 9.1.3 D-AMPSControlChannel 439 9.1.4 D-AMPSError Conrrol 440 9.2 GlobalSystem for Mobile Communications 44I 9.2.1 GSM Channel Structure Ml 9.2.? GSM Speech Coding M3 ' 9.2.3 GSM Channel CodingandModulation 443 9.2.4 GSM Mobile Station 443 9.2.5 GSM Frequency Hopping 444 9.2.6 GSM ShortMessage Service 444 9.3 CodeDivisionMultiple-Access Cellular 444 9.3.1 CDMA Channel Establishment 445 9.3.2 CDMA MultipathTolerance MB 9.3.3 CDMA powerConhol M9 9.3.4 CDMA SoftHandoff 449 9.4 Personal Communication System 450 9.5 VolcePrivacyandAuthenticarion 450 9.6 Iridium 45I 9.7 TrunkedRadio 45? 9.8 CellularDigiralPacket Dara 453 References453 Problems 454

Chapter 10 Data and Asynchronous Transfer Mode Networks 10.I Message Switching 456 10.2 Packer Switching 458 10.2.1 Packet Formats 460 1O.2.2 StatisticalMultiplexing 461 IO-2.3 RoutingControl 46j 10.2.4 Flow Control 466 10.2.5 X..25 46e 10.2.6 Frame Relay 471 10.2.7 TCP/rP 473 10.3 Asynchronous Transfer ModeNetworks 474 10.3.1 ATM Cells 474 10.3.2 ATM Service Categories474 10.3.3 ATM Connections4i7

455

CONTENTS XV

10.3.4 ATM Switching 477 10.3.5 ATM Applications 484 Protocol Transport 490 10.4 Internet References 492 Problems 494 '/Chapter 11 Dlgital $ubscriber Accese I 1.I Digital Network 496 Integrated Services Architecture 497 11.1.1 ISDN BasicRateAccess 11.1.2 S/Tlnterface 499 I Ll.3 ISDN U Interface 501 Protocol 503 11.1.4 ISDN D Channel loops 503 Digital Subscriber High-Data*Rate Line 503 Digital Subscriber 11.2.1 Asymmetric 495

Il.2

rr.2.2 VDSL 507 11.3 Digital Loop CarrierSystems 507 Digital Inop CarrierSystems 507 I L3.1 Universal Digital Loop Carier Systems 508 11.3.2 lntegrated Digital Loop Carrier 1l .3.3 Next-Generation Systems 509 11.4 Fiberin theLooP 510 I L5 HYbridFiberCoaxSYstems 5l I Modems 512 I 1.6 Voiceband 11.6.1 PCMModems513 Service 515 II.7 Local MicrowaveDistribution Services 516 I1.8 DigitalSatellite 516 References Problems 5I7

/Cnapter tZ Traffic Analysis

12.1 Traffic Characterization520 12.1.1 ArrivalDiskibutions 5M 12.1.2 HoldingTime Distributions 527 12.2 LossSystems 530 12.2.1 LostCallsCleared 531 12.2.2 Lost CallsReturning 536 12.2.3 LostCallsHeld 539 12.2.4 Lost CallsCleared-Finite Sources 54I

519

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CoNTENTS 12.2.5 Lost CallsHeld-Finite Sources 544 12.3 NetworkBlockinghobabilities 547 12.3.I End-to-End Blockingprobabilities 549 I2.3.? Over{towTraffic 551 12.4 DelaySystems 552 12.4.1 Exponential Service Times 555 12,.4.2 Constant Service Times 559 . l?,.4.3 FiniteQueues 561 12.4.4 Tandem eueues 566 References 567 Problems 568

AppendlxA Derlvatlzation of Equations AppendixB Encodlng/Decodlng Algorlthmsfor segmgntedPcM Appendk G AnatyticFundamentals of DigitalTransmisslon AppendixD TrafficTabtes Gloseary Answersto Selected Problem* lndex

573
579

587 607 613 631 635

PREFACE
tefers in the prefaceof the first two editions,the termdigffaI telephony As mentioned netpath of voice communications in the message to the useof digital technology thesignal-that is, of encoding to a method thetetmdlgital refers works.In thiscase andswitchimpliesvoicetransmission digitaltelephony Hence a form of modulation. of Althoughthe primaryfocus this book not datacommunications. ing applications, of datacomtreatment anexpanded this editioncontains is not datacommunicafions, astheyrelateto providingvoicecommunications particularly networks, munications in additionto datacommunications. services andnettechnology of digitalvoicecommunications all aspects This bookcovers of communications sense analytical bookin thetraditional, works.It is not a technical available, theoryarealready communications numerous bookscovering theory.Since system of communications aspects andoperational the application this book stresses in both qualitativeand, when appropriate, design.Somebasictheoryis presented terminology, concepts, is to introduce however, terms. Themainputpose, quantitative aresuptheconcepts [n mostcases implementations. influence andhow applications exalthough network, in theU.S.telephone implementations ported by citingexample arealsoprovided' networks amples from other(ITU) publictelephone The electrical electricalengineers. for this book aregraduate Theprimaryaudience to corffnureferences occasional ofappreciating is mostcapable student engineering rigor analytical because However, on the practice. theoryandits influence nications should readers oriented lessanalytically descriptions, is waivedin favorofoperational digitalradioand 6 (covering Chapter theprinciples. haveno difficulty understanding withoutlosingcontinuityfor but is easilyskipped is the mostanalytical modulation) numerous contains trafficanalysis) 12(covering Similarly,Chapter theotherchapters. the materialin otherchapters. for understanding that areunneces$ary equations waswritten (1980)'public telephone Whenthe first editionof Digital Telephony but technology, with analog theworld wereprimmily implemented networks around edition wasrapidlytakingover'Whenthe second it wasclearthatdigitaltechnology waswritten (1990),the inlemalportionsof the networkhad,for the mostpart,been of the to an all-digitalnetwork.Thenandtoday(1999)the mainremnants converted xvll

xviii

PREFAcE

original analogtelephonenetworks are analog subscriberloops and analog telephones connectedto them. Although Integrated services Digital Nerwork (ISDN) technology was developed as a means of replacing analog loops to complete the transformation of the network to suppofi end-to-end digital connections,ISDN deployment is below expectationsfor severalreasons.One of thesereasonsis a growing needformore bandwidth than what is available from a basic rate IsDN subscriberloop (128 kbps). There is currenrly much activity within the industry to develop new technologiesfor medium- and highbandwidth digital subscriberaccess.A new chapter (chapter l1) has been added to this edition to specifically addressalternative technologiesfor digital subscriberacCESS.

Anotherrelativelyrecentapplicationof digital technology addedto this edition involvesdigital cellulartelephones, which first appeared in the marketplace in the mid-1990s. Digital mobileradio is enabled by the emergence of low-cost, highperformance digitalsignalprocessing (DSp)technology for compressing speech signals to low bit rates and for providing sophisticated coding, modulation,and equalization required for digitalradios in a bandwidth,constrained mobileapplication. A complete list of chapter topicsis; chapterl: overview of analog telephone technology followedby an inhoduction of how digitaltechnology is usedro fulfrll the same functions chapter2; Discussion of advantages anddisadvantages of digital technology for voicecommunications chapter3: Descriptions of themostcomrnon voicedigitization algorithms chapter4: Fundamenral$ of digiralwire-linerransmission andmultiplexing chapter5: Basicconcepts andoperations of digital switching machines Chapter 6: Digital modulation andradiofundamentals chapter 7; Network synchronization, control, andmanagement requirements Chapter 8: Fiberoptictransmission systems andSONET Chapter 9: Digital cellulartelephone systems Chapter l0: Datanetworks Chapter 1l: Digital subscriber access technology Chapter 12:Fundamentals of traffic analysis for designing networks pcM voicecodingrelationships, Theappendices coverthederivation ofequations, fundamentals of digitalcommunications theory,andtraffic tables.
JoruqC. BeLLnr4y

Coppell,Tems October1999 j ohnc beIlamy@ieee.org

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Once again I am indebted to Wanda Fox and Alcatel USA for allowing me accessto the corporate library for researchmaterials for this edition. I also owe a great deal of gratitude to Gerald Mitchell of the University of Colorado for thoroughly reviewing and enhancing the last chapter on traffic theory'

J.B,

xlx

ACRONYMS
AAL ABR ACD ACK ADM ADPCM AIN AMPS ANI APC APON ARPANET ARQ ATM ATPC BSZS BER BISDN BLSR CAC CAP CAS CBR layer ATM adaptation available bit rate automaticcall distributor (Positive) acknowledgment adaptivedeltamodulation;add-dropmultiplexer adaptivedifferentialPCM network intelligent advanced mobilephonesYstem advanced automaticnumberidentification adaptivepredictivecoding passive opticalnetwork ATM based projectsagencynetwork research advanced repeatrequest automatic mode transfer asynchronous adaptivetransmitpowercontrol binary8 zerosubstitution bit-enor rate digital network integratedservices broadband bidirectionalline switchedring admission control connection modulation amplitude/phase provider;carrierless access competitive signaling channel associated bit rate(AfUl constant capability clearchannel interoffice signaling coilrmoncharurel ConsultativeCommitteefor IntemationalTelephonyand Telegraphy (now tTU) hundred call seconds signaling; channel cornmon codedivisionmultipleaccess communitydial office cellular digital packetdata(for AMPS networks)

ccc

CCIS

ccn"T
CCS CDMA CDO CDPD

xxll

AcHoNyMS

CELP codeexcitedlinearprediction CES circuitemulation (ATM) service CGSA CellularGeographic Service Area CLASS cu$tom local areasignaling services CLEC competitivelocal exchange carrier CLP cell losspriority (ATM) CMI coded markinversion CODEC CODer/DECoder CPFSK continuous phase frequency shift keying CRC cyclicredundancycheck CSMA/CD carriersense multipleaccess/collision detection CSU channelserviceunit CTD cell kansferdelay CTI computertelephonyintegration D-AMPS digitaladvanced mobilephoneservice DAVIC digitalaudiovideocouncil DBS directbroadcast satellite DCM digitalcircuitmultiplication DCME digitalcircuitmultiplicationequipment DECT digitalenhanced cordless telephony DFE decisionfeedback equalization DID direct inward dialing DLC digital loop carrier DM deltamodulation; degraded minute DMT discretemultitone DNIS dialednumber identification service DPCM pulsecodemodulation differential DQDB queue distributed dualbus DSI digital signallevel I at 1.544 Mbps DS3 digitalsignal level3 at,14.736 Mbps DSI digital speech interpolation DSS digital satellite system DTE dataterminalequipment DTMF dualtonemulrifrequency (signaling tones) DVB digital video broadcasting group DVD digitalvideodisc El European digital signallevel I at ?.048Mbps E3 European digital signallevel 3 at 34.368 Mbps ECMA EuropeanComputerManufacturersAssociation EMI elechomagnetic interference ERMES enhanced radiomessage system ESF extended superframe ETSI European Telecommunications Standards Institute FDDI fiber dishibuteddatainrerchange

ACRONYMS XXIii

FDM FEC FEXT FIFO FRAD FSK FTTC FTTH GPS GSM HDB3 HDLC HIPPI HTTP IDLC IEC IETF ILEC IMT IP ISDN ISI ISO ITU M JPEG LAN LATA LD-CELP LEC LMDS MAN MCM MLCM MMDS MPEG MPLS MSK MTIE MTSO MULDEM NAK NCP NEXT

divisionmultiplexing frequency forward error correction far end crosstalk first in-first out device framerelayaccess shiftkeying frequency fiber to the curb fiber to the home sYstem globalpositioning for mobilecommunications globalsystem high density bipolarof order3 high-leveldatalink control parallelinterface high performance hypertexttransportprotocol integrated digital loop carrier Commission Electrotechnical International task force engineering internet carrier incumbentlocal exchange mobiletelecommunications international internetProtocol digitalnetwork integrated services interference intersymbol Organization Standards Intemational Union Telecommunications International voiceresPonse interactive Experts Group JointPhotographic network local area transPoflarea local access CELP low-delay carrier local exchange service distribution local microwave metropolitanareanetwork multicarriermodulation modulation multilevelcoded multichannelmultipointdistributionservice Experts Group Motion Pictures label switching multiprotocol minimumshift keYing maximumtime interval enor office switching mobiletelephone multiplexer-demultiplexer (negative) acknowledgment networkcontrolpoint;networkcontrolprotocol(ARPANET) nearendcrosstalk

XXIV

ACRONYMS

NMT NNI NRZ OFDM OSI PABX PAM PBX PCM PCME PCR PCS PDC PDH PHS PLL PON POTS PRC PRK PRS PSK PSTN PVC Qos QPRS QPSK RADSL RCC SDH SDLC SES SF SIM SLIC SMDS SMR SMS SNMP SOHO SONET SRTS S57 STM

Nordicmobiletelephone system network*to-network i nterface nonreturnto zero orthogonal frequency divisionmultiplexing opensystems interconnection privateautomatic branch (alsopBX) exchange pulseamplitude modulation privatebranchexchange pulsecodemodulation packet circuitmultiplication equipment peakcell rate (ATM) personal communication (or service) system personal digitalcellular(Japan) plesiochronous digitalhierarchy personal handyphone sy$tem (Japan) phase lockedloop passive opticalnetwork plainold telephone service primary reference clock phase reversal keying partialresponse primaryreference signaling; source phase shift keying publicswitched telephone network permanent virtual circuit qualityof service quadrature partialresponse signaling quaternary phase shift keying(4-PSK) rateadaptive digital subscriber loop radio commoncarrier synchronous digitalhierarchy synchronous datalink control severely errored seconds superframe Subscriber Identification Module(GSM) subscriber loopinterface circuit switched multimegabit dataservice specialized mobileradio shortmessage service simplenetworkmanagement protocol small office/homeoffice synchronous opticalnetwork synchronous residual time stamp signaling system version 7 synchronous transfermode

ACRONYMS

XXV

STS STS-n SVC TI T3 TACS TASI TCM TCPAP TDM TDMA TETRA TMN TST UBR UDP UI UMTS UM UPSR URL UTP VBR VCC VCI VPC VPCI WAN WATS

digital switchingstructure space-time-space signal-n transport synchronous virnralcircuit switched Mbps at 1.544 system TDM transmission at 44'736Mbps system TDM hansmission system communications total access interpolation speecb time assignment modulation trelli$coded protocol controlprotocol/internet transmission time divisionmultiPlexing time divisionmultipleaccess trunkedradio Trans-European Network Management Telecommunications digital switching$tructure time-space-time bit rate unspecified Userdatagram Protocol unit interval service mobiletelephone universal interface user-to-network ring pathswitched unidirectional locator resource universal twistedpair unshielded variablebit rate connection virtual channel virtual channelidentifier virtualpathconnection identifier virtual pathconnection network wide area services wide areatelecommunications

1
ANDTERMINOLOGY BACKGROUND
theworld andaround in theUnitedStates telecommunications in the1960s, Beginning conventional First, the areas' different in several changes radical Uefanundergoing networkwas being calledupon to provide many new and different *ulog telephone themarindustry'Second, from thedataprocessing mostof whichemanated services. in competition stimulated States in the United agencies andthe regulatory ketplace digital technolThird, services. monopolistic of traditionally both old andnew areas funcandswitching transmission manyof thefundamental to implement ogyemerged The world' the around networks and other network tions wittrin ttreU.S. telephone asoperational and application, the design, is to describe of this book main purpose analog teleof the the technology As background, pects of tfis newdigitalequipment. of digital phonenetworkis reviewedto provide a frameworkfor the introduction equipment. into thetelephone of digitaltechnology thattheintroduction limust beemphasized andrefeatures, quality, add new the improve to by desires networkwasmotivated not arise network did ofthe Digitization services. voice ofconventional ducethecosts services' data hansmission for better industry processing of the data from the needs into thenetworkwasinitially inacintroduced mostof thedigitaltechnology Indeed, a digitalnetwork channels' Of course, analog through to datafiaffic, except cessible of the network As more services. for datacommunications is a naturalenvironment for data available became of the facilities use for direct morertupport digitized, became busihigh-end for relatively only exi$ted Initially, directdigital access applications. Network Digital Services the Integrated facilitiesrof It wasnot until ness applications. by couldbe used digitalchannels (ISDtiibecameavailable thatend-to-end{switched apother 1990s numerous ny tfre late for bothvoiceand'datp,l individualsubscribers primarilyfor available, to digitalfacilitiesbecame proaches roprovidingdigitalaccess 1l' Chapter in are described technologies various digitalaccess These Intemetaccess. idea that the to show has been included Figurel. I reference, a pointof historical .A$ inof a German a concept voiceanddatais not new.This figuredepicts of integrated prevailing means the to Phillip Reis [1] to addvoicecommunications ventornamed the equipReisdeveloped at the time-the telegraph' communications of electrical Bell reGraharn years Alexander before ment in tfie 1860sanddied in 1874-two

BAcKcRoUNDANDTERMtNoLocy

ceived his patentfor the telephone.As indicated,the figure implies altemateuseof the wires for voice or data cornmunications(i.e., integratedtransmission).Reis actually used the telegraphattachmentto signal infbrmation pertaining to voice tests,an indication of inadequatevoice quality. To implement simultaneousvoice and telegraphcommunications,the telephonein Figure 1.1 would have to have been digital. Becauseof technology limitations at the time, such an implementation was impossible and telephone systems necessarily evolved with analog technology. one hundred years later the situation chrurgedsignificantly. Telephoneequipment developersand service providers had an abundance of new technology, and they were challengedwith how to make effective use of it. This book describesdigital telephonetechnology from two perspectives. The first perspectivedescribesindividual equipmentsor subsystems and technical reasonsfor transitions from conventional analog equipment to seemingly less natural digital counterparts. Thus, one purposeofthis book is to describehow digital technology improves and expandsthe capabilitiesof various subsystems within voice telephonenetworks' Another purposeof the book is to describethe ultimate benefits derived when an entire network is implementedwith digital techniques.A greatdegreeof synergism exists when individual systemsare designedinto one cohesivenetwork utilizing aigital implementations throughout. The synergistic effect benefits conventional voice servicesand newer $ervicessuch as ttre in-G:iiiei.

Flgure 1.1 Back to the future: the first integratedvoice/data communication $vstem.

1.1 TELECOMMUNICATIONSSTANDAHDORGANIZATIONS3

Most of the equipment descriptions urd design examples presentedin this book come from material authoredby engineersat AT&T Laboratories(now Lucent Technologies) and other suppliersfor the public telephonenetwork. The basic principles, however, are by no meansunique to the public telephonenetwork. The conceptsand implementation examples are applicable to any communications network: public or private, voice or data.An inherent attribute of a digital network is that it can,to a large extent, be designedindependentlyof its application. Terminals, Transmiesion, and Swttchlng The three basic elements of a communications network are terminals, tran$mission systems,and switches.The first part of this chapterprovides an overview of theseelements as implementedin analogtelephonenetworks. Then, the last part of this chapter provides a,lrief overview of digital implementationswithin the analog network. Following a detailed discussionof the motivation for digital implementationsin Chapter 2, the next four chaptersdescribethe operation and design of the basic elementsof a digital voice tetminals and the most comdigital voice network. Chapter 3 discusses mon algorithms used to convert analog voice signals into digital bit streams.Chapter 4 presentsthe basicsof digital transmissionsy$tems.Fundamentalsof digital switching follow in Chapter 5. Basic digital modulation techniquesand their application to point-to-point digital microwave and digital cellular systemsare describedin Chapter 6. A discussionof various synchronizationand control considerationsfor digital networks is provided in Chapter 7. Chapter I describesfiber optic transmissionsystems the basic and the synchronousmultiplexing stiurdard(SONET)' Chapter 9 discusses the United architectureand operation of prevailing digital cellular $ystemsin use in Statesand around the world. The main emphasisof the first nine chaptersinvolves circuit switching astraditionally implementedfor voice telephonenetworks.A circuit-switched network is onp_that to eachrequestfor service\Each assignsa completeend-to-endconnectionin response network facilities, is held for the duration of the'call. ) connection, with its asrrociated Chapter l0 describesa different type ofnetwork, generically referred to as a packetswitched network, that is particularly suitedto servicing datatraffic. Included in Chapter 10 is a discussion of Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), a form of a various technologiesand systemsfor packet-switchednetwork. Chapter 1l discusses to a digital network (voice or data).The last chapterpreachieving direct digital access sentsthe basicsof Faffic theory: the fundamentalmathematicsfor analyzing and predicting telecommunicationsnetwork performance.

ORGANIZATIONS STANDARD 1.1 TELECOMMUNICATIONS standl, 1984, telecommunications onJanuary of theBellSystem Prior tothebreakup
ards in North America were essentially establishedby the dominant equipment designer and supplier to the Bell System: Bell Telephone Laboratories and Westem Electric. Independenttelephonecompaniesthat provided local service to the 207oof the country not coveredby the Bell Systemrelied on the U'S. IndependentTelephone

encxcRouNDANDTEHMINoLOGY

Association to asrheu.s. Telephone [usITA; larerreferred (usTA)] to Association formulateand disseminate particularlyfor interconnecting standards, with the Bell System. In anticipationof the divestitureof the RegionalBell operating companies (RBocs) from AT&T, the Exchange carriers standards (ECSA) was Association formedin 1983as a nonprofittradeassociation to represent the interests of all exchange carriers(RBocs and independents). In Februarylgg4 the ECSA sponsored the establishment of the Tl standards committee to formulatenew interconnection standards for theu.s. national network. TheTl commiftee is accredited by theAmerican NationalStandards Institute(ANSD to ensure that standards approvals follow principles of openness. ThusTl committee standards aredesignated asANSI Tl.nnndate(T I stands for Telecommunications standards entitynumberI ). TableI . I liststhe majorsubcommittees within Tl andtherespective responsibilities. Otherorganizations in North Americathat establish standards related to telecommunications aretheElecffonic Industries (EIA), theInstitute Association of Electrical and ElectronicEngineers (IEEE), and Bell communicarion$ (Bellcore). Research Bellcorewasan organization chartered to establish standards andqualify equipment for the RBOCs.Bellcorehassincebeenreorganized asTelcordia Technologies. The IEEE is mostknownfor its datacommunications standards listedin Table1.2but has alsoestablished numerous standards for measuring andcharacterizing telecommunications eguipment. Most of the world outside of North Americarelieson international telecommunications $tandards committees e$tablished undertheauspices of theInternational Telecommunication union (ITU). In the past,two major entitieswithin the ITu were established: the InternationalTelegraphand TelephoneConsultativecommittee (ccITT) andtheInternarional Radioconsultative committee(ccIR). ccITT establishedrecommendations for telephone, telegraph, anddatatransmission circuitsand equipment. ccIR was concerned with coordinating the useof the radio specrrum. CCITT andCCIR activitiesareno longeridentifiedasbeingdistinctfrom the ITU. ccITT hasbecome ITU-T andccIR is now ITU-R. In the united states. useof the radiospectrum is controlled by theFederal communications (FCC). comrnission North Americanstandards andITU standards haveoften beenincompatiblein the past.Notth Americanstandards established by theBell System weretherefore incorTABLE1.1 T1 StandardsSubcommltteee Committee T1A1 T1E1 T1M1 T1P1 T1S1 T1X1 Responsibility Performance processing andsignal powerandprotection Interfaces, for networks Internetwork operations, administration, maintenance, (IOAM&p) andprovisioning Wireless/mobile services andsy$lems Services, architeclures, andsignaling Digital hierarchy andsynchronization

HIERARCHY NETWORK 1.2 THE ANALOG Data Area Nstwork(LAN/MAN) TABLE1.2 IEEELocal Arsa NetworldMetropolltan 'Cbmmun lcstionsStandards 802"1 802.2 802.3 802.4 802.5 802.6 802.7 802.8 802.9 802.10 80e.11 802:12 802.14 LAN(VLAN) Virtual bridged Bridging, andArchitecture, Overview (LLC) Logical LinkControl (cD) (Ethernet) Detection (csMA)withcollision Access carriersenseMultiple TokenBus(Arcnet) Token Ring(lBMBing) (QPSX) Exchange Synchronous Packet Queued Broadband Technologies Optical Fiber Seryices Integrated Security Wireless Demand Priority Cable TV

Due to the needfor moreinternaasa subset. porated into CCITT recommendations now work closely andITU-T committees theT1 subcommittees iional compatibility, joint effort is the the of first major example joint A standards. to establish together refenedto as SONET in the systems fiber transmission for synchronous standard (sDH) in ITU-T standards. Digital Hierarchy united statesandsynchronous with standards (ISO) is an organization Organization Standards The International telecommunicainvolve of which some matters, in a wide rangeof subject activities within ISo work closelywith ITU studygroupsin tions.Technicalsubcommittees that to ISDN protocols thoserelated particularly ITU recommendations, formulating Sysfor Open standald to theISO datacommunications adhere, asmuchaspossible, Model. (OSI) Reference Interconnection tems

1.2 THE ANALOG NETWORKHIERARCHY of theworld evolvedovera periodof almost networlLs telephone the analog Because alsodeveloped' implementations of diversityin equipment a greatarnount 100years, couldaccomlike theU.S' network, thatvastnetworks, achievement It is a remarkable In 1980-in theunited typesandfunctionproperly. modate themyriadof equipment all of whichcoulddirectly [2], almost therewere181million telephones States alone. This achievegood quality connection' a and have number public telephone dial any hierfunctional and well-defined interfaces by standardized mentwa$madepossible to the adhered it necessarily installed, was archies.As newer digital equipment
*Although 1980 is there is no specific date at which digital technology took over from analog.technology, analog displacing emerged to begin fiber optics in which time frame repfesents the significant in that it portions of the rirlios for intercity transmission, the last stronghold of analog technology in the intemal public network.

BecxcRouNDANDTERMtNoLocy

standardized practicesof the analog network. The fact that the equipment was implemented with digital technology was transparentto the rest of the network.

1.2.1 BellSystemHierarchy
apparent,however, ttrat the telephonewas of little use without some meansof changing connections on an "a$-needed"basis. Thus the flrst switching office was established in New Haven, connecticut, only two years later. This switching office, and othersfollowing, was locatedat a central point in a serviceareaand provided switched connectionsfor all subscribers in the area.Becauseof their locations in the serviceareas,the$eswitching offices are often referred to as cenffal offices. As telephoneusage grew and subscribersdesired longer distance connections,it becamenece$sary to interconnectthe individual serviceareaswith trunks betweenthe central offices. Again, switches were neededto interconnecttheseoffices, and a second level of switching evolved. Continued demandfor even longer distanceconnections, along with improved long-distancetransmissionfacilities, stimulatedevenmore levels of switching. In this manner the analog public telephonenetwork in the United states evolved to a total of five levels. Theselevels are listed in Table I .3. At the lowest level of the network are class5 switching offices, also called central offices (cos) or end offices (Eos). The next level of the network was composedof class4 toll offices. The toll network of the Bell Systemcontainedthree more levels of switching: primary centers,sectionalcenters,and regional centers. To illushate the structure and motivation for hierarchical networks, a symbolic, three*levelexample is shown in Figure 1.2. In contrast,Figure 1.3 depicts a different network structurefor interconnectingall of the firstlevel switches;a fully connected mesh structure. obviously, the hierarchical network requires more switching nodes but achievessignificant savings in the number of trunks; the transmission links between switching offices. Detetmination of the total number of trunk circuits in either network is necessarilya function of the amount of traffic betweeneachpair of switching nodes.(Chapter 12 provides the mathematicsfor determining the number of trunk circuits.) As a first approximation, the trunk costsof a mesh can be determinedas the total number of connections(trunk groups) N" between switching off,rces: TABLE 1.3 PubticNetworkHierarchyot the Bell $ystem (1gSA) tgl
SwitchClass
I

Alexander Graham Bellinvented thefirstpractical telephone in 1876. It soon became

Functional Designation Regional center Sectional center Primary center Tollcenter Endoffice

No. in Bell System

No. in lndependents

Total 10 67 168 933 18,803

2
Q

10 52 148 508 9803

0 0 20 425 9000

HIERAHCHY 7 NETWORK 1.2 THEANALOG

l) N"=+N(N-

(l'1)

whereN is thenumberof nodes. to 12conaScompared Thusthe meshnetworkof Figure1.3has36 connections' of comparison thecost of fiber optictransmission in Figure1.2.In the case nections

hierarchy. switching Figure 1.2 Three-level

network. Flgure 1.3 Mesh-connected

BACKGROUND ANDTERMINOLOGY

the trunks is almost exactly 3 ; I becausea single fiber systemcan provide more voice capacity than is neededbetweenany two switches. A lessobvious difference betweenthe networks of Figures 1.2 and 1.3 involves the method of establishingconnectionsbetweentwo offices. In the hierarchical network thereis one and only one route betweenany two switching nodes.[n the meshnetwork most connectionswould be establishedon the direct route between the two offices. However, if the direct route is unavailable (becauseof a traffic overload or an equipment failure) and the first-level switches can provide trunkto-funk connections (called tandemswitching functions), the mesh network provides many altemativesfor establishingconnectionsbetween any two nodes.Hence the reliability of a network architecturemust be consideredin addition to just the costs.In general,neither a pure mesh nor a purely hierarchical network is desirable. Taking these factors into account, Figure 1.4 depicts alternate routing as implemented in the former Bell System.As indicated, the basic backbonehierarchical network was augmentedwith high-usagetrunks. High-usage trunks are used for direct connectionsbetween switching offices with high volumes of interoffice traffic. Normally, traffic betweentwo suchoffices is routed through the direct trunks. If the direct trunks are busy (which may happenfrequently if they are highly utilized), the backbone hierarchical network is still available for alternaterouting. Traffic was always routed through the lowest available level of the network. This procedurenot only usedfewer network facilities but also implied better circuit quality becauseof shorterpaths and fewer switching points. Figure 1.4 showsthe basic order of selection for alternateroutes. The direct interoffice trunks are depicted as dashed lines, while the backbone,hierarchical network is shown with solid lines.

):*;;;
-t-t,F,

\\\\\\\
I

l;:;----

I f

Figure 1.4 Altemate routingin North American network.

1,2 THE ANALOGNETWORKHIERARCHY

In addition to the high-usagetrunks, the backbone network was also augmented with additional switching facilities called tandem switches.These switcheswere employed at the lowest levels of the network and provided switching betweenend offices. Tandem switcheswere not pafr of the toll network, as indicatedin Figure I .5, but were (and are) pafr of what is referred to as an exchangearea.Generally speaking,an exchangeareais an area within which all calls are consideredto be local calls (i.e., toll free). Il generalterms, any switching machine in a path betweentwo end offices provides a tandem switching function. Thus toll switchesalso provide tandem switching functions. Within the public telephonenetwork, however, the term tandem refers specifically to intermediateswitching within the exchangearea' The basic function of a tandem office is to interconnectthose central offices within an exchange area having insufficient interoffice fiaffic volumes to justify direct trunks. Tandem offices also provide alternateroutes fbr exchangeareacalls that get blocked on direct routesbetweenend offices. Although Figure 1.5 depictstandem offices as being physically distinct from end offices and toll offices, tandem switches were often colocatedwith either or both types.Operationally, exchangeareaswitching The primary reaand toll network switching in the Bell systemwere always separated. son for the separationwa$ to simplify tandem switching by avoiding billing and network routing. A toll switch had to measurecall duration for billing purposesbut a tandem switch did not. Prior to the introduction of computer-controlled switching, billing functions were a significant consideration.The operationalseparationalso imfrom tandem trunk groups. The plied that toll-connecting trunk groups were separate has eliminated the need for the separaflexibility of computer-controlled switching tion. The separation of exchange facilities from toll facilities had an important effect on the transmissionand switching equipment utilized in the respectiveapplications.Exchangeareaconnectionswere usually short and only involved a few switching offices. Toll connections,on the other hand, coulcl involve numerous switching offices with
Toll netrrvork

Tandom office Di.ct trunk

areanetwork. Figure 1.5 Exchange

10

BAcKGRoUNDANDTEHMtNoLocy

relatively long ffansmission links between them. Thus, for comparable end-to-end quality, individual analog exchangeareaequipment did not have to provide as much quality as did toll network counterparts.

1.2.2 Postdivestiture U.$. Network In thedecade of the1980s thestructure of thepublic telephone network in theUnited
states changed significantly asaresultofchanges in thetechnology andtheregulatory environment. Themaintechnological changes were(1) extensive deployment of very largedigital switchingmachines, (2) theadaptation of computer-controlled switches to providemultipleswitchingfunctions in onemachine (e.g.,the integration of endoffice, tandem, andtoll switchingfunctions), and (3) the deployment of fiber optic hansmission systems thatcouldcarryvery largecrosssections of traffic. Noticethat all threeof these technological developments suggest a networkwith fewerandlarger switchingoffices.Thesetechnological influences on the networktopologyare discussed morefully in Chapters 8-10. The most dramaticand immediateeffect on the network occurredon Januaryl, 1984, whenthebreakup of AT&T officially tookeffect.Because thebreakup involved divestiture of Bell operatingcompanies (BoCs) from AT&T, the networkirselfbecamepartitioned at a new level.The new partitioning is shownin Figure I.6, which depicts AT&T asoneof several competing long-distance carriers referred to a$inter(IXCs) andlocal access exchange carriers andtranspoft (LATAs), which were areas originally the exclusivedomainof local exchange carriers(LECs).In additionto AT&T, the othertwo main IXCs areMCI andu.s. sprint. The LECs originallyincluded 23 Bocs (organized into 7 RBocs), formerindependenr relephone companies like GTE, contel, and united relecommunications, and some1500mostly smalltown telephone companies. Mergerswithin the industryhavesubsequently reduced thenumber of LECsandRBOCs. Thenumberof LATAs in theunited stateswasinitially 164,but the number has changed asadjustments in service boundaries aresometimes made. Because a LATA entails an area thatincludes manyexchange areas, LECscomplete toll callsthatkaversedifferentexchange areas within oneLATA. TheIXCs werenot allowedto carry intra-LATA traffic. similarly, an LEC wasnot allowedto carrytraffic between two LATAs evenwhenbothLATAs mightbe service areas of a singleBoc. only anIxc wasallowedto carryinter-LATA traffic.To ensure thatthese service partitions were adhered to, eachIXC interfaced with a LATA at a singlepointin theLATA, referred to asa point of presence (PoP).IXC equipment at a Pop couldbe a switching office or merelyajunctionfor collecting traffic carried elsewhere to be switched. A majoraspect of themodifiedfinaljudgment(MFJ)thatspecified thedivestiture wasthecondition of equalaccess, whichmeant thatanLEC (specifically a Boc) was to treatall IXCs equallyin regards to exchange access. Theconditions ofequalaccess meantthat access to all endofficesin a LATA would be equalin type,quality,and pricefor all IXCs. The LATA nerworkritructure to accomplish equal [4] established access is shown in Fieure1.7.

NETWORK HIERARCHY 1 1 1.2 THEANALOG

Figure 1.6 U.S, network partitioning.

POP: AT: TO: EO: TIC: OIG: TCTC;

Poinl ol Ptesence Accets tandent Tarrdcnt office Entl ollice Tsndetn inter"LATA connecting Direct inter-LATA connecling Tdnderfi connecling

architecture' hndaccess Figure 1.7 LATA hierarchy

12

BACKGROUND ANDTEHMINOLOGY

The design of the LATA network for intra-LATA traffic was left to the discretion of the LECs. Thus intra-LATA connectionscan involve multiple switching offices between end offices. However, connectionsbetweenan Eo and a PoP could involve at most one intermediateswitching office referredto as an access tandem (AT). with respect to the previous Bell system hierarchy, an AT takes the place of a class 4 toll switch. However, long-distancebilling functions, which were formerly performed in class 4 switches, are now performed within the IXC network. Although Figure l.7 shows accesstandem and basic tandem switching functions as being distinct, access tandem functions can be integratedinto regular tandem switchesif the tandem switch provides AT features.Foremost among thesefeahrresare the ability to forward automatic number identification (ANI) information to an IXC for billing and the ability to route calls to different IXC POPsdependingqn presubscriptionor per-call three-digit carier designations. In 1997 the FCC issued some rulings with the intent of stimulating competition in both the local exchange and long-distance networks. under this ruling, LECs that want to enter the long-distancemarket can do so if they open their local exchangefacilities to long-distancecarriers or other competitive accessproviders. A key aspect of making the local facilities available to competition is the establishmentof unbundled pricing for local seryices;the separationof the cost of the local loop, the local switching equipment, maintenance,and ancillary services such as 9ll emergency calling. Another key requirementis number portability, which allows a subscriberto changelocal service providers without having to changetelephonenumbers.The introduction of competition for local distribution instigated the use of two tennrr:competitive local exchange carrier (CLEC) for the competition and incumbent local exchangecarrier (ILEC) for the establi$hed carrier.

1.2.3 SwitchingSystems Manual Swltchboards

The first telephone switching equipment utilized operatorsat manual swirchboards.The operatorsaskeda caller for the number they wanted to call and then establishedthe connection by plugging in a cord between terminal jacks. Although switchboards are no longer used, a legacy of their existencelives on: the use of the terms "tip and ring." As shown in Figure 1.8, one wire of a wire pair was connectedto the tip of a plug comector and the other wire was connectedto the ring. Ever since,one wire of a wire pair is com-

Switdrboard jacf

Switdrboard plug

Flgure 1.8 switchboard jack (R, s, andr arering, sleeve, plug with corresponding andtip, (FromFreeman, respectively). Fundamentals of releconzmunications, wiley, New york.)

NETWORK HIEHARCHY 1.2 THEANALOG

13

to asthering, evenon digital wire monly referred to asthetip andthe otheris referred plugsin a swirchboard. On some of theoriginalswitchbomds pairs,whichhavenever used provided the sleeve conductor shownin Figure1.8. would be by a thirclconnection Automated Switching swirching machine can with anyparticular In general termstheequipment associated asprovidingoneof thefollowing functions: be categorized 1. Signaling 2. Control 3. Switching equipment is to monitortheactivityof theincomThebasicfunctionof the signaling to thecontrolelement status or controlinformation ing linesandforwardappropriate place ontooutgoing is alsousedto controlsignals equipment of the switch.Signaling linesunderdirectionof theswitchcontrolelement. andsets up connecprocesses signaling information incoming Thecontrolelement matrix:an by a switching The switching functionitself is provided tionsaccordingly. input linesand comections between usedto complete arrayof selectable crosspoints in Figure1.9. machine areshown of a switching outputlines.These basicconstituents Electrcmechanicalswitching. Prior to the introduction of digital electronic switching officesin NorthAmericaandaround switching machines in thelate 1970s, switches; types of electromechanical with one of two basic the world wereequipped step-by-step 1.10, crosspoints of a As shown in Figure step-by-step* and crossbar. As thepulses of to dial pulses. thatmovein directresponse switcharewipercontacts "step"theverticalwiperto a horizonthey immediately thefirst digit entertheswitch, the wiper is to the first digit. After the properrow is selected, tal row corresponding line to the next stage of switching until an idle across another setof contacts rotated digit, then steps thesecpulses, representing the second Thenextsetofdial is located. stages are through however many process The continues in like mannet. ond stage particular size. fbr a switch needed directprogressive control:Successwitchuses As thename implies,a step-by-step Wittr as each digit is dialed. of a paththrough theswitchareestabli$hed sivesegmenrs into the switchare integrated of the switch progressive control,thecontrolelements and a varietyof switchsizes is very usefulfbr implementing ing matrix.This feature has a progre$sive switch, however, A control allowing relativelyeasyexpansion. limitations; number of significant paththrough theswitchexists though anappropriate l. A call maybeblocked even pathgetsselected in anearlystage. anunfortunate but is not attempted because line Thatis, the outgoing trunksis not possible. 2. Alternate routingfor outgoing pulses be substituted' incoming dial and cannot is directlyselected by
*A in honor of its inventor Almon B. Strowger. step-by-stepswirch is also referred to as a Strowger switciz,

14

BACKGHOUND ANDTEBMINOLOGY

Figure 1.9 Switchingsystem components.

3. Signaling schemesother than dial pulses (e.g., tone signaling) are not directly
usable. 4 . Number translation is impossible. In conffast to a step-by-stepswitch, a crossbarswitch is one that used centralized, coillmon control for switch path selection.As digits were dialed, the conhol element of the switch received the entire addressbefore processingit. when an appropriate path through the switch was determined(which may have involved numbertranslation or alternaterouting), the control element transferredthe necessary information in the form of control signals to the switching matrix to establishthe connection. The fundamentalfeature,and advantage, of a common control switch is that control function implementation is separate from the switch implementation. Common control cross-

SLE E BANI( SLE EVE Ii,IPER

LINE WIPE R

V ER T I C A L WIPE H WIPE R CORDS

V EF T I C A L COMMUTATOB IN LINE IUSEO F I N D ER S I

Figure l.l0 Step-by-stepswitching elemenl (Copyright 1977 by Bell Telephone Laboratories. Reprinted by permission.)

HIERARCHY 15 1,2 THEANALOG NETWOHK

(telephone innumbers) logicaladdresses barsystems introduced theability to assign line numbers. of physical dependently contacts with switch(Figure Ll l) aremechanical The crosspoints of a crossbar from the useof The term crostbdrarises magnet$ to setup and hold a connection. Onceestablished, thecontacts. horizontal andverlicalbarsto initially select crossing energized with directcunentpassareheldby electromagnets the switching contacts the loss of current circuit. When the circuit is opened, ing throughthe established released automatically. the crosspoints to be causes switches limitations of progressivs control,step-by-step Because of theoperational Crossbar switches, on the 5 switching offices. primarily in smaller class were used netand within the toll predominantly in metropolitan areas hand, were used other by with coillmon control were augmented In cases step-by-step switches work. $ome the processing the request, equipment. After the digits into special control receiving asif the switchwasregenerated pulses that setup a connection controlequipment pulses directly. ceivingdial

l,lt( '-

.c'*I.

luc,'F-5

cffiEl

ErilI

xfrss

mlt'f,

Figure LlLll Crossbar switching element. (Copyright 1977 by Bell Telephone Laboratories. Reprinted by permission.)

16

BACKGROUND ANDTERMINOLOGY

Stored Program Control. Step-by-step andcrossbar switching sysrems used electromechanical components for boththe switching matrixandthecontrolelements. In somecasett the electromechanical controlelements in these switches represented rudimentaryforms of special-purpose digital computers. The hardwiredelectromdchanicallogic, however,had limited capabilities and was virtually impossible to modify. A majormilestone for telephony wasestablished in 1965whentheBell System installed its first computer-controlled switching system: theNo. I Electronic Switching system(Ess).- This switching system uses a stored-program digitalcomputer for irs controlfunctions. Thestored-program control(SPC) feature of theNo. I ESSallowed the introduction of new features suchas abbreviated dialing,call forwarding,call waiting,andthree-way calling. Theintroduction of SPCnot only providedsignificant advantages to endusers but alsosimplifiedmanyadministrative andmaintenance tasksfor the operating companies.A largeparl of line administration thatformerlyrequired manymanual modifrcations(mainframe cross-connects) could instead be accomplished with changes in computer datatables of an SPCswitch.Furthermore, physical line numbers wereindependent of thelogical(directory) line numbers, thusmakingnumber changes easy. other benefits enabled by sPc areautomated recordkeeping, lower blockingprobabilities,generation of traf-ficstatistics, automated call tracing,andmessage unit ac(per-call counting charges asopposed to flat-ratebilling for unlimitedlocalcalling). The switchingmahix of the No. I ESS(andalsorheNo. 2 ESS,No. 3 ESS,and No. IA ESS)is implemented with electromechanical reedrelays. ThusthetermESS refers in general to computer-controlled switching andnot to thenature of theswitching makix itself.However, AT&T's No. 4 ESS,which wasfirst installed in 1976.is a high-capacity toll switch using computercontrol and digital electronics for its switchingmatrix.Thusthe No. 4 ESSis "electronic" in its controlandits switching matrix.Fufthermore, thedigital multiplexsystem (DMS) switches of Northern Telecom,theNo. 5 eleckonicautomatic (EAX) of GTE, andthe No. 5 ESSof exchange AT&T alsoutilize. digital logic circuitsfor thecrosspoint matrix.
("''f't

Private Branch Exchanges. In the united statesthe termprivate branchex(PBX) refersgenerically change to any switchingsystem ownedor leased by a businessor organization to provideboth internalswitchingfunctionsand access to the publicnetwork. Thusa PBX in theunited statesmayuseeithermanual or automatic control.The term PABX is alsousedin the united States, andparticularlyin other countries, to referspecifically to automatically controlled PBXs. Thehistorical development of PBX systems hasfollowedcloselythatof switches in thepublicnetwork. PBXswith computerized controlbecame available in 1963(beforetheNo. I ESS)whenAT&T's No. l0l ESSwasfirst installed. sincethattime a
*Computer-controlled

PBXs were available befbre 1965. The No. I E$S represents the first instance of computer control in the public network hierarchy,

*rra ?
HIERARCHY 1.2 THEANALOG NETWORK

17

have developed computer-controlled manufacturers large numberof independent businesses haslong beenoneof themostcompetitive PBXs.In fact,thePBX market in telecommunications. newfeatures for users. numerous Theuseof computer controlfor PBXsintroduced (e.g.,abbreviated butnudialing)provided, Not only werecustomized callingfeatures more useavailable. Some of the management also became merous facilitiesfor cost following: features in a PBX arethe ful, commonplace or department by individualemployee 1. Accounting summaries reshictions to areacodes, with prioritiesandaccess 2. Multiple classes of service WATS lines.andsoon circuits, routingto automatically selecttie lines,foreignexchange 3. Least-cost WATS. DDD, andsoforth 4. Automaticcallback whencircuitsareavailable to determine theutilizationof existingcircuits 5. Traffic monitoringandanalysis andnetworkcosteffectiveness blockingprobabilities or to a$certain initially provided by PBXsarealsoofferedby operCentr6x. Many of thefeatures Figure1.12, Centrex is abusiness As indicated in asCentrex features. atingcompanies in central office. equipment the by switching customer serviceoffering supported to premises has a dedicated channel or datadeviceat the customer Every telephone pair implieda dedicated of the switchin the centraloffice. Originally,eachchannel (described in Section wires.It is now morecommonto usemultiplexingtechniques from thecentraloffice point of costs. Nevertheless, I.2.5) to reduce thehansmission appearance at theCO with a uniquepubhasa dedicated view eachCentrex extension officetreats theCenpartitionin thecentral number. A software lic networktelephone usergroupto providethefollowingbasicfeatures: trex linesasa closed

Locll Common Chantel Slgnaling

Sit6 I

Sit6 2

Site 3

service to multiplesites. Figure 1.12 Centrex

18

BACKGRoUNDANDTERMINoLoGY

l. Directdialingto Centrex extensions from thepublicnetwork. 2. Station-to-station callingusingextension numbers asopposed to full, 7- (or l0-) digit publicnumbers. 3. Common voiceuserfeatures suchascall forwarding, call transfer, call waiting, call pick up, andthree-way calling. 4. Multiple siteswith transparent plansand features. numbering With citywide Centrexthe sitescan be supported from multiple offices interconnected by (CCS)described common-channel signaling in Section1.2.10. 5. Centralizedattendant/message desk with call origination information for informedprocessing of forwarded calls. 6. High availability because CO equipment anddirectlyconnected phones analog arepowered at theCO with backup powersources. 7. Virtually unlimitedgrowth. 1.2.4 Transmission Systems Functionally, thecommunications channels between switching systems arereferred to astrunks.In thepast,these channels wereimplemented with a varietyof facilities, includingpairsof wires,coaxial cable, andpoint-to-point microwave radiolinks.Except for special situations, tunk facilitiesnow utilizeopticalfibers. Open Wire pictureofthe telephone A classical networkin the pastconsisted poles oftelephone with crossarms andglassinsulators usedto $upport uninsulated pairs.Exopen-wire ceptin rura]environments, theopenwire hasbeenreplaced with multipaircablesystemsor fiber. Themain advantage of anopen-wirepair is its relativelylow attenuatiofl (a few hundredths permile at voicefrequencies). of a decibel Hence, openwire is particularlyusefulfor long,rural customer loops.Themaindisadvantages arehavingto separate the wires with crossarms to preventshortingandthe needfor largeamounts (A singleopen-wire of copper. strand hasa diameter thatis five timesthediameter of a typical strandin a multipaircable.Thusopenwire usesroughly25 timesasmuch copper asdoes cable.) As a resultof copper co$ts andtheemergence of low elecffonics costs, openwire in rural environments haribeenmostlyreplaced with cablesystems using(digital)amplifiers to offsetattenuation on long loops. Paired Cable In response to overcrowded crossarms andhigh maintenartce costs,multipaircable sy$tems wereintroduced asfar backas 1883. Todaya singlecablemay contain anywherefrom 6 to 2700wire pairs.Figure 1.13showsthe structure of a rypicalcable. polesareused, Whentelephone a singlecablecanprovideall thecircuitsrequired on the route,therebyeliminatingthe needfor crossarms. More recentlythe preferred means of cabledistributionis to bury it directlyin the ground(buriedcable)or use underground conduit(underground cable).

19 NETWoRK HIERARGHY 1.2 THE ANALOG Table 1.4 lists the most conrmon wire sizes to be fbund within paired-cablesystems. The lower gauge(higher diameter) systemsare urtedfor longer distanceswhere signal attenuationand direct-cunent (dc) resisturce can becomelimiting factors. Figure l . I 4 rrhowsattenuationcurves [5] for the common gaugesof pairedcable as a function of frequency. An important point to notice in Figure l.14 is that the cable pairs are capableof canying much higher fiequencies than required by a telephonequality 3.4 kHz). voice signal(approximately In the past, the exchangeareasof the telephonenetwork used paired cable almost exclusively fbr short-haul interoffice transmission.Up until the introduction of mul-

(Copyright1977 by Laboratorics. Reprinted by Bell Telephone Figure 1.13 Multipair cable. permission,)

20

BACKGROUND AND TERMINOLOGY

TABLE1.4 WireGauge and Resletance of Common PalredCable Gauge 30 28 26 24 22 20 19 (in.) Diameter 0.010 0.013 0.016 0.020 0.0?5 0.032 0.036 Direct-Current (fy1000 Resistance ft)a 104
oo 41

26 16 10

eNote that the loop resistanceof a pair is twice the resistancof a single wire given in th table.

# g
g
E

18 17 18 15 14 13 12 1l

r0
I I 7 6 5 4 3 2 I 0

t
E

c o tl

1,000 l.lfr Frequercy (Hz)

1,1d

1.100

1.107

Figure 1.14 Attenuation versus frequency of common gaugesof paired cable, (From W. D. Reeve, ,SuDscriDer Loop Signaling Transmission Handbook, IEEE Press, New york, Fig. 7-16a.)

H|FRARCHY 21 1.? THEANALocNETwoHK

with groundretum, Figure 1.15 Single-wire transmission

Figure 1.16 Two-wiretransmission. tiplexing techniques,describedlater in this chapter,eachvoice circuit (trunk) was carpair of wires. Beginning in the early 1960selectronicsbegan to be ried on a separate used for short-haul interoffice transmissionsystemsusing multiplexing techniquesto carry multiple channelson a single pair of wires.

Tw*Wire Versue Four-Wire networkis based through All wire-linetransmission in thetelephone on transmission pairsof wires.As shownin Figure L15, transmission througha singlewire (with a circuit groundreturn)is possible theresulting in thepast.However, andhasbeenused pairsof wiresasshown in FigInstead, balanced is too noisyfor customer acceptance. propagating between as a voltagedifference the two ure 1.16areusedwith signals signalflowing throughthe currentproduced by the difference wires.The electrical currentpropawiresin opposite is calleda "metalliccurrent.'r In contrast, directions gatingin thesame referred to or longituin bothwiresis ascommon-mode direction into a circuit outputunless there dinal current. currents arenot coupled Longitudinal or insignal(noise in thewiresthatconverts some of thelongitudinal is animbalance Thustheuseof a pairof wiresfor each into a difference circuitproterference) signal. Someolder vides much better circuit quality than doessingle-wiretransmission. (unbalanced) transmission switchingsystemrr to minimizethenumusedsingle-wire in smallswitches Unbalanced wherenoise ber of contacts. circuitswereonly feasible couldbe controlled. andcrosstalk networkareimplemented with a sinVirtually all subscriber loopsin thetelephone If users glepairof wires.-Thesinglepairprovides for bothdirections of ffansmission. their conversations are superimon both endsof a connection talk simultaneously, posed on thewire pairandcanbeheard ends. In contrast, attheopposite wireJine(and switching fiber) transmission offices,is bestimpleoverlongerdistances, asbetween are separated wire pairs. mented of transmission onto $eparate if the two directions
*It is no* commonplace to use fiber for the tbeder portion of a subscdber loop, but the drop to a te sidence is a single pair per telephone.

22

BACKGROUND ANDTERMINOLOGY

Longer distance transmissionrequires amplification and most often involves multiplexing. These operationsare implemented most easily if the two directions of ffansmission are isolated from each other. Thus interoffice trunks typically use two pairs of wires or two fibers and are referred to as four-wire $ystems.The use of two pairs of wires did not necessarilyimply the use of twice as much copper as a two-wire circuit. After 1960, four-wire systemsincreasingly used some form of multiplexing to provide multiple channelsin one direction on one wire pair. Thus, a net savingsin copper could result. Sometimesthe bandwidth of a single pair of wires was separated into two subbands that were used for the two directions of travel. These systemswere referred to as derivedfour-wire systems.Hence, the term/aur-wire has evolved to imply separate channelsfor eachdirection of transmission,even when wires may not be involved. For example, fiber optic and radio system$that use separatechannelsfor each direction are also referred to asfour-wire systems. The use of four-wire transmissionhad a direct impact on the switching systemsof the toll network. Since toll network circuits were four-wire, the switches were designed to separately connect both directions of hansmission. Hence, two paths through the switch were neededfor each connection. A two*wire switch, as used in older analog end offices, required only one path through the switch for eachconnection.

Two-Wi ra-to-Fou r-Wlre Conversion pointin a long-distance At some connection it is necessary to convert fromtwo-wire
transmissionof local loops to four-wire transmissionon long-distancetrunks. In the past,the conversionusually occurredat the trunk interface of the (two-wire) end office switch. Newer digital end office switchesare inherently "four-wire," which meansthe two-wire-to-four-wire conversion point is on the subscriber(line) side of the switch as opposedto the trunk side.A generalizedinterconnectionof two-wire and four-wire facilities for a connection is shown in Figure I.17. The basic conversion function is provided by hybrid circuits that couple the two directions of transmissionas shown. Hybrid circuits have been traditionally implemented with specially interconnected transformers.More recently, however, electronic hybrids have been developed.Ideally a hybrid should couple all energy on the incoming branch of the four-wire circuit into the two-wire circuit, and none of the incoming four-wire signal should be transferred to the outgoing four-wire branch.

Hybrid

Hybrid

Figure 1.17 Interconnection of two-wireandfour-wirecircuits.

1.2 THEANALocNETWoRKHTERARoHy eg When the impedance matching network Z exactly matches the impedance of the two-wire circuit, near-perfectisolation of the two four-wire branchescan be realized. Impedancematching usedto be a time-consuming,manual proce$$and was therefore not commonly used. Furthermore, the two-wire circuits were usually switched connections so ttre impedance that had to be matched would change with each connection. For thesereasonsthe impedancesof two-wire lines connectedto hybrids were rarely matched.The effect of an impedancemismatch is to causean echo, the power level of which is related to the degreeof mismatch. The effect of echoeson voice quality and the meansof controlling them is discussedlater in this chapter.

Loadlng Coils of the thatthehigherfrequencies in FigureI .14indicate curves shown Theattenuation (up to 3.4kHz) experience thanthe lower frequenmoreattenuation voicespectrum to distorts thevoicesignalandis referred attenuation cies.This frequency-dependent most$ignificanton long cable Amplitude distortionbecomes asamplitudedistor"tion. pairs,wherethe attenuation differenceis greatest. (3The usualmethodof combating amplitude distonionon intermediateJength inductance into the lines. The extra lS-mile)wire pairsis to insertartificialinductance Figure comes from loadingcoilsthatariinsertedat 30fi)-,4500-,or 6000-ftintervals. loop.Noticethatthe voiceband 1.18shows theeffectof loadingcoils on a 24-gauge is devbut theeffecton higherfrequencies response up to 3 kHz is greatlyimproved, astating. loadingcoils were of wire-lineandfiber carriersystems, Prior to the introduction areainterofficetrunks.Loadingcoils arealsousedon on exchange usedextensively havedisplaced loops.Here,too,carriersystem$ thelonger,typicallyrural,subscriber routes. mostof the singlepairsof wiresbeingusedon long

gto
E E, I

Szo
EI E t 0
e E

Frequency (kllzl

cablepair. tr'lgure1.18 Effectof loadingon 24-gauge

24

BACKGROUND ANDTERMINOLOGY

1.2.5 Pair-GainSystems Providingservice to rural subscribers hasalwaysbeenan expensive proposition because of thelengthof theroutes involvedandthesmallnumber of households to suppott thecostof boththeinitial installation andthemaintenance. In thepast,a cornmon means of reducing the co$t$ wasto usepartylines,whichinvolvedsharing of a wire pair among multiplehouseholds. A partyline is particularly usefulfor satisfying new service requests on routes with no spare pairsbut is obviously objectionable dueto the lackof privacyandthelack of availabilityof theline. A pair-gainsy$tem is an alternateapproach to sharingpairs of wires that is much moreacceptable to theusers. This section describes two basictypesof pair-gain sys--;_ * (remote tems;concentrators swirches) andmultiplexers (carriersystems). Goncentratlon Thefirst form of a pair-gainsystem in FigureL 19depicts a basicline concentration system. Whenviewedftom the stationsetendof the system, proa pair-gainsystem videsconcentration by switching some number of activestations to a smaller number of shared outputlines.At theotherendof thesystem, (expansion) deconcentration occursby switching fromtheshared linesto individualinputsof theswitching officecorresponding to theactivestations. Expanding thetraffic backto theoriginalnumber of stations ensure$ thatthesystem is operationally transparent to boththeswitchandthe user. Noticethata definitionof whichendprovides concentration andwhichendprovidesexpansion is dependent on thepoint of view.
N surrce$

2 3
/l{ chadnels

N $rbchandels

N tource$

Figure 1.19. Pair-gain systems: concentration andmultiplexing:(a) concentration (z > M); (b) multiplexing.

1.2 THE ANALOGNETWOHKHIERARCHY

25

it servconnecting all stations is incapable of simultaneously Sincea concentrator When by concentration. introduced ices,a certainamountof blockingis necessarily amounts of concenffation is low enough, significant theactivityof individualstations stations that For example,40 with acceptable blockingprobabilities. canbe achieved 10lineswithablocking areeachactiveonlyT.SVoofthetimecanbeconcentratedonto sinceanequallyacdegradation in service probability .* Thisis anacceptable of 0.001 tive calledstationis busy75 timesasoften. berequires theffansfer of controlinformation system Noticethata concentration estabWhenoneendof thesystem switchterminals. tweentheconcentrator/expander lines,theotherendmustbe informedto to oneof the shared lishesa newconnectron comection. reverse setup theappropriate Multlplexing of a typicalwire pairis considerably theinherent bandwidth As shown in Figure1.14, voice signal. Thus,multiplexingcanbe usedto greater needed for a single thanthat imin attenuation pair of wires. Theincrease channels on a single carrymultiplevoice and in themultiplexequipment is offsetby amplifiers pliedby thehigherfrequencies lines.The particularmultiplexingtechnique at periodicpoints in the ffansmission form of mul* multiplexsystem. Another frequency division in Figure1.I9b is a shown preferred multisignals, is the of digital voice tiplexing,time divisionmultiplexing later' pair-gain systems discussed plexingapproach for digital thecustomer relationship between As shown in FigureI . l9b, thereis a one-to-one system, Thus, unlike the concentration of the multiplexer. linesandthe subchannels pair-gain system. Also, type of thereis no possibilityof blockingin a multiplexing one-to-one relationsince the same switching information thereis no needto transfer oflinesat oneendandswitching between customer theconespondence shipdefines pair-gain systems is that multiplexing of f,rce linesat theotherend.A majordrawback inactive. In these arerelatively if thesources arehighlyunderutilized thesubchannels justified. multiplexing is normally and a combination of concentfation situations Time Asslgnment Speech lnterpolation (TASI) is a pair-gain that dynamically system interpolation Time assignment speech a channel to a circuit only whenthereis actualvoiceactivity.Thus,a TASI assigns to one of sources N; assigns activesources senses voiceactivityfrom a number sy$tem the far end whereM is typicallyabouthalf aslargeasN; andsignals of M channels, is activefor only participant in a conversation Normally,each abouttheconnections. thatif M = j N,thereissomeamountofsparecapac407o of thetime,whichindicates to talk whenall If a source begins excess activityin onedirection. ity to accommodate clipped until a channel ofthat speech segment channels areutilized,thebeginning Sets the formulations to determine mathematical Chapter12provides becomes available. probabilityof clippingasa functionof N, M, andthe voiceactivityfactor' cable involved improving the utilization of undersea Initial TASI applications complicated warranted theuseof arather of these channels pairs. Theobvious expense
*A discussionof traffic analysis is provided in Chapter 12, from which this result can be obtained.

(') 26

BACKGHOUND ANDTERMINOLOGY

multiplexing technique for thetime.Thesame basictechnique hassincebeen usedin numerous applications with digital speech for satelliteand landline applications. These systems aregenerally calleddigital speech (DSI) systems inrerpolation [6]. 1.2.6 FDM Multlplexingand Modutation The introduction of cablesystems into the transmission plant to increase the circuit packing density of openwire is oneinstance of multiplexing in thetelephone network. Thisform of multiplexing, referred to asspace divisionmultiplexing, involves nothing morethanbundling morethanonepairof wiresinto a singlecable. Thetelephone network uses two otherformsof multiplexing, bothof whichuseelectronics to packmore thanonevoicecircuitinto thebandwidth of a single transmission medium. Analogfrequency divisionmultiplexing(FDM) hasbeenusedextensively in point-to-point microwaveradiosand to a much lesserdegreeon $omeobsolete coaxial cableand wire-line$ystems. FDM is alsoutilizedin fiber optic transmission systems, whereit is referred to aswavelength (wDM).- Digitaltimedivisionmuldivisionmultiplexing tiplexing(TDM) is thedominant form of multiplexing used in thetelephone nerworks worldwide.(Eventhe fiber optic system$ that utilize wDM commonlyusedigital TDM within the signals of a particular wavelength.) Frequency Division Multlplexing As indicated in FigureI.l9b, an FDM system dividesthe available bandwidth of the transmission mediuminto a numberof narower bandsor subchannels. Individual voicesignals areinserted into thesubchannels by amplitude modulating appropriately selected carrierfrequencies. As a compromise between realizingthe largest number of voicechannels in a multiplexsystem andmaintaining acceptable voicefidelity,the telephone companies established 4 kHz asthe standard bandwidth of a voicecircuit.t If both sidebands produced by amplitude modulation areused(asin obsolete NI or N2 carriersystems on pairedcable), thesubchannel bandwidth is 8 kHz, andthecorresponding carrierfrequencies lie in the middle of eachsubchannel. Sincedoublesideband modulationis wastefulof bandwidth,single-sideband (ssB) modulation wasused whenever theextraterminalcosts werejustified.Thecarrierfrequencies for single-sideband systems lie at eithertheupperor loweredge of thecorresponding subchannel, depending on whether theloweror uppersideband is selected. TheA5 channel bankmultiplexer of AT&T usedlower sideband modulation.
r...

FDM Htetrarcny
In order to standardizethe equipment in the various broadbandtransmissionsystems of the original analog network, the Bell system establishedan FDM hierarchy as provided in Table 1.5. ccITT recommendationsspecify the samehierarchy at the lower
*Optical technology is customarily defined in terms of the wavelength of the optical signal as opposed to the corresponding frequency. 'Actually' the usable bandwidth ofan FDM voice channel was closer to 3 kFIz due to suard bandsneeded by the FDM separation filters.

27 1.2 THEANALOGNETWORKHIERARCHY TABLE1.5 FDMHierarchyof the Bell Nstwork Level Multiplex Voice channel Group Supergroup Mastergroup Mastergroup Mux Jumbogroup Mux Jumbogroup Number of Voice Circuits
1

Formation 12voice circuits 5 groups 10 supergroups Various groups 6 master groups 3 jumbo

Frequency Band(kHz) H 60*1 0B 312-552 56rt--3,084 7,548 31?,564-1 56,t-17,548 3,00160,000

12 60 600 1,200-3,600 3,600 10.800

FDM modis implemented usinga setof standard levels.Eachlevel of thehierarchy particular broadband transmission is independent of The multiplex equipment ules. media. Thus,every used SSBmodulation' in theFDM hierarchy All multiplexequipment The lowest level building 4 kHz of bandwidth. approximately voicecircuit required A channel groupconsisting of 12voicechannels. is a channel block in thehierarchy a blockdiagram of 48 kHz. FigureI.20 shows groupmultiplexuses a totalbandwidth for A-typechannel bankused groupmultiplexer, themostcommon of an A5 channel l2 carriersgenerate using 12 $eparate first'level multiplexing.Twelve modulators is thenbandpass filteredto select Eachchannel signals asindicated. double-sideband Thecomposite multiplexsigsignal. of each double-sideband only thelowersideband equipinent in a receivfilter outputs. Demultiplex produced by superposing the nal is processing in reverse order. the same basic ing terminaluses but the uppersideband filter not only removes separation Noticethat a sideband filters These sigrpl: the lower sideband. the bandwidth of the retained alsorestricts networkthat definedthe a basicpoint in the analogtelephone thereforerepresented on all long-haulanalogcircuits, of a voicecircuit. SinceFDM was u$ed bandwidth
lndividualvoice channelinputs I

EL

0 4

l(x

rt-r 112

104 108

FI

l2 Chennel multiplex output

60

Fl-r68

60 64
BdndpEEE fitter$

Figure 1.20 A5 channelbank multiplexer.

28

BACKGROUND AND TERMINOLOGY

long-distance connectionsprovided somewhat less than 4 kHz of bandwidth. (The loading coils discussedpreviously also produce similar bandwidth limitations into a voice circuit.) As indicated in Table 1. 5, the secondlevel of the FDM hierarchy is a 60-channel multiplex refened to as a supergroup.Figure I.2l shows the basic implementation of an LMX group bank that multiplexes five flust-levelchannelgroups.The resulting 60channelmultiplex output is identical to that obtained when the channelsare individually translatedinto 4-kHz bands from 312 to 552 kHz. Direct translation requires 60 separate SSB systemswith 60 distinct cariers. The LMX group bank, however, uses only five SSB systemsplus five lower level modules. Thus two-stage multiplexing, as implied by the LMX group bank, requiresmore total equipmentbut achieveseconomy through the use of common building blocks. (Engineersat AT&T Laboratories also developeda multiplexer that generateda supergroupdirectly [7].) Because a second-level multiplexer packs individual first-level signals together without guard bands,the carier frequenciesand bandpassfilters in the LMX group bank must be maintained with high accurqpy.Higher level multiplexers do not pack the lower level signalsas close together.Notice that a ma$tergroup, for example,does not provide one voice channelfor every 4 kHz of bandwidth. It is not practical to maintain the tight spacingbetweenthe wider bandwidth signalsat higher frequencies.Furthermore, higher level multiplex signals include pilot tone$ to monitor transmission link quality and aid in carder recovery.

',.2.7 Wideband Tranemission Medla

Wire pairs within multipair cableshave usablebandwidths that rangefrom a little under I MHz up to about 4 MHz dependingon the length, the wire gauge,and the type of insulation u$edon the pairs. Multiplexed transmissionson thesewire pairs consequently have capacitiesthat rangefrom ?4 channels(on analogN3 or digital Tl carrier systems)up to 96 channels(on obsoletedigital T2 carrier systems).In contrast,an ana12 Channel group inputB

60

t-]
380 408

n l r

s28

504 552
Bandpeac fltterE

r-1

50* s52

t-]

Figure 1.21 LMX groupbankmultiplexer.

NETWORK HIERARCHY 29 1.2 THEANALOG

Optical wasdeveloped voicechannels. log L5E coaxialcable$ystem to carry 13,200 of 100,000 on voicechannels fiber systems thatcarryin excess havebeendeveloped diodes(LEDs) and Because opticaltransmitters a singlewavelength. flight-emitting modeof operation, areprimarilydigital functionbestin a pulsed fiber systems lasersl in Chapter 8. ThissecDigital fiber optictransmission systems aredescribed in nature. radio systems. microwave coaxialcableandpoint-to-point tion discusses Coaxial Cable of requirements to $atisfy wereusedpredominantly long-haul Coaxialcablesystems wasinstalledin l94l for hansmission The first commercial the toll network. $y$tem Minnesota, Minneapolis, and of 480 voicecircuitsover a 200-milestretchbetween repeater amplifierswere inStevens Points,Wisconsin[7]. To combatattenuation, of l2 voicecircuits the maximumcapacity Considering stalledat 5.5-mileintervals. develof "coax" wasa significant on openwire or cableat thetime,theintroduction increased by (l) wassteadily After thefirst installation coaxial cablecapacity opment. (2) decreasing (0.375in.) to r"educe the disattenuation, cables usinglargerdiameter repeaters, and(3) improvingthenoisefigure,linearity,andbandwidth tancebetween amplifiers. of the repeater is provided used in theBell System coaxial A sumnrary cablesystems of theanalog pair in theevent of tubes as spares 1.6. reserved one Notice that each system in Table high volume each tube canied a particularly consideration since a important of failure, lower lower attenuation, have wider bandwidths, Because optical fibers of traffic. systems are obsolete. and lower cost, coaxial maintenance, Mlcrowave Radlo for terreshialmicrowaveradio systems carnefrom the needto Much of the impetu.s traffic inAs the volumeof long-distance distributetelevisionsignalsnationwide. alsobecame means of diskibutingvoice radiosystems themosteconomical creased, was network.Beginningin 1948,whenthe first system circuitsin the long-distance radio sy$tems installedbetween New York and Boston,the numberof microwave grewto supply607o of the voicecircuitmilesin theU.S.toll networkin 1980[71.It to takeoverfor high-density wasjust a few yearsafterthat that opticalfibersbegan interoffice for thenetworkasa whole. routesandeventually Systeme TABLE 1.6 Coaxlal ln thBellNetwork Cable
per Pairs System Designation Systeme SignalDesignation L1 L3 L4 L5
the

FleDeater per Spacing Capacity (miles) Pair I 4 2 1 600 1,860 3,600 10,800

Total Capacity 1,800 9,300 32,400 108,000

3/6 5/6 0 9/1 10/11

Ma$iergroup Mux Mastergroup Jumbogroup Mux Jumbogroup

numberof pairs are shown a$ working^otal.

30

BACKGROUND ANDTEHMINOLOGY

Microwave radiosystems require line-of-sight nansmission with repeater spacings typically 26 miles apart.The majoradvantage of radio systems is that a continuous right-of-wayis not required-only smallplotsof land spaced 20-30 milesapartfor towers andequipment shelters. A majorcostof guided transmission, for example, wire pairs,coax,or fiber,is theright-of-way costs. In manymetropolitan areas, microwave routes became heavilycongested andcouldnot be expanded with allocated commoncarrierfrequency bands. In these situations, findinga right-of-way for a coaxor eventually an optical fiber systemwas sometime$ the only choice for high-capacity transmission.The frequency bands allocated by the FCC for common-carrier usein the united states arelistedin TableL7. of these bands, 4 and6 GHzhave been themostpopular. The2-GHzbandhasnotbeen used extensively because therelatively narrowallocated channel bandwidths do not permitimplementation of economical numbers of voice circuits.The basicdrawback of the lI-GHz bandis its vulnerabilityto rain attenuation.However,ll-GHz radioshavebeenusedin some applications,, $fiort-haul The microwave radio systems of the analogBelt netwoik arelistedin tabte L8. Noticethateach radiosystem is designed to carryoneof themultiplexhierarchies depreviously. scribed All of these radiosexcepr rheAR-6A usedlow-indexfrequency (FM) of the signalgenerated modulation by the FDM multiplexer equipment. Thus, theFM radios hansmitthessB FDM signalasa baseband signalwith a bandwidth as indicatedin Table 1.5. FM modulation was chosen to permit the use of nonlinear poweramplifiers in thetransmitters andto takeadvantage of FM signal-to-noise ratio perforrnance. Examination of Tables1.7and1.8indicates that 13.3kHz of bandwidth is utilized pervoicecircuitin TD-2 radiosand 14.3kHz in TH-3 radios. Thus.theuseof FM introduced a significant increase in the4 kHz bandwidth of theindividualSSBvoicecircuit. In conrrast, the ssB AR-6A radio introduced in lggl provided6000 voice circuitsin the 30-MHzchannels at 6 GHz. Since a largenumber of voicecircuitsarecarried by each radiochannel, microwave system$ usuallyincludeextraequipment andextrachannels to maintainservice despiteoutages thatmayresultfrom anyof thefollowing: 1. Atmospheric-induced multipathfading 2. Equipment failures 3. Maintenance
On someroutes,the most frequentsourceof outagein a microwave radio systemarises from multipath fading. Figure 1.22depicts a simple model of a multipath environment arising as a result of atmospheric refraction. As indicated, the model involves two ray$: a primary ray and a delayed secondaryray. Ifthe secondaryray anives out of phasewith-respectto the primary ray, the primary signal is effectively canceled.The
*Micruwave bands with wide-bandwidth allocations at high camer frequencies are available for some I ocal distribution services and are discussedin Chapter I l.

1.2 THE ANALOGNETWORKHIERARCHY

31

Allocatedfor TAELE1.7 MlcrowaveFrequenciee Common-Carrler Uss in the UnltedStates Band(MHz) 2110-2130 2160-21 80 3700+200 5925-64?5 1,700 10,700-1
TotalBandwidth ChannelBandwidths (MHz) (MHz)

20 20 500 500 1000

3.5 3.5 20 30 40,20

amount of cancelation is dependent on both the magnitude and the phase of the secondary ray. Quite often only nominal amountsof fading occur and can be accommodated by excess signal power in the transmitter, called a fade margin. In some instances,however, the received signal is effectively reduced to zero, which implies that the channel is temporarily out of service.

Frequency Diverelty
Fortunately,exceptionallydeepfadesnormally affect only one channel(carrier freanda spare transmitter includinga spare quency)at a time. Thus,a backupchannel of and primary channel. Selection traffic of a faded receiver canbe usedto carrythe without a loss of service. performed automatically channel is switchingto the spare This remedyfor multipathfading is referredto asfrequencydiversity.Notice thatfrefailures' backup for equipment quency hardware diversityalsoprovides and 2 10 main channels A fully loadedTD-3 radio systemused 12 channels: 1.Q--by12' or as 2-for-10, This is Lefe-rred to variously for protection. backupchannels protection switchl-for-l systems used switching. Someshort-haul 10X 2 protection bandHowever, since only half of therequired it i$ $implef t-d implement. ingbecause protection were only allowed with l-for-l width is actuallycarryingtraffic, systems environments. in uncongested
TABLE1.8 Bell SystemAnalogMicrowaveFsdios System TD.2 TD-3 TH.1 TH.3 TM.1 TJ TL.1 TL-2 AR-6A Band(GHz)
4 4
o

VoiceCircuits Application 600-1500 1200 1800 2100 600-900 600 240 600-900 6000 Longhaul Long haul haul ShorVlong haul ShorUlong haul ShorUlong Short haul Shorthaul Shorthaul Longhaul(SSB)

6 6
11 11 11

32

BAcKcHoUNDANDTERMtNoLoGy

Figure1.22 Two-ray propagation. model of multipath Except in maintenance protection situations, switching mustbe automatic in order to maintainservice continuity.A typical objectivewasto restore service within 30 msecto minimizenoticeable effectsin the message haffic. A morecritical requirement is to re$tore service before the loss of signal is interpreted by somesignaling ( schemes asa circuit disconnect. Inadvertent disconnects occurif an outage lastsfor morethan 1-2 sec. ( Space Diversity since deepfadesonly occurwhena secondary ray arrivesexactlyout of phase with respect to a primaryray, it is unlikelythat two pathsof differentlengthsexperience fadingsimultaneously. Figure 1.23depicts a technique, calledspace diversity,using differentpathlengths to provideprorecrion against multipathfading.As indicated, a singletransmitter irradiates two receiveantennas separated by somedistance on the tower. Althoughthepathlengthdifferencemay be lessthana meter,this differenceis adequate at microwave frequencies, whichhavewavelengths on theorderof tenths of meters. Rain is anotheratmospherically basedsourceof microwavefading.As already mentioned, rain attenuation is a concemmosflyin higherfrequency radios(l I GHz and above). unfortunatelyneitherfrequency diversity(at the high frequencies) nor space diversityprovides anyprotection against rain fades. Satellitee FollowingtheApril 1965launchof the sovietunion's Molniya domestic communi* cation$ satellite andthefirst international communications satellite, INTELSATI, the useof satellites for international telephone traffic grewphenomenally. The 1g70s and early 1980s alsoproduced significant useof satellites in theUnitedStates for televisionprogram distribution andfor corporate voiceanddatanetworks. Thefirst domes-

== =:: ;: ::: :::::::::::--;h H(-.-=

Figure 1.23 Space diversity.

1,2 THEANALOG NETWOHK HIEHAFCHY

33

Arik A in 1972followedby Westem tic system in North AmericawastheCanadian for U.S.service in 1974[8]. system Union'sWestar with only onerepeater: is a microwave radiosystem In onesense a satellite system 4- and6systems usethe same In fact,somesatellite thetransponder in outerspace. In another sense, however, microwave radios. bands used by tenestrial GHzfrequency opportunities for new services nature of thedownlink offersadditional thebroadcast systems. Distributionof networkteleviterrestrial not available from point-to-point nature of satparticularly suited to thebroadcast is oneapplication sionprogramming homereceivers to receive-only satellite(DBS) transmission etlites.Directbroadcast DVB-T of DBS systems aretheEuropean Two primaryexamples is a primeexample.* (DSS)system developed $ystem systemt9l andthe North Americandigital satellite (HES). Elechonics Systems by Hughes with mobile is communications that is well suitedto satellites Anotherapplication (INMARSAT) besystem, for example, maritimesatellite stations. The international with digital 1982 and was augmented gan $upporring the maritime industry in service in 1989. telephone Skyphone [10] for aeronautical propagation delayof the is theinherent to satellite communications Onedrawback (not includingground this delay path.For a stationary $atellite, long transmission links for bothdireccircuitwith satellite links) is 250msecup anddown.A complete propagation round-trip thana one-half-second impliesgreater tionsof traveltherefore but not prohibiin a voiceconversation arenoticeable time.Delaysof this magnitude somewhat by pairingeach delays canbealleviated of thepropagation tive.Theeffects Thus,therounddirection. circuitin theopposite circuitwith a ground-based satellite link. trip delayinvolvesonly onesatellite has radio,fiber optic transmission point-to-point microwave with As is the case international telephone domestic and for high-density, the useof satellites displaced at thin-routeteleis primarily directed Hencethe useof satellites communications. and broadcast applications. some mobilesy$tems, phoneanddataapplication$, 1.2.8 Tranemissionlmpairments networkis deteran analog telephone aspects of designing Oneof the mostdiff,rcult within the individual subsystems impairments to transmission mininghow to allocate for end-to-end certainobjectives evaluations by listeners, network.Using subjective manner in a relativelystraightforward qualitywereestablished fransmission [11].Afwereesobjectives feasibility,theend-to-end the goalswith economic ter tempering the myriad of equipmenttypes and connection tablished.However,considering theindividualnetworkelements network, designing in theolderanalog combinations problem. A greatdealof creditis in all cases wa$a complex objectives to meetthese analog networkwith thelevel a nationwide for havingcleveloped duetheBell System it had. performance of consistent
*A DBS system is designed to use rcceiver antenflas that are about I rn in diameter. The older home satellite receiver systems that wefe common in the United States used f- to 5-m anteflnasto rcceive (intercept) commercial program distribution.

34

BACKGROUND ANDTERMINOLOGY

The major factors to be consideredin establishing transmissionobjectives for an analog network are signal attenuation,noise, interference,crosstalk, distortion, echoes, singing, and various modulation- and carrier-relatedimperfections.

Signal Attenuatlon
Subjectivelistening testshave shown that the prefened acoustic-to-acoustic loss [12] in a telephoneconnectionshouldbe in the neighborhoodof I dB. A study oflocal telephone connections[l3] demonsftates that the typical local call had only 0.6 dB more loss than ideal. Surveys of the toll network [4] indicated that the averageanalog toll connection had an additional 6.7 dB of loss. This same survey also showed that the standarddeviation of loss in toll connectionswas 4 dB (most of which was attributable to the local loops). Since trunks within the toll network used amplifiers to offset transmissionlosses, it would have been straightfbrward to design thesetrunks with zero-decibelnominal insertion loss. However, as discusrted later, echo and singing considerationsdictated a need for ceftain minimum levels of net loss in most analog trunk circuits.

hterterence
Noise and interferenceare both characterizedas unwanted electrical energy fluctuating in an unpredictable manner. Interference is usually more structured than noise since it arisesas unwanted coupling from just a few signals in the network. If the interf'erence is intelligible, or nearly so, it is referred to as crosstalk.*some of the major sourcesofcrosstalk are coupling betweenwire pairs in a cable,inadequatefiltering or carrier offsets in older FDM equipment, and the effects of nonlinear componentson FDM signals. Crosstalk,particularly if intelligible, is one of the most disturbing and undesirable imperfections that can occur in a telephonenetwork. Crosstalk in analog systemsis particularly difficult to control sincevoice signal power levels vary considerably(i.e., acro$sa dynamic range of40 dB). The absolutelevel ofcrosstalk energy from a highlevel signalmustbe small compared to a desiredlowJevel signal.In fact,crosstalk is most noticeable during speech pauses, when the power level ofthe desiredsignalis zero. Two basic forms of crosstalkof concernto telecommunicationsengineersare nearend crosstalk(NEXT) andlitr-end crosstalfr(FEXT). Near-endcrosstalkrefersto coupling from a transmitter into a receiver at a common location. often this form of crosstalk is most troublesomebecauseof a large difference in power levels between the ffansmitted and received signals. Far-end crosstalk refers to unwanted coupling into a received signal from a transmitter at a dirrtantlocation. Both forms of crosstalk are illustrated in Figure 1.24.

Nolse
The most common form of noise iuralyzedin communicationssystemsis white noise with a caussian (normal) di$tribution of amplitude values. This type of noise is both
-Crosstalk is also used to characterizesignallike interferencesin nonvoice networks. For cxample, crosstalk in a data circuit would refcr to an interfering signal being coupled in from another similar data circuit.

NETWOFK HIEHAHCHY I.2 THEANALOG

35

crosstalk, andfar-end Flgure I.24 Near-end easy to analyze and easy to find since it arisesas thermal noise in all electrical components.Battery systemsused to power customerloops are also a sourceof this type of noise. White noise is truly random in the sensethat a sample at any in$tflntin time is completely unconelated to a sample taken at any other instant in time. The other most cornmon forms of noise in the telephonenetwork are impulse noise and quantization noise in digital voice terminals (Chapter 3). Impulse noise can occur from switching transientsin older electromechanicalswitching offices or ftom rotary dial telephones.Step-by-stepswitcheswere the most frequent culprits. More modern elecreed relays for crosspointsprotromechanical switches that use glass-encapsulated duce much less noise. Whereaswhite noise is usually quantified in terms of average power, impulse noise is usually measuredin tems of so many impulses per second. Impulse noise is usually of less concernto voice quality than backgroundwhite noise. However, impulse noise tendsto be the greatestconcernin a datacommunicationscircuit. is easily measured The power level of any disturbing signal, noise or interf'erence, (rms) voltmeter. However, disturbancesat some frequencies with a root-mean-square within the passbandof a voice signal are subjectively more annoying than others. of noise or interferencepower in a speechnetwork Thus. more useful measurements of the noise as well as the power level. The two subjective effects take into accountthe weighting curve and use a C-message in telephony morttcornmon such measurements curves essentially Figure 1.25. These as shown in a psophometric weighting curve, noise according to its annoyspectrum of representfilters that weight the frequency the 500-type the response of represent$ weighting anceeff'ectto a listener. C-message the noise that gets quality is concerned, only telephoneset. As f'ar as perceived voice I and 2 kHz between passed by the telephonesetis imporlant. Notice that disturbances while America are most. perceptible. C-message weighting is used in North psophometricweighting is the European (ITU-T) standard. A standardnoise referenceusedby telephoneengineersis I pW, which is l0-12 W, or -90 dBm (dBm is power in decibelsrelative to a milliwatt). Noise measuredrelative to this reference is expressedas so many decibels above the reference (dBrn). W of power' If the Thus, a noise level of 30 dBrn correspondsto -60 dBm, or 10=e by the abweighting, the power level is expressed readingsare made using C-message breviation dBrnC. Similarly, psophometrically weighted picowatts are expressedby

36

BACKGROUND ANDTEBMINOLOGY

c !

-10

tl fl
d

CE

-20

250

500

1000

zilro

40(n

(Hz) Frequency Figure 1.25 C-messageand psophometic weighting.

the abbreviation pWp. The relationshipsbetween various noise power measurements are given in Table L9. The quality of an analog voice circuit is usually not specified in terms of the classical signal-to-noiseratio. The reasonis that relatively low levels of noise or interference are noticeable during pau$e$in speech,when there is no signal. on the other hand, high levels of noise can occur during speechand be unnoticeable.Thus, absolute levels of noise are more relevant than signal-to-noiseratios for speciffing voice quality.- The objectives for maximum noise levels in the analog AT&T network were 2g dBrnC for connectionsup to 60 miles in length and 34 dBrnC for 1000-mile circuits.t

Die|p.rtlon In a previous section signal attenuations were considered with thetacitassumption

that a received waveform was identical in shape to a source waveform but merely scaleddown in amplitude. Actually, a received waveform generally contains certain distortions not attributable to external disturbancessuch as noise and interferencebut that can be attributed to internal characteristics of the channel itself. In contrast to noise and interference,distortion is deterministic; it is repeatedevery time the same signal is sentthrough the samepath in the network. Thus distortions can be controlled or compensated for once the nature of the distortion is understood. There are many different type$ and sources of distortion within the telephone network. The telephonecompaniesminimized thosetypesof distortion that most affected the subjectivequality of speech.Later on they also becameconcemedwith distortion effects on data transmission. Some distortions arise from nonlinearities in the network, such as carbon microphones, saturating voice-frequency amplifiers, and unis a "orn rron pracrice in the industry to specify the quality of a voice circuit in terms of a test-tone-to-noise ratio. However, the test tone must be at a specific power level so the ratio, in fact, absolutenoise power. *specifies 'These noise power values iue related to a particular point in a circuit, called ^ zero-transmission-Ievel paizt, discussedlater, *It

1.2 THE ANALOGNETWOHKHIERARCHY

37

between VariousNoise TABLE1.9 Relatlonships Measurement8 To Convert From dBm dBm dBm dBrn dBc pW 3 kHzllat 3 kHzflat 3 kHz flat 3 kHzflat To dBrn dBrnC dBp dBrnC dBp pwp Add90 dB AddBBdB Add87.5dB 2 dB Subtract Subtract 0.5dB Multiply by 0.562

(Chapter 3). Otherdistottionsarelinearin natureandareusually matched compandors in the frequencydomainaseither amplitudedistortionor phasedistorcharacterized tion. in thevoicespectrum somefrequencies refersto attenuating Amplitudedistortion of eliminatonemeans earlierrepresent coilsdiscussed TheIoading morethanothers. wire pairs.Amplitudedistortion ing amplitudedistoltionon long voice-frequency Ideallythese filtersin FDM equipment. by spectrum-limiting couldalsobeintroduced up to 4 kHz andrejectall othfrequencies all voiceband uniformlypass filters should "roll-offs" beattenuation imply theneedfor gradual designs, however, ers.Practical respon$e theattenuation-versus-frequency ginningat about3 kHz. Figure1.26shows of thepast. toll connection of a typicalanalog medium' of thetransmission is related to thedelaycharacteristics Phase distortion in a signalunicomponents shoulddelayall frequency sy$tem Ideallya transmission

c
E

a 3
c

* E

FreguencylkHzf

frequency oftypical toll connection. lossversus Figure 1.26 Insertion

38

BAcKcRoUNDANDTERMtNoLoGy

formly so the proper phaserelationshipsexist at the receiving terminal. If individuat frequency component$experiencediffering delays,the time-domain representation at the output becomesdistorted becausesuperpositionof the frequency terms is altered at the output. For reasonsnot discussed herethe delay of an individual frequencycomponent is usually referredto as its envelopedelay. For a good explanationofenvelope delay seereference[5]. Uniform envelopedelay relatesto a phasere$ponse ttrat is directly proportional to frequency. Thus systemswith uniform envelope delay are also referred to as linear phasesystems.Any deviation from a linear phasecharacteristicis referred to as phase distortion. The perceptualeffects ofphase distortion to a voice signal are small. Thus only minimal attention need be given to the phaserespon$eof a voice network. The phaserespon$eand correspondingenvelope delay providecl by a typical analog toll connection is shown in Figure 1.27. In addition to the distortionsjust mentioned, analog carrier systemssometimesintroduced other frequency-relateddistortions such as frequency offsets, jitter, phase hits, and signal dropouts.The effects ofthese imperfections and phasedistortion were adequately controlled for voice traffic but presented difficulties for high-rate voiceband data traffic.

Echoee and Slnging Echoes andsingingbothoccurasa resultof transmitted signals beingcoupled into a returnpathandfedbackto therespective sources. Themostcommon cause of thecoupling is an impedance mismatch at a four-wire-to-two-wire hybrid.As shownin Figure 1.28, mismatches cause signals in theincoming branch of a four-wirecircuitto get coupledinto the outgoingbranchand retum to the source.In the older networkwith two-wireanalogendoffice switches, it wasimpractical to providegoodimpedance matches at thispointfor all possible connections sincethetwo-wiresideof thehvbrid

(kHrl Frquency Figure 1.27 Envelope delay and phaseresponseof typical toll connection.

HIERARCHY 39 NETWOFK 1.2 THEANALOG

interface. at two-wire-to-four-wire of echos Figure 1.28 Generation could be connectedto many different local loops, eachwith its own characteristicimpedance. "talker echo." [f a second If only one reflection occurs,the situation is refened to as "listener echo" results.When the returning signal is repeatedlycoureflection occurs. pled back into the tbrward path to produce oscillations, singing occurs' Basically, singing resultsifthe loop gain at somefrequency is greaterthan unity' Ifthe loop gain is only slightly less than unity, a near-singing condition causesdamped oscillations. Singing and near-singingconditions have a disturbing effect on both the talker and the listener. Talker echo is usually the most noticeable and ffoublesome. experiencedby a talker is dependenton both the The degree of echo annoyiunce ' On short magnitudeof the returning signal and the amount of delay involved U 6' 171 connections the delay is small enough that the echo merely appears to the talker as natural coupling into his ear. In fact, a telephoneis purposely designedto couple some speech energy (called sidetone) into the earpiece. Otherwise, the telephone seems echoesmerely add to the sidetoneand go unnodead to a talker. Near-instantaneous to increasingly however, it becomesnecessary increases, delay As the roundtrip ticed. cirHence, long-distance to a talker' annoyance eliminate the echoes to attenuatethe an echo Fortunately, annoyance' minimize echo to attenuation cuits require significant twice as much attenuationas doesthe forward-propagatingsignal sinceit experiences traversestwice the distance.Intermediate-lengthconnections are typically designed with 2-6 dB of path attenuationdependingon the delay. All transmissionlinks within the Bell System were designedwith specific amounts of net loss called via net loss (VNL) that dependedon the length of the link and the position in the hierarchy [17]. In general,the VNL network design establishedend-to-endattenuationin proportion to the length of the circuit Connectionsthat producemore than 45 msecof roundtrip delay (representing1800 miles of wire) require more attenuation for echo control than can be tolerated in the forward path. In thesecasesone of two types of deviceswas used to control the echo: or an echo canceller. an echo suppressor As shown in Figure 1.29, an echo suppressoroperateson four-wire circuits by measuringthe speechpower in each leg and inserting a large amount of loss (35 dB typically) in the oppositeleg when the power level exceedsa threshold.Thus, a returning echo is essentially blocked by the high level of attenuation.Notice that an echo convertsa full-duplex circuit into a half-duplex circuit with energy sensing riuppressor being the meansof turning the Iine around. for voice circuits,was that they might clip beOne drawback of echo suPPressors If a party at one end of a connectionbegins talksegments. portions ginning of speech

40

BACKGROUND ANDTEBMINOLOGY

Figure 1.29 Echosuppressor. ing at the tail end of the other parfy's speech,the echo suppres$or does not have time to reversedirections. Echo suppressors with good performanceare able to reversedirections in 2-5 msec [16]. For the fastest possible releaseof backward attenuation, split-echo suppressors are necessary. A split-echo suppressor is one that separates the echo control of each direction so the loss insertion of each direction is closest to the point of echo occurrence. A second,and much preferred,form of echo contror is echo cancellation [lg, I ga]. As shown in Figure 1.30, an echo canceller operatesby simulating the echo path to subtract a properly delayed and attenuated copy of a transmined signal from the receive signal to remove (cancel) echo components.Thus echo cancellation requires training to determine how much delay and attenuation are neededto simulate the echo characteristicsof the circuit. Notice in Figure 1.30 that echoesare canceledclose to the source so that delays in the echo canceller are minimized. The important feature of an echo cancelleris that it maintains a full-duplex circuit so clipping doesnot occur. Satellite circuits with greaterthan 500 msec of roundtrip delay required echo cancellers for acceptableperformance.Becausethe cost of digital signal processing(DSp) technology has dropped so dramatically, echo cancellersare now usedin any situation requiring echo control. Full-duplex voiceband modems (v.32 and rater) incorporate echo cancellers directly in their receive circuitry. Thus, network-basedecho cancellers are unnecessary*-and sometimes undesirablebecausetandem echo cancelling may not work properly if two echo cancellers do not cooperatein the haining process. Networkbasedecho cancellerscan therefore be disabled by a modulated 2lfi)-Hz tone (echo suppressor$ were also disabled with a 2100-Hz tone) transmitted at the start of a connection[19]. Another method of echo control involves impedancematching of the hybrids to reduce the magnitude of the echo. some electronic hybrids provide dynamic balancing to automatically eliminate or reduceechoes.In fact, a coflrmon way of implementing the impedancematching is to build an echo cancellerwith near-zerodelay. Thesecircuits eliminate, or greatly reduce,echoesoccurring at the associated hybrid but do not eliminate echoesthat may occur elsewherein the network. For a detailed discussion
"If ttre terminal (e.g., modem) echo canceller has insufhcient delay buffering for very long echoes, the network echo canceller at the far end of a corurection may be necessary.

-Tl I L F 1

1.2 THE ANALOGNETWORKHIEFARCHY

41

Figure 1.30 Echocanceller' of all types of echo control, seereference[20]. In general,the proceduresusedto control echoesalso control singing. On some fairly short connections,however, no echo and singing may becomea problem' conffol is necessary,

1.2.9 PowerLevels
voice signal power in a long-distanceconnection As indicated in previous paragraphs, needsto be rigidly controlled. The tlelivereclsignal power must be high enough to be clearly perceivedbut, at the sametime, not be so strong that circuit instabilities such as echo and singing result' To maintain rigid control on the end-to-endpower level of a circuit involving a variety of transmissionsy$tems,telephonecompaniesnecessarilycontrolled the net attenuation and amplification of each analog transmissionsystem.These systemswere designedfor a certain amount of net loss (VFil-) as describedpreviously. To administer the net loss of transmissionlinks, the fransmissionlevels of various points in a transmissionsyrttemare specifiedin terms of a referencepoint- ITU-T recommendations call this point the zero-relative-level point and the North American point (0-TLP). The referencepoint may not exist as term is a zero-transmission-level been consideredto be at the sendingend terminal of point but has long an accessible sendingend of a four-wire switch is defined America the In North a two-wire switch. *z-dB TLP is only a hypothetical point on a four*wire cira 0-dB TLP. Hence, to be a the signal level at one point in the circuit to cuit. Nevertheless,it is useful in relating the signal level at anotherpoint in the circuit. If a O-dBm (l-mW) test tone is applied at a O-TLP, the power level at any other directly (in decibels referred to I mW) as the TLP point in the circuit is <letermined however, that TLP values do not specify value at that point. It should be emphasized, power levels; they specify only the gain or loss at a point relative to the referencepoint. Signal power levels or noi$e power levels are not normally expressedin terms of in tetms of their value at the 0local measuredvalues.Instead,powers are expressed pw (20 dBrn or -70 dBm) is 100 power of noise if an absolute TLP. For example, "0" indicates that the measuredat a -6-dB TLP, it is expressedas 26 dBrnQ. (The specification is relative to the O-TLP.) If noise power is measuredwith C-message weighting, it is designatedas so many dBmC0. Similarly, psophometric weighted

42

BACKGRoUNDANDTERMINOLoGY

-zdB TLP

_l3dB TLP Figure1.31 TLp values for Example l.l.

_4d8 TLP

noise is commonly expressed in units of picowattspsophometrically weighted (dBm0por pWpO). Example1.1. using Figure1.31for reference, determine each of thefollowing:(a) the signalpowerto be appliedat point B ro determine if pointsA and c are at the properlevels;(b) the amountof gain (loss)a signalexperiences whenpropagating from A to c; and(c) theamount of noisethatwouldbe measured at c if zj dbrnc of absolute noiseis measured at B andno additionat noiseoccurs on theB-to-c link. solution. (a) Because pointB is a -l3dB TLp, theproper testtonelevelis -13 dBm (0.05mw). (b) Because theTLP values dropby 2 dBm,thereis 2 dB netlossfrom A to c. (c) An absolute measuremenr of 27 dBmc at B is 40 dBmc0. This is also40 dBmc0 at C. Theabsolute powermeasured noise atC wouldbe40 - 4 =36dBmC. To put signalandnoisepowers in perspective, a survey of voicesignals in theBell system[21] indicated rheaverage speech signalhas-16 dBm0of power.hr comparison,the noisepowerobjectivefor a 1000-mile analogcircuit was 34 dBrnc0 (-56 dBmCO). Thus,thenoiseis 40 dB belowthe signalpower. 1.2.10 $ignallng The signalingfunctionsof a telephone networkrefer to the means for transferring network-related controlinformation between thevariousterminals, switching noaes, andusers of the network.Therearetwo basicaspects of any signaling system: specially encoded electrical (signals) waveforms andhow these waveforms should beinterpreted. Themostcommon controlsignals to a useraredial tone,ringback, andbusy tone.These signals arerefered to ascall progres$ tonesandmay neverchange. The signaling procedures usedinternallyto the networkarenot constrained by userconventionandwereoftenchanged to suit particular characteristics of transmission and switchingsystems. As a result,the analognetworkuseda wide varietyof signaling schemes to transfer controlinformation between switching offices. Signallng Functlone signalingfunctions canbe broadlycategorized asbelonging to oneof two rype$: supervisory or information bearing. Supervisory signals conveystatu$ or conffolofnetwork elements. Themostobviousexamples arereque$t (off-hook),ready for service

43 NETWORKHIERARCHY 1.2 THEANALOG to receive address(dial tone), call alerting (ringing), call termination (on-hook), request for an operator or feature invocation (hook flash), called party ringing (ringback), and network or called party busy tones. Information bearing signals include calling party address,and toll charges.In addition to call-related called pafiy address, signaling functions, switching nodescommunicatebetween themselvesand network control centersto provide certain functions relatedto network management'Networkrelated signals may convey statussuch as maintenancetest signals, all trunks, busy, or equipmentfailures or they may contain information relatedto routing and flow confor someof the basic considerationsof network management trol. Chapter7 discusses routing and flow control.

or signaling in-channel with oneof two basictechniques: aretran;mitted Signals "per-trunk (sometimes to as referred signaling In-channel signaling. common-channel asfor voice' for signaling facilitiesor channel transmission uses the same signaling") for all uses onechannel in thenextsection, asdiscussed signaling, Common-channel systems signaling past most In the voice channels. group of of a functions signaling variety. networkwerethein-channel in thetelephone into in-bandand out-ofbe further subdivided can systems signaling In-channel band in thesame information signaling the systems transmit In-band bandtechniques. is signaling in-band of The main advantage signal. usedby the voice of frequencies from a arises disadvantage The main medium. thatit canbe usedon anytransmission a user's and waveforms the signaling between mutualinterference needto eliminate (SF) wassingle-frequency of in-bandsignaling example The mostprevalent speech. Altrunks' for interoffice toneasanon-hooksignal whichuseda 2600-Hz signaling, disconnects inadvertent a pure26ff)-Hzsignal, rarelyproduces though normalspeech of examples Two othercommon signals. asa resultof user-generated haveoccurred (DTMF) from signals multifrequency by dual-tone areaddressing in-bandsignaling offices' switching (MF) signaling between or multifrequency push-button telephones channel voice as the facilities the same signaling uses but out-of-band ln-channel a represents signaling band'Thusout-of-band but a differentportionofthe frequency out-of-band of instance coilmon The most voice circuit. a single form of FDM within loops.With thisform of signaling, asusedon mostcustomer is dc signaling signaling in the by theflow ofdirect current condition off-hook the officerecognizes thecentral at a rotary dial generated by a pulses are dial usedloop signals line. Othercommonly office' All central from the voltage per second anda 20-Hzringing rateof 10 pulses there is no Thus generated in speech' thanthose uselowerfrequencies of these signals out-of-band of Themajordisadvantage for theother. possibilityofonebeingmistaken SSBcarriersysFor example, system' on thetransmission is its dependence signaling Thus,the with eachvoicechannel. associated temsfiher out the verylow frequencies for FDM like SF signaling to something signalmustbe converted on-hooVoff-hook the above with frequencies is alsoimplemented signaling Out-of-band transmission. channel' of a limit the 4-kHz but below filters separation of voice cut-off frequency theuseof 3825Hz for this purpose. CCITT recommends

In-Ghannel Slgnaling

44

BACKGEoUNDANDTERMINoLoGY

link between the stored-programcontrol elements(computers)of switching systems. Figure 1.32depicts sucha datalink betweentwo switching offices. Notice that the pertrunk signaling equipment associatedwith the trunks has been eliminated. The data link sendsmessage$ that identify specific trunks and eventsrelated to the trunks. Thus the type of ccs shown in Figure I.32 is refened to as "channel-associated" commonchannel signaling. The main advantages of CCS arel 1. only one set of signaling facilities is neededfor each associatedtrunk group insteadof separate facilities for each individual circuit. 2. A single dedicated confrol channel allows transfer of information such as addressdigits directly between the control elements (computers) of switching offices. In-channel system$, on the other hand, must have the control information switched from the common control equipment of the originating office onto the outgoing channel, and then the receiving office must switch the incoming control information from the voice channel into its common control equipment' The simpler procedurefor transferringinformation directly between switch processorsis one of the main motivations for CCS. 3. since separatechannels are used for voice and control, there is no chance of mutual interference. 4. Since the control channelof a common-channelsystemis inaccessibleto users, a major meansfor fraudulent use of the network is eliminated. 5. connections involving multiple switching offices can be set up more rapidly since forwarding of control information from one office can overlap a circuit set up through the node. With in-channel systemsthe associated circuit must first be establishedbefore the control information can be transferredacrossit. The ccs data link can al$o operateat a much higher data rate than common analog network signaling schemes,implying even faster connection setup. 6. The channel used for ccs does not have to be associatedwith any particular trunk group. In fact, the control information can be routed to a centralieed conhol facility where requestsare processedand from which switching offices
PerChanrrel Signeling

Common-Channel Signaltng Instead of sending signaling information overthesame facilities thatcarry themessage haffic(voice signals), common-channel (ccs) uses signaling a dedicated data

Flgure 1.32 Trunk-group-associated common-channel signaling.

45 HIERAHCHY NETWORK 1.2 THE ANALOG receive their connection control information. Figure 1.33 depicts a CCS network that is disassociated from the mes$age network structure. One with knowledge ofcentralized control is its ability to processrequests advantage of networkwide traffic conditions. Centralized control is also atffactive for . managing multiple switching offices that are too small to warrant call processingfacilities of their own. The transition from in-channel signaling to CCS at the network level is analogousto the lower level transition disassociated from direct progressive control switches ($tep-by-step) to common control switches. of CCS are: The major disadvantages 1. Control information pertaining to an establishedcircuit, such as a disconnect, must be relayed from one node to the next in a store-and-forwardfashion' An in-channel disconnect signal, on the other hand, automatically propagates through the network, enabling all nodes involved in the connection to facilities. simultaneouslyprocessthe disconnectand releasethe associated 2. If one node in a common-channel system fails to relay the disconnect information properly, facilities downstream from the disconnect will not be released. Thus, a high degree of reliability is required for the common channel-both in term$ of physical facilities (duplication) and in terms of error control for the data link. 3. Since the control information ftaver$esa separatepath from the voice signal, there is no automatic test of the voice circuit as when the voice channel is used to transfer control information. Initial usageof CCS sy$temsincluded special provisions for testing a voice circuit when it was set up' 4. In some instancesall trunks in a group do not logically terminate at the same switch. Figure 1.34 depicts a multiplexed transmissionlink from a PBX to the

gNetwork

_-t

control c6nter

/'

r/ Control circult

Figure 1.33 Dissociatedcommon-channel signaling network'

46

BAcKcRoUNDANDTERMtNoLocy

(D Channel)

ccs

DigitEl Cros*Connect Systom

*""S9#
Local Serving Office

Tie Line FBX PBX

Figure 1.34 TDM Iink with multiple destinationsfor the channels.

public network.As indicated, someof the channels compose a trunk groupto the local CO but otherchannels may represent tie lines to otherPBXs or foreign exchange circuitsro othercos. The digital cross-connect system(DCs) is a specialized switchingsystem(described in Chapter5) that routesindividual circuitswithin a trunk groupto individuallocations. If CCSis implemented on thetrunkgroup(asin anISDN primaryrateinterface, described in chapterl1), the signaling information for the laffertwo trunk groups terminates at the co. The CO must then forward the informationto the respective destinations (assuming those destinations areequipped with CCS).All-in-all rhese lanertwo cases areeasier to handle if thesignaling information accompanies themessage channels asit doesautomatically with in-channel signaling. As a final note,it shouldbe pointedout thatsomesignaling functions originating or terminating with an end userinherently requirein-channel implementations. For example, dataterminals wishingto disable echosuppressors or echocancellers in dialup connections need to send special tones thatgetrecognized by echocontrolelements in the circuit. In similarfashionautomatic originatingfacsimileequipment generate I 100-Hz tones to allowautomatic recognition of theoriginating equipment typeat the destination.

1.2.11 Analog Intedaces The design, implementation, andmaintenance of any largeandcomplexsystem requirepaditioningof the system into subsystems. Associated with eachsubsystem is an interfacethat definesthe inputs and ouSuts independent of internal implementations'Well-established interfaces area fundamental requirement to maintain compatibility between old and new equipment.within the u.s. telephonenetwork

HIERAR0HY47 NETWoRK 1.2 rHEANALoc standardized interfaces are particularly necertsaryto support competition among equipment suppliers and service providers in almost all facets of the network' The ptiniiput analog interfaces used in the periphery of the network are subscriber loops, ioop-start trunks, ground-starttrunks, direct-inward-dial trunks, and E&M trunks.

$ubscriher LooP lntartace of indiconnection thetwo-wire involves in thenetwork interface common Themost Because loopintedace. thesubscriber linesto endofficeswitches: vidual telephone
(2500stationsets)andthe electrometelephones of the natureof industrystandard hasa number thisinterface to whichtheywereoriginallyconnected, chanical switches circuittechnology. integrated with modem thataredifficult to satisfy of characteristics of this interfaceare; characteristics The fundamental l. Battery:Applicationof dc power to the loop (48 V normally)to enabledc microphones' for carbon andprovidebiascurrent signaling from lightning andpersonnel of equipment Protection Protection: 2. Overvoltage strikes andpowerline inductionor shorts. 3. Ringing:Applicationofa20-HzsignalatS6Vrmsforringerexcitation.Typical is 2 secon and4 secoff. cadence by flow/no-flowof dc current' of off-hoolq/on-hook Detection 4. Supervision: or back to thelineto testin eitherdirection-toward thesubscriber 5. Test:Access into the switch. required; twoarenecessarily In the caseof a digital endoffice,two morefunctions (and digital-tocoding (hybrtil and analog-to-digital conversion wire-to-four-wire to asBORSCHT'The arereferred functions these Takentogether, decoding). analog in the contextof digital is described of a BORSCHTinterface basicimplementation 5. in Chapter switching LooP-Start Trunks (usuallybetween switches between (LS) h'unkis a two-wireconnection A loop-start an LS trunkis identical point of view, officeanda PBX).Fromanoperational a central by closing telephone a in a PBX emulates loop.Thusan LS interface to a subscriber for involtages ringing andby detecting the loop to drawcurrentfor call origination for a few generally waits thePBX interface information, address To send comingcatls. generor tones DTMF beforesending thata dial toneis present seconds andassumes PBXsprovidedial tonedetection loop cunent)tsome by interrupting atingdial pulses canbe andaddressing recognized aremordAasily or connections sofaulty equipment sentassoonasthe otherendis ready. | 1 of theline whenbothends difficulty with two-#ayLS trunksarises Onesignificant of theline ends both time)'Because time (or nearlythesame seize theline at thesame is commonly hung.This situation think they areoriginatinga call, the line becomes digits,it will recog* a dial tonebeforesending referred io asglare.Ifthe PBX detects nize the glareconditionby timing out on the wait for dial tone andcanthengenerate

48

BAcKGRoUNDANDTERMtNoLocy

a disconnect to releasethe glare condition but drop the incoming call. More commonly, the PBX blindly sendsthe addressdigits and connectsthe originating pBX station to the line. Generally, this meansthe incoming call gets connectedto the wrong station. For this reason,LS trunks are normally used only as one-way trunks: either one-way incoming or one-way outgoing.

Ground-StartTrunks
The aforementionedproblem with glare on two-way LS trunks can be largely resolved by augmenting the call origination proces$to use ground-start(GS) procedures [22]. When originating a call, the end office applies a ground potential to the tip lead of the tip and ring pair and waits for the pBX to acknowledgethe seizure by drawing loop current. when the PBX originates a call, it first applies ground to the ring teao ana closesthe loop waiting for loop current. (The co doesnot apply battery during an idle stateas it does in ar Ls interface.) The co acknowledgesthe connect r.quest by upplying battery to the tip/ring pair and momentarily applying ground to the tip. (Mai;taining low-noise circuits requiresremoval of all pathsto ground during the connected $tate.) A GS protocol prevents simultaneousseizuresunless the originations occur within a few hundred milliseconds of each other. In contrast, an LS protocol allows multiple seizuresto occur with windows up to 4 sec (the silent interval betweenring bursts).Moreover, a glare condition on GS trunks can be recognizedby the interface equipment so it can be resolved by redirecting the calls to different trunk circuits. Another advantageof GS trunks is the ability of the CO to signal network disconnectsto the PBX (the co remove$battery). witir I-s trunks the network doesnor generally provide disconnectsignaling so the pBX must rely on the end user to hang up. (A situation that often produces hung trunks with data connections.) Furthermore. when the co placesan incoming call that eventually gets abandoned, becauseno one answers,a co immediately signals the abandonmentby removing ground from the tip lead. with LS trunks, abandonecl calls can be recognized only by the absenceof ring voltage, which can take 6 sec.

incoming callssoa PBX canimmediately routethecall to a destination withoutgoing throughan attendant. In contrast to LS andCS trunks,the pBX endof a DID trunk provides batteryvoltagesothe co cansignalanincomingcall by merelyclosingthe loop to draw current. After the PBX reverse$ batterymomentarily (winks)to signify it is readyto receive digits,theco eithergenerates dial pulses or DTMF tones to send theextension number (two,three, or four digits).Ai'terthedesignated station answer$, thePBX reverses batteryagainto signifythe connected stateandhotdsthat statefor theduration ofthe call.DID trunksarealsoreferred to as..loopreverse-battery $upervision" trunkswith variations in the signaling protocoldepending on the typeof co

Di rect4nward-Dial Trunke Direct-inward-dial (DID)trunks areparticularly simple two-wire trunkinterfaces because theyarealways one-way trunts:incoming onlywithrespect to a pBX.As impliedby thename, theyallowa serving co to forward theextension number of

122t.

HIERARGHY 49 1.2 THEANALocNETwoRK

to a transmission asanintetface anE&M trunkis defrned in Figure1.35, As indicated 1.35hasa fourin Figure The interface itself. system not a kansmission and sy$tem (SG), M leadwith an and an renrm lead an associated path, E lead with an wire voice (referred to asa type in this interface wires (SB). are eight Thus there return associaled few as four with as are defined interfaces of E&M types II E&M interface).Other ground returns). earth M lead with and an path, an E lead, (a voice two-wire wires[23] on theE is alwaysconveyed signaling supervision In anytype of E&M interface, by closing off-hook signifies pairs). (or The PBX pair voice not on the and andM leads off-hook indicates equipment the transmission while to draw current the M-SB loop conveys equipment How thetransmission by closingtheE-SGloop to drawcurrent. protocols are timing A variety of link. transmission of the is a function thesupervision or dial DTMF tones in-channel can be which signaling, of addless for the$tart defined E andM leads' on therespective opens generated by momentary pulses just as an interface,they are often defined is formally signaling Althbugh E&M of between PBXs.Because connections pairs wires) as direct (withup of to four used are PBXs the occur when usually pairs, such applications for multiple therequirement conTheavailabilityof extemal complex. located within a singlebuildingor campus paging sysas such applications for special interfaces of allowstheuse E&M trol leads loudspeaker' on the used to tum lead can be tems.wheretheM 1.2.12 The IntelligentNetwork in thetoll netfacilitiesof AT&T wereinstalled signaling channel Thefirst common a No. 4 ESs and wiSCOnsin, switchin Madison, a No. 4A crossbar work between sPc between data links ccs switchin chicago,Illinois, in 1976[24].The2400-bps and costs to reduce facilities SFA4Fsignaling in-channel switchingofficesreplaced toll of the more more and times. As connect speed up long-distance-call significantly not that network evolved a CCS with CCScapabilities, wereimplemented switches platform a also established network but of theexisting only improvedtheperformance theCCSnetworkbein Figure1.36, As indicated of newfeatures. for theintroduction

E&MTrunks

Figure 1.35 TyPelI E&M interface.

50

BAcKcRouNoANDTERMtNoLocy

Figure 1.36 CCSnetworMntelligent networkplatform. came a disassociated packet-switching network that separated control of the network from the swirching machinesthemselves. The packet-switching nodes of the CCS network are referred to as signal transfer points (srPs). The network control points (NCps) of Figure 1.36 initially represented network database serversthat defined how to route calls, verify credit cards,or process specialservicessuch as 800 numbers.The samebasic structureis also installed within the LATAs to extend ccs featuresall the way to the end offices. The original communicationsprotocol used betweenccs entities was ccITT signaling system No. 6 (ccs6). In the early 1980sthis protocol was replaced by ccITT signaling system No. 7 (SS7). Seereference[25] for a good overview of SS7. As the capabilitiesof the NCps are expandedfrom being databaseserversro processingservicerequests,the concept of an intelligent network (IN) 126l begins to take shape.In its ultimate form advancedservicesof the network are executedin the NCps. or service control points (sCPs), as they are called in the IN, and not in the switching machinesthemselves. The switching machinesprovide only the switching fabric; connection commandscome from an SCp. The fundamentalmotivations behind developing the IN are: I ' To enable the deployment of network-basedfeatures such as citywide centrex mentionedpreviously 2. To allow the introduction of new features without having to change the hardware or software of switching vendors

To speed up thedesign/deployment cycleofnew features because onlv thescp softwareneeds upgrading 4. To allow customizing of services by theoperating companies according to the needs of theircustomers
The obvious disadvantageof such centralized control is the vulnerability of the network to a failure in the SS7 network or the SCP. For this reasonbasic serviceis likely to remain with the switching machines.In this case, softwarc in the switching machines recognizes special service situations as software triggers to involve an scp.

51 1.2 THEANALOGNETWOHKHIERARCHY Leaving basic service processingin the switching machinesalso reducesthe load on the SS7 links and the processingspeedin the SCPs.

1.2.13 Dynamic NonhierarchlcalRoutlng shownin Figure 1.4for the hierarchicalnetworkof routing procedures The alternate of the original because simpleand straightforward the Bell Systemwerenecessarily leadsto the Suchsimplicity,however, switchingmachines. relianceon mechanical following limitations: of routing of thenetworkwouldallowa largenumber thetopology l. Eventhough the actual limited were selected on how the routes consfiaints altematives, choicesto a relatively small number. according to the time of day or could not be changed 2. The routing patterns c networktraffi Patterns. setupprecludedretracinga path to a previous of progressive 3. The proce$s choiceled to a node'and trying a new,untriedroutewhena previous switching nodethatwasblocked' may haveinvolveda large numberof intermediate connection 4. A completed for oneconnection' facilitiesusinga lot ofnetwork resources logic in each from usingrelativelysimpledecision resulted deficiencies All of these of SPC The introduction as a whole. status the network of nodewith no knowledge proroutine that more efficient so thesituation machines andCCSchanged switching of dydeployment completed the Along theselines,AT&T werepossible. cedures of DNHR features Specific routing(DNHR) in 1987127,281. namicnonhierarchical are: in the orderof cost twolink routes in theNCPslist all possible Routingtables areminimized. so useof networkresources ) Routingis dynamicto take advantage of traffic noncoincidence' "crankback," whichallowsselection nodeproduces Blockingat anintermediate of untriedroutesfrom the originatingnode. in the circuit are too muchdelayfor the echocancellers 4. Routesthat produce
l.

excluded. Day fuom34flo blockingon Thanksgiving thatDNHR reduced Reference [28] reports sawthreeto Day traffic of DNHR Mother's in 1987.After installation in 1986toSVo of DNHR asbefore.Theimplementation completions four fimesasmanyflir$t-attempt is asmucha function of the softwarein the that a network architecture demonsffates controlof a thatcentralized It alsodemonstrates topology. networkasof thephysical bug in the to failures.On January15, 1990,an obscure networkis morevulnerable

52

BA0KGRoUNDANDTERMINoLoGY

CCS software of the No. 4 ESS switchesin AT&T's long-distancenetwork prevented completion of many calls during a 9-hour period [291.Ironically, the bug occurred in software intended to isolate the network from a node failure. The combination of large digital switches,large-bandwidth (fiber optic) rran$mission links, and developmentof the SS7 network has stimulateda transition from hierarchical networks to "flat" networks wherein switching nodesare interconnectedin a functional mesh-switches are either connected directly to each other or through cross-connectfacilities (DCSs and SONET rings describedlater).

1.2.14 Cellular RadioTelephone System

Prior to 1983 mobile telephoneusersin the United Stateswere restricted to using the servicesof radio common carriers (RCCs) that had limited bandwidth and limited resourcesavailablefor services.The serviceenvironment was necessarilyone of limited availability and extremecongestion.October 1983 marks a significant datefor mobile telephony as the time when commercial cellular mobile telephone service started in chicago, Illinois. As indicated in Figure 1.37, acellular system consistsof a number of radio basestationsconnectedto a (digital) switching office refened to as the mobile telephone switching office (MTSO). As a mobile subscribermove$ from one cell to another, the MTSO automatically switches connectionswith the respectivebase stations to maintain a continuousconnectionwith the public switchednetwork. The basic advantages of the cellular architectureare: l. The ability to reuse allocatedchannel frequencieswithin a serving area.Using a combination of antennadirectivity in the basestationsand signal attenuation

Figure 1.37 Cellularmobiletelephone topology.

53 1.2 THEANALOGNETWORKHIEHARCHY from distant cells, the same channel can be reu$edin one of every sevencells

for the mobiles.The power savings 2. Reduced transmitpower requirements primarily one of reducing the cost of the is for automobiles advantage for batterysize is important power savings units the For hand-held transmitter. useofpersonal acceptance and widespread In fact, recharges. andtimebetween power levels and consequently lower transmit requiremuch radio systems smaller cells[31]. imply less Shorterdistances of multipathpropagation. occlrrences 3. Reduced multipathsignaldegradation. causing chance of signalreflections large cells to A systemcan be installedwith comparatively 4. Expandability. is being grow andrevenue requirements costs. After service minimizestart-up by subdividingthe received,the capacityof the systemcan be expanded cells. congested if coverage, overlapping havesignificant thecellsactually 5. Reliability.Because are made. until repairs provide service cells can onecell fails, neighboring
The FCC in the United Stateshas defined 728 mobile service areasreferred to as cellular geographicservice areas(CGSAs). Each CGSA is allocated 832 radio channels, which are equally divided between two competing service providers; one a wireline carrier and the other a nonwireline carier. The wireline carrier provides local telephone servicein the areabut competeswith the nonwireline canier (RCC) for cellular service. To ensure effective competition, the wireline carrier must not use facilities that are sharedwith local telephoneservice.Specifically, the MTSOs must be separate from the local switching offices. Thus, both types of carriers must backhaul all traffic to their respectiveMTSOs. The service providers can have more than one MTSO in an areabut cannot interconnectthem by the switched public network. They are typically interconnectedby leasedprivate lines (fiber) or digital microwave. Cellular networks have grown to cover large areas interconnectedby dedicated long-distance facilities that allow $omecafriers to offer free long-distancecalling when using a cellular phone. When a mobile unit first activatesitself, it scansthe channelsto determine which idle channelofapredefined setofcontrol channelshasthe strongestsignal. Using that channel the unit registers with the system to identify itself and place calls- After the initialization proce$$,the network continually monitors signals from the mobile and To complete calls to a mobile, the celconffols it to switch channelswhen necessary. subscriberbeginning with its home cell (unless lular network pagesfor the clesignated the cellular control centeralreadyknows where the subscriberis located).When a subscriber crossesan MTSO boundary, in addition to a cell boundary, a common-channel signaling network is used to transfer the call to the new cell and the new MTSO. The connection to the public network is unchanged.Thus, the original MTSO then becomes a tandem node to the public network' Examples of analog cellular system$are Advanced Mobile Phone service (AMPS) Total Access [30, 32], developedin the United Statesand deployedin North America;

t301.

54

BACKGRoUNDANDTERMINoLoGY

communications system (TAcs), developedin the united Kingdom and deployed in several European countries; and the Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) sy$tem, deployed in Scandinavia.As discussedin Chapter 9, digital cellular systemshave been developedto either replace the analog sy$temsor provide service altematives. 1.2.15 Voiceband DataTransmisslon

The primary concern of telephonecompanies,voice service,is sometimesreferred to as Pors: plain old telephoneservice.In addition to pors, the telephonecompanies also provide a number of special servicessuch as program distribution of radio and television, telephoto, teletype, facsimile, and data transmission.In most cases,these servicesare supportedby adaptingthe sourcesto use the ubiquitous voice-gradetelephone channel. An exception is television distribution, which was an initial stimulus for the nationwide microwave radio network. To a certain extent, wideband FDM voice signals were designedto conform to the network TV distribution facilities. Nationwide TV distriburion is now primarily by sarellitesand fiber. one significant aspectofa voicebandtelephonechannelin regardsto nonvoice applications is the absence of dc and low-frequency transmission.Although the metallic circuit provided in customerloops passes frequenciesdown to and including dc, most of the rest of the network does not. The equipmentsthat are primarily responsiblefor blocking the low frequenciesare ffansformers in two-wire to four-wire hybrids, old FDM separationfilters, and digital voice encodersthat purposely block low frequencies to avoid 60-Hz hum (that arisesfrom power line interference).Becausebaseband signalsfrom facsimile and most data applicationshave frequency content down to dc, thesesignals must be modulated for voicebandfransmission. A second consideration when using the telephone network for data is the bandwidth restriction of approximarely 3 kHz originally imposed by FDM separarionfilters, loading coils, and more recently band{imiting filters in digital voice terminals (Chapter3). The main implication of a resfficted bandwidth is a limitation on the signaling rate, or baud rate, which in turn directly relatesto the datarate. A common signaling rate is 2400 symbols per second using carriers between 1700 and 1g00 Hz. symbol ratesof 4800 symbols per secondhave arsobern usedin lower sidebandmodems with a carrier at 2850 Hz. As mentioned, user acceptance of voice quality does not require stringent conhol of the phaseresponse(envelopedelay) of the channel.High-speed data transmission, however, requires comparatively tight toleranceon the phaseresponseto prevent intersymbol interference.Thus analog voice channelsused for high-speeddata transmission sometimesrequired special treatrnent.The special treatunentwas originally provided at additional monthly rates from the telephonecompaniesin the form of ctype conditioning for leased lines. C-type conditioning was available in several different gradesthat provided various amounts of control of both phase and amplitude distortion. As digital signal processingtechnology becamecommercially viable, the needfor signal conditioning becamelessnecessary because modem equalizersaccomplished the samefunction.

55 HIEHARCHY ANALOG NETWORK 1.2 THE Most medium-rate (synchronous)modems include fixed equalizationcircuitry designed to compensate for the phasedistortion in a typical connection.For higher data rates,automatically adjustableequalizationis needed.An automaticequalizerfust undergoesa training sequencein which the characteristicsof the transmissionchannel to known test signals.Then, equalizing cirare determinedby measuringthe response (and continually readjustedduring is adjusted of each modem in the receiver cuitry amplitude and phasedistottions in the provide for the compensation hansmission) to automatic equalization lines requires over dial-up channel. High-speed transmission with each connection. change in the modems since the channel characterjstics Another form of conditioning, referredto as a D-type conditioning, provided lower levels of noise and harmonic distortion than normally provided in leasedlines, even with C-type conditioning. D-type conditioning usually did not involve special treatment of any particular line. Instead, the telephone company tested a number of different circuits until one with suitablequality was found. Sometimesthis meant avoiding a cable that included pairs from a noisy switching office, Unlike voice, which is reasonably tolerant of impulse noise, a data circuit is more susceptibleto impulse noise than to the normal background (white) noise. The elimination of older equipment (e.g., step-by-stepswitches)has eliminated much of the impulse noi$e in the network. As more and more of the public network becamedigitized, fewer and fewer facilities were analog and, hence,fewer analog impairments were likely to occur in a connecrion.By the early 1990svirtually all of the internal portions of the public telephone of a connection that were network had been digitized. The only remaining $egments end offices. The in the associated interfaces loops and subscriber the were the analog principal source of impairment for voiceband modems then became the analog-todigiral (A/D) conversionequipmentin the line interfaces.Recognition of this situation completely eliminated the need for any type of conditioning on leasedlines (which were often digital and not analog) and allowed for the developmentof V.90 modems describedin Chapter I l. An important considerationfor data transmissionover long-distancecircuits in the As mentioned in Section 1.2'8' an analog network was the effect of echo suppressors. blocked the signal in a return path when the correspondingforward echo suppressor effectively path of a four-wire circuit was active. Thus, operative echo suppressors precluded a full-duplex operation. Even in a half-duplex mode of operation the echo might require 100 msec of deactivation time to reverse the direction of suppressor$ the common carriersprovided a meansof disabling the propagation.For theserea$ons by using an in-channel control signal from the data terminals. Echo echo suppressors were disabledby tran$mitting a pure tone between 2010 and 2240Hzfor suppressors remained disabled as long as there was continuous 400 msec. The echo suppressors energy in the channel. Thus, the modems could switch to signaling frequenciesand were first disabled.If the enbegin full-duplex datatransmissionafter the suppres$ors were reactivated. suppressor$ msec, the echo for 100 was removed in the channel ergy the entire utilizing modems for half-duplex required was Hence, rapid line turnaround echo can* have modems Contemporary of transmission. bandwidth for each direction

56

BACKGRoUNDANDTEHMINoLoGY

cellers for full-duplex transmissionand thereforeautomatically disable echo suppressors (which are probably nonexistent).

1.3 THEINTRODUCTION OF DIGITS Voice digitization and transmission firstbecame feasible in thelate1950s when solidstate electronics became available. In 1962 BellSystem personnel established thefirst

commercial useof digitaltransmission whentheybegan operating a T1 carriersystem for useasa trunkgroupin a chicagoarea exchange After the Tl system a family t331. of r-carrier systems (Tl, Tlc, TlD, Tz, T3, T4) weredeveloped, all of which involvedtime divisionmultiplexing of digitizedvoicesignals. The world's first commercially designed digital microwave radio system wasestablished in Japan by Nippon ElecrricCompany(NEC) in 196g t341.In the earty 1970s digitalmicrowave systems began to appear in theUnitedStates for specialized datatransmission services. The first digital microwavelink in the U.S. public telephonenetworkwas supplied by NEC of Japan for a New york Telephone link betweenBrooklyn and North statenIslandin lgTz 1341. DigitI microwavesystems weresubsequently developed andinstalled by several U.S.manufacturers for usein intermediate-length toll andexchange areacircuits. Bell System's f,rrst commercial useof digital fiber optic transmission occurred in september of 1980on a short-haul routebetween Atlantaandsmyrna,Georgia[35]. Threeyears laterthefirst long-haul system between New york andwashington, D.c., wasput into service. In additionto ffansmission sy$tems, digital technology hasprovento be equally usefulfor implementing swirching functions. Thefirst country to usedigitalswitching in thepublictelephone networkwasFrance in 1970t361. Thefirsr application of digital switchingin thepublicnetworkof theUnitedStates occurred in early lg76 when Bell systembegan operaring its No. 4ESSt37l in a class 3 toll officein chicago.Two months laterContinental Telephone companybegan operation in Ridgecrest, California,of a digitaltoll switch[38].Thefirst digitalendoffice switchin theUnitedStates becameoperationalinJuly of rgii inthesmalrtownof RichmondHill,Georgia[39]. 1.3.1 VolceDigitizatlon The basicvoice-coding algorithmusedin T-carriersystems and most otherdigital voiceequipment in telephone networks around theworldis shown in Figure1.3g. The first stepin the digitizationprocess is to periodicallysample the waveform. As discussed at lengthin Chapter 3, all of theinformation needed to reconstruct theoriginal waveform is contained in the samples if thesamples occurat an g-kHzrate.The second stepin the digitizationprocess involvesquantization; identifyingwhich amplitudeintervalof a groupof adjacent intervals a sample valuefalls into. In essence the quantization process replaces each continuously variable amplitude sample with a dis-

OF DIGITS 57 I.3 THEINTRoDUCTION

tl -l -t -t
- l - 5 - 6 - l

Outntiz8tion

ttn

ul|l

Coding

Figure 1.38 Voice digitization Process'

crete value located at the middle of the appropriate quantization interval. Since the quantized sampleshave discretelevels, they representa multipleJevel digital signal. For transmission purposes the discrete amplitude samples are converted to a binary codeword. (For illustrative purposesonly, Figure 1.38 shows 4-bit codewords.) The binary codes ale then transmitted as binary pulses. At the receiving end of a digital transmissionline the binary data stream is recovered,and the discrete sample values "intelpolate" between SamplevalThen a low-pass filter is used to are reconstructed. ues and re-createthe original waveform. If no transmissionerrors have occurred,the output waveform is identical to the input waveform except for quantization distortion: the difference between a sample value and its discrete representation.By having a large number of quantizationintervals (andhenceenoughbits in a codeword to encode them), the quantization intervals can be small enough to effectively eliminate perceptible quantization effects. It is worth noting that the bandwidth requirementsof the digital signal increaseas a result of the binary encodingprocess.If ttre discrete,multiple-amplitude samplesare transmitted directly, the bandwidth reguirements are theoretically identical to the

58

BACKGRoUNDANDTEHMINoLoGY

bandwidth of the original signal. when eachdiscretesampleis represented by a number of individual binary pulses,the signal bandwidth increasesaccordingly. The twolevel pulses,however, are much less vulnerable to transmissionimpairments than are the multiple-amplitude pulses (or the underlying analog signal).

1.8.2 TlmeDivisionMultlplexing
Basically, time division multiplexing (TDM) involves nothing more than sharing a transmissionmedium by establishinga sequence of time slots during which individual sourcescan transmit signals.Thus the entire bandwidth of the facility is periodically available to eachsourcefor a restrictedtime interval. In contrast,FDM systemsassign a restrictedbandwidth to each sourcefor all time. Normally, all time slot$ of a TDM sy$temare of equal length. Also, each subchannelis usually assigneda time slot with a common repetition period called a frame interval. This form of TDM (as shown in Figure 1.39) is sometimesreferuedto as synchronoustime division multiplexing to specifically imply that each subchannelis assigneda certain amount of transmission capacity determinedby the time slot duration and the repetition rate. In contra$t,another form of TDM (refened to as sfatlstical, or asynchronousrtime division multiplexing) is described in chapter 10. with this second form of multiplexing, subchannelrates are allowed to vary according to the individual needsof the sources. The backbonedigital links of the public telephonenetwork (T-carrier, digital microwave, and fiber optics) use a synchronousvariety of TDM. Time division multiplexing is normally associatedonly with digital transmission links. Although analog TDM transmissioncan be implemented by interleaving samples from each signal, the individual samplesare usually too sensitiveto all varieties of transmissionimpairments. In contrast,time division switching of analog signals is more feasible than analog TDM transmissionbecausenoise and distortion within the switching equipment are more controllable. As discussedin chapter 5, aralog TDM techniqueshave been used in some PBXs befbre rtigital electronics becameso inexpensive that the digitization penalty disappeared.

T-CarrierSystems The volume of interoffice telephone trafficin the UnitedStates hastraditionally grown more rapidly than localtraffic. growth Thisrapid putsevere strain ontheolder

Figure 1.39 Time divisionmultiplexing.

tNTRoDUcTroN oF Dlclrs 1,s THE

59

interoffice transmission facilities that are designed for lower traffic volumes. Telephone companieswere often faced with the necessarytask of expanding the number of interoffice circuits. T-carrier systemswere initially developed as a cost-effective means for interoffice transmission: both for initial inslallations and for relief of crowded interoffice cable pairs. Despite the need to convert the voice signalsto a digital format at one end of a Tl line and back to analog at the other, the combined conversion and multiplexing cost of a digital TDM terminal was lower than the cost of a comparableanalog FDM terfor exchangeareaffunks minal. The first T-carrier systemswere designedspecif,rcally at distancesbetween l0 and 50 miles. A T-carder systemconsistsof terminal equipment at eachend of a line and a number of regenerativerepeatersat intermediatepoints in the line. The function of each regenerative repeater is to restore the digital bit stream to its original form before transmission impairmentsobliteratethe identity of the digital pulses.The line itself, including the regenerative repeaters,is referred to as a span line. The original terminal equipmentwas referred to as D-type (digital) channelbanks,which camein numerous versions.The transmissionlines were wire pairs using 16- to 26-gaugecable' A block diagram of a T-carrier systemis shown in Figure 1.40. The first T1 systemsusedDlA channelbanksfor interfacing, converting, and multiplexing ?4 analog circuits. A channelbank at eachend of a spanline provided interfacing for both directions of transmission.Incoming analogsignalswere time division multiplexed and digitized for transmission.When received at the other end of the line, the incoming bit streamwas decodedinto analog samples,demultiplexed, and filtered to reconsfuct the original signals.Each individual TDM channel was assignedI bits per time slot. Thus, there were (24X8) = 192 bits of information in a frame' One additional bit was addedto each frame to identify the frame boundaries,therebyproducing a total of 193 bits in a frame. Since the frame interval is 125 psec, the basic Tl line rate became L544 Mbps. This line rate has been establishedas the fundamental standardfor digital transmissionin North America and Japan.The standardis referred to as a DSI signal(for digital signal 1). A similar standardof 2.048 Mbps has been establishedby mJ-T for most of the rest of the world. This standardevolved from a Tl-like $y$temthat provides 32 channels at the samerate as the North American channels.Only 30 of the channelsin the El standard,however, are used for voice. The other two Areused for frame synchronization and signaling. Signaling and control information for Tl systemsare inserted lnto into each voice channel (or transmitted separatelyby CCIS facilities). Digital signaling and conffol techniquesfor both systemsare discussedin Chapter 7'

Figure 1.40 Tl-carrier system,

60

BACKGHOUND ANDTERMINOLOGY

The greatlyincreased attenuation of a wire pair at thefrequencies of a DSI signal (772kHz cbnter frequency) mandates theuseof amplification points at intermediate of a Tl span line.In contrast to ananalog signal, however, a digitalsignalcannotonly be amplifiedbut al$obe detected andregenerated. That is, aslong asa pulsecanbe detected, it canbe restored to its originalform andrelayed to the next line segment. For this reason Tl repeaters arereferred to asregenerative repeaters. Thebasicfunctionsof these repeaters are: l. 2. 3. 4. Equalization Clockrecovery Pulsedetection Transmission

Equalization is required because thewire pairsintroduce certainamounts of bothphase andamplitudedistoltion that cause intersymbolintederence if uncompensated. Clock recovery is required for two basicpur?o$es; first, to establish a timing signal to sample pulses; theincoming second, to transmit outgoing pulses atthesame rateasattheinput to theline. Regenerative repeaters are normally spaced every 6000 ft in a T1 spanline. This distance was chosen as a matterof convenience for converting existingvoice frequencycablesto T-carrierlines. Interofficevoice frequency cablestypically used loadingcoils that werespaced at 6fi)0-ft intervals. Sincethese coils werelocatedat convenient points(manholes) access andhadto be removed for high-frequency transmission, it wasonly nafural thatthe6000-ftintervalbechosen. Onegeneral exception is that the first regenerative repeater is typically spaced 3000ft from a centraloffice. The shorterspacing of this line segment wasneeded to maintaina relativelystrong signalin the presence of impulse noisegenerated by olderswitchingmachines. Theoperating experience of Tl systems wasso favorable thattheywerecontinually upgraded andexpanded. one of theinitial improvements produced Tlc systems that providehighertransmission ratesover Z?-galgecable.A Tlc line operates at 3.152Mbpsfor 48 voicechannels, twice asmanyasa Tl system. Another levelof digitaltransmission became available in 1972 whentheT2 system wasintroduced. This system wasdesigned for toll networkconnections. In contrast. T I systems wereoriginallydesigned only for exchange area transmi ssion. TheTZ system providedfor 96 voice channels at distances up to 500 miles.The line rate was 6.312Mbps,whichis referred to asa DSZstandard. Thetransmission mediawasspecial low-capacitance 2?-gauge cable.By usingseparate cables for eachdirectionof transmission andthespecially developed cables, T? systems courduserepeater spacings up to 14,800 ft in low-noise environments. The emergence of opticalfiber systemsmadecopper-based T2 transmission systems obsolete. TDM Hierarchy In a manner analogous to theFDM hierarchy, AT&T established a digitalTDM hierarchyttrathasbecome the standard for North America.Stafiingwith a DSI signalas

OF DIGITS 61 I.3 THEINTBODUCTION TAELE 1.10 Dlgltal TDM Signale ol North America and Japan DigitalSignal Numberof VoiceCircuits Number

Bit Rate
Designation (Mbps) Multiplexer

Media Transmission T1 paired cable T1Cpaired cable T2 paired cable Radio, Fiber T4Mcoax,WT4 waveguide, radio

DS1 DSlC DS2 DS3 D54 48 96 672

D channel bank (24analog inputs) M1C (2 DSI inputs) M12 (4 DS1inputs) M13 (28DS1inputs) M34 (6 DSginputs)

1.544 3.152 6,312 44.736 274.176

of as a combination building block, all otherlevelsareimplemented a fundamental of the higherlevel digital mulThedesignation somenumberof lower level signals. an M12 multiinput andoutputlevels.For example, reflectsthe respective tiplexers I.10 liststhe DSZ Table plexercombines form a single signal.. four DSl signals to for Nomediaused each. andthetransmission multiplexlevels, theirbit rates, variou$ tice that thebit rateof a high-levelmultiplexsignalis slightly higherthanthe combits areincludedfor certaincontrol binedratesof the lower level inputs.Theexcess has 7. A similardigitalhierarchy discussed in Chapter functions andsynchronization As shownin Tablel. I I' standard. by ITU-T asan international alsobeenestablished but involvesdifferentnumis similarto the North Americanstandard this hierarchy bersof voicecircuitsat all levels. Dig itaI Pal nGal n Syefems mostmajor for interoffice trunks, of Tl systems introduction Followingthesuccessful for local disdeveloped digitalTDM system$ of telephone equipment manufacturers to long ruralloopswherethecostof the aremostapplicable tribution.These systems is, unin wire pairs.No matterwhatthe distance is offsetby the savings electronics inelectronics, by adding growthcanbe mosteconomically accommodated expected parks, possibility apartment pair-gain produce of trailer system. The wire, to a stead of causes nightmares providers up almost overnight houses, springing or Internet service provide altera networking plant Pair-gain system$ forecasters. in themindsof cable nativeto dispelthosenightmares. to switchingoffices in are also usefulas alternatives Digital pair-gain$ystems switchsmallautomatic areoftenservicedby Smallcommunities smallcommunities. controlled from a largerswitchingofing systems andremotely normallyunattended dialoffices arerefened to ascommunity fice nearby. switches These smallcommunity
*Because T2 transmissionsystemshave becomeobsolete,the Ml2 function exists only in a functional sense within Ml3 multiplexers, which multiplex 28 DSI signals into I DS3 signal.

62

BACKGHoUNDANDTERMtNoLocy

TABLE 1.11 ITU Digital Hierarchy

Level Number El E2 E3 E4 E5

Numberof Voice Circuits

Multiplexer Designation
M1? M?3 M34 M45

Bit Rate(Mbps) 2.048 8,448 34,368 139.264 565.1 48

30 120 480 1920 7680

(CDOs). A CDO typicallyprovides only limitedservice features to thecustomers and often requiresconsiderable maintenance. Because digital pair-gainsystems lower transmission groups co$t$ for moderate-sized of subscribers, theyarea viablealternative to a CDO: Stations in the smallcommunity areserviced from the centraloffice by way of pair-gain systems. A fundamental consideration in choosing pairbetween gain systems andremoteswitching involvesthe haffic volumes andcallingpatterns within thesmallcommunity. Thebasictechniques of analyzing trafficpaftems anddeterminingtrunk groupsizes areprovidedin Chapter12. Thefirst two digitalpair-gain sy$tems usedin theBell System werethesubscriber loop multiplex(sLM) system[40, 4l] and,its successor, the subscriber loop carrier (slc-40) system Although these sysrems used a form of voice 140,421. digitization (deltamodulation) differentfrom thatusedin T-carriersystem$ (pulse codemodulation), they both usedstandard rl repeaters for digital transmission at 1.544Mbps. Both systems alsoconverted thedigitizedvoicesignals backinto individualanalog intetfaces at theendofficeswirchto achieve system tran$parency. FiguresL4l and1.42 showblock diagrams of thesesysrem$. Noticethat the sLM system providedboth concentration and multiplexing(80 subscribers for 24 channels) while the SLC-40 wasstrictlya multiplexer (40 subscribers assigned in a one-to-one manner to 40 channels). The sLM andsLC-,{O systems useddeltamodulation voicecodingbecause it was simplerthan pulsecodemodulationas usedin Tl systems and was therefore less costlyto implement on a per-channel basis-a desirable feature for modularsystem implementations. The originalTl systems, on the otherhand,minimizedelectronics costsby usingcommon encoders anddecoders, which precluded implementation of

Crofibdr witch

Figure l.4l

Subscriber loop multiplexer.

oF DIGITS 63 1.3 THEINTHODUCTIoN

'.*Jill"i,**'
(SLC-40), loopcarrier Figure1.42 Subscriber (anunnecessary By thelate in aninteroffice application). lessthan24 channels feature pulsecodemodulation 1970s of standard low-cost, integrated circuitimplementations of theSLC-96,a subthatled theway to thefirst (1979)installation became available andthe with T1 systems usingvoicecodingthatwascompatible scriber carrierrty$tem machines digitalendoffice switching emerging [43]. (whichis functionallyequivalent to four Tl lines)caninterThe SLC-96system into 24 distinctanalog facedirectlywith a digitalendoffice andnot bedemultiplexed to asintegrated digitalloop carrier interfaces. which is referred Thusthis capability, less (IDLC), greaflyreduces wherethe digital carrierbecomes theprove-indistance of the SLC-96 pairs.Subsequent enhancements subscriber expensive than separate in the for local switchingfunctions support includeuseof fiber transmission, $y$tem from the centraloffice [44, of analoginterfaces remotemodule,andconfigurability havebeendedigital loop carriersystems andfiber-based 45.1. Many newercopperof 11in thecontext morethoroughly in Chapter arediscussed veloped. These systems digital subscriber access. 1.3.3 Data under Voice offering AT&T began After thetechnology systems hadbeenestablished, of T-carrier knownas This service, for datacommunications. services leased digitaltransmission (DDS),usesTl transmission links with special terminals Digital Service Dataphone of (channel to the digital line. An initial drawback banks)thatprovidedirectaccess and only for exchange area wereoriginallyused T-carrier systems DDS arose because digital transmission, shorrtoll networktrunks.Without someform of long-distance AT&T's areas could not be interconnected. exchange the digital circuitsin separate of a spewasthedevelopment digitaltransmission to long-distance originalresponse cial radioterminalcalledthe 1A radiodigitalterminal(IA-RDT) [46].This terminal As shown encoded Mbps)into lessthan500kHz of bandwidth. oneDSI signal(1.544 of wasinserted belowthelowest'frequency in Figure1.43,a signalof thisbandwidth bandis normallyunused groupmultiplex(Table1.5).Sincethis frequency a master to existinganalog theDSI signalcouldbe added radio systems, in TD or TH analog used belowthose Theuseoffrequencies withoutdisplacing anyvoicechannels. routes "dataundervoice"(DUV). leadsto the designation for voicesignals development specifically a special to pointoutthatDUV represented It is important In fact,DUV wasusedonly andnot for voiceservices. intended for datatransmission of facilitiesfor DDS. The emergence digital transmission to providelong-distance

64

BAcKeRouNDANDrERMrNolocy
E

E 8.9

Ee
I
cr
6

*E

3084 (kHzl Frequency Figure 1.43 Data under voice.

long-distance fiber sy$tem'r obviouslyeliminated the needfor DUV equipment (and eventhe analog radiosthemselves). 1.3.4 Digital Mlcrowave Radio In contrast to DUV systems, which piggyback1.544Mbpsonto an analog radiofor dataservices, a common-carrier digitalmicrowave system uses digitalmodulation exclusivelyto transmit andreceive higherleveldigitalmultiplexsignals for voicetraffic. Digital radios usethesame frequency bands allocated for analog radios aslistedin Table 1.7.Thusa primarydesign requirement of a digitalradiowasthatit mustconfine powerto preventexcessive its radiated interference into adjacent, possiblyanalog, chamels. Moreover, theFCCstipulated thatthedigitalradios hadto becapable of providingroughlythesame number of voicecircuitsasexisting analog radios. TableI .12 liststheminimumnumber of voicecircuitsandtheresulting bit ratethatmustbe providedby digitalradiosin eachof thecommon-canier microwave bands[47]. Despite thedesign constraints imposed by compatibility requirements with analog radios, digital radiosprovedto be moreeconomical thananalog radiosin several applications. Because of lowerterminal (multiplexing cosrs anddemultiplexing), digiral radio$ystems weregenerally lessexpensive thananalog radio systems for distances TABLE 1.12 Minimum Volce Clrcuit Requirements ot Digitat Radlos ln the
United States

Equivalent Frequency Band Minimum Number Number of DS1 (MHz) of Circuits Signals 2110-2130 2160-2180 370H200 5925-6425 10,700-11,700 96 96 1152 1152 1152 4 4 48 48 48

Resultant Bit Channel Rate(Mbps)a Bandwidth (MHz) 6,144 6.144 73.7 73.7 73.7 3.5 3,5 20 30 40

alhe actualbit rate is usuallyslightlygreater owingto xtraframingand synchronization bits. Furthermore, mosl radio systemBprovidesignificantlymor6 voice circuitsthan the minimum.

r.g rHErNTRoDUcrroN oFDrclrs 65 (drop-and-insen) access requiringchannel up to about300milesandon longerroutes pointsin the route [a8]. The major impetusfor digital radio in the at intermediate like theNo.4ESS.Theinterof digitaltoll switches UnitedStates wastheemergence avoided costlylowerlevel mulconnection to digitalswitches of digitalradiosignals tiplex equipment. 1.3.5 Fiber Optic Transmiesion network,fiber hascertainly into the telephone inhoduced Of all the new technology would engineers transmission had the mo$tprofoundeffect.Prior to its emergence, low attenuwidebandwidth, of exffemely extremely thecombination haveconsidered motion.Low atakinto perpetual assomething ation,andimmunityfrom interference costs-the to low maintenance whichequates spacings, tenuation allowslongrepeater 5, On December analog radiosystems. replacement reason for wholesale of long-haul fiber system AT&T completed of a transcontinental thelastsection 1986, [49].By the to fiber.Raroutes wereconverted virtuallyall of thehigh-density endof thatdecade traffic where to be usedfor carryinglow-density dio systems areand will continue these routesare However, because consideration. right-of-waycostsarea dominant intetface costsimply digital implerelatively$hortspursoff of digital fiber arteries, foundation for theall-digitalnetwork. theeconomic thuscompleting mentations, digitaltransmission 8, anopticalfiber is not aninherently As discussed in Chapter (drivers andtheapplication andreceivers) electronics However, theinterface system. their useof digital kansmission.* havestimulated to digital switches of connecting available thereis little incentive considering the amountof bandwidth Furthermore, with aswasthe originalsituation bandwidth, to conserve to useanalogtransmission microwave radios. 1.3.6 DigitalSwltching by Earle wasrepofted at Bell Laboratories into digitalswitching Theoriginalresearch theconcept to demonstrate models weredeveloped Laboratory Vaughan in 1959[501. with time division systems digitaltime divisionmultiplextransmission of integrating elechonics had not masolid-state the necessary Unfortunately switchingsystems. wa$not development of digitalswitching at thattime socommercial turedsufficiently division alongthelinesof space pursued, of theNo. I ESScontinued anddevelopment Bell LabsbegandeAlmost l0 yearslater,however, technology. electromechanical of a digitaltoll switch,theNo. 4 ESS. velopment new cathe No. 4 ESSprovidedseveral in January1976, Whenplacedin service for pabilitiesfor the toll network.First, it was the first toll switch to be designed its capacity wasthreetimesthatof the Second, controlat the outset.t stored-program bar.The largercaprevailingelectromechanical switchat the time: theNo. 44 cross
*Analog segments of signals in feedets havebeenwidely usedto carrytelevision opticalfiber systems .CATV systems. lstored-program in the toll networkbeginningin 1969by retrofitting confrol was first implemented switches crossbar [51].

66

BACKGROUND AND TERMINOLOGY

pacityof theNo.4 ESSmeant thatmanymetropolitan areas couldconsolidate toll haff,rc into oneswitchinstead of several. Third,thedigitaltime divisiondesign of theNo. 4 ESSalloweddirectconnection to digitalT-carrierlines.This lastfeature illu$trate$ theoriginalattraction of digital switching for toll andtandem officesof thenetwork. By 1976, whenthefirst No. 4 ESSwasinstalled, it wasclearthatdigitaltransmission wasdominating theexchange area andshorter inteftolltrunks. Thussignificant economiesandimprovements qualityresulted in transmission by eliminating channel banks at theinterface between digitalkunks anda switchingsystem. The earlydevelopment of digitalendoffice switches in theUnitedStares wasundertaken by independent equipment manufacturers with theflustsystem beingplaced in service in 1977.Thesesystems wereprimarilydesigned for the smallerswitching officesof theindependent telephone companies. Digital switches wereparticularly attractiveto rural telephone companies because they couldprovidesignificant copper savings whendirectlyconnected to digital pair-gaintransmission systems. The flust large digital end office switching sy$temto be introducedinto the North American networkwasthe DMs-100 providedby NorthernTelecom. Table Ll3 lists digital switchingmachines developed for the North Americanpublic telephone network. The functional essence of a digital time divisionswitchingmatrixis illustrated in Figure1.44. As indicated, all inputsaretimedivisionmultiplexlinks.These linksmay represent digitalpair-gain system$, T-carrier interoffice trunks,or theoutputs of colocatedchannelbanksusedto interfaceanaloglines to the digital switch. In any event the switchingmahix itself is designed ro service only TDM input links. Basically,the switchingmatrix is requiredto transferinformationarriving in a specified time slot (channel) on an incomingTDM link to a specified time sloton an

TABLE 1.13 Dlgltal Central Oflice Swltchlng Systems of North America

Manufacturer

Designation

Dateof lntroduction 1S76 1S83 1982 1S7B 1982 1978 1979 1978 1977 197S 1978 1981 1977 1977 1978

Application
Toll Local Local Toll/tandem Local Local/toll Local/toll Local/toll Local Local Toll Local Local Toll/tandem Local/toll

LineSize 107,000 100,000 100,000 60,b00 145,000 200,000 80,000 26,000 7,000 100,000 60,000 200,000 32,000 7,000 12,768

AT&T 4 ESS AT&T 5 ESS C|T-Alcatel E 10-five GTE 3 EAX GTE 5 EAX LM Ericsson AXE10 NEC NEAX.61 ITT System 1210 NorthernTelecom DMS-10 NorthernTelecom DMS-100 NorthernTelecom DMS-200 Siemens EWSD Stromberg Carlson DCO Vidar lTS4 Vidar lTS4/5

1,3 THEINTRODUCTION OF DIGIT$

I FRAME

67

operation. Figure 1.44 Digital time divisionswitching outgoing TDM link. Since an arbitrary connection involves two different physical links and two different time slots, the switching processrequires spatial translation (space switching) and time translation (time switching). Thus the basic operation is sometimes referred to as two-dimensional switching. Space switching is achieved with conventional digital logic selector circuits, and time switching is achieved by temporarily storing information in a digital memory or register circuit. For convenience,the inputs to the switching matrix of Figure 7.44 arc all shown on the left, and the outputs are on the right. Since the links are inherently four-wire, each input time slot is paired with the sametime slot on a correspondingoutput link. Hence, a full-duplex circuit also requires a "connection" in the reversedirection that is achievedby transferring information from time slot 17 of link N to time slot 3 of link I in the example shown. Operational and implementationdetails of a large range of digital time division switches are provided in Chapter 5.

1.3.7 DigltalNetworkEvolutlon
The evolution of the analog telephone network into one that is all digital except for lines is summarizedin Figure 1.45.The processbeganin the 1960s(a) with the access T1 systemsbeing installed on relatively short haul interoffice trunks within the exchangeareas.Next, in the early 1970s(b), digital transmissionwas introducedinto the toll network with T2 systemsfor relatively short routesbetweentoll offices. It was in the late 1970s (c) that digitization really began to take over. Tl coverageexpanded greatly, digital loop carier (DLC) systemscame into use,* and digital switches be* came available at all levels of the network: PBXs (DPBXs), end offices (DEOs), tandem offices, and toll offices (DTOs). Moreover, microwave digital radios (MDRs) proved to be advantageous to use in both the exchangeareasand the shorter toll network routes due to low interface costs to digital switches. Thus, the late 1970sproduced a number of integrated islands where digital switches within a region were interconnected by digital transmissionlinks but therewas little digital connectivity between the islands. (Data under voice was installed as an overbuild to analogroutes for
*Digital subscribet caffier systemswere actually introduccd in the early 1970s,but these systems utilized a voice digitization technology (delta modulation) that was incompatible with the rest ofthe network and therefore did not figure into the integrated network. These early digital loop carrier systems atE now obsolete.

68

BACKGHOUND ANDTEHMINOLOGY

Exchangn arta

tO r z--------.'t}..r-*{",7'g o Q o

Toll mtwuk

/ -\

'

1\n/'1" ,i \
T_1 i
t-/ \----

Excharqe arot

--"----*l-/
(dl

o )\ ( --c

,\r

.Tr\

trz j
I

(1

(Dl

l,

tt*--

\ord
DPEX

DTO
MDR

oTo

\ - J

(d)

.-**:/\.
I

,) .'i
Fibrt

::-*-]./
(d) Fibrr 7

'\-----

DLC /

'r) ,'I
\--'
\*----t6t

I r '

I ISDil P B I

oiix

Figure 1.45 Digital networkevolution.

REFERENoES 6S

digitalnetwork andinterconnected A fully integrated dataservices.) limited-capacity (d) whenfiber optictransmission emerged asthe became a realityin the early 1980s to busiDigital connectivity long-haul routes. technology of choicefor high-density the premises in this time frameasTl became ness equipment alsooccurred customer preferredvoice trunk interfacefor largePBXs. a reality in the for voiceor dataservices became End-to-end digital connectivity (e) wittr theintroduction late 1980s of ISDN basicrate(ISDN BR, 28 + D) andISDN In addition, to thecustomer. fiprimaryrate(ISDN PR,238 + D) digitalconnection$ T2 syseliminated asDS3ratesystems bertechnology muchmoreubiquitous became for technology became thepreferred systems temsin thetoll networkandfiber-based loop carrierandfeedersystems-evenat relativelyshortdistances.

REFERENCES
I S. P, Thompson, Phillip Reis: Inventor of the Telephone, Sylvanus P. Thompson, London. New York. 1883.

"Record'81TelcoConstruction Setat $23.5Billion, Up R. SmithandW. Sonnerryille, p. 55. Management, Jan.15, 1981, Engineer and 5.6Vo,* Telephone in theBelI System,Znd Engineering, andOperations Technical Staff,Bell Laboratories,
4 5 6 ed., Bell Telephone Laboratories, Indianapolis, Indiana, 1983. "Plan for Access*Tandem and Trunking," Telephone Engineer & D. M. Mardon, Nov. 15, 1983,pp. l4O-142. Management, W, D. Reeve, Subscriber Inop Signaling and Transmission Handbook, IEEE Press, New York. 1995, "Digital Speech Interpolation Systems," in Advanced DiSital S, J. Campanella, Communication,r; Systerzs and Signal Processing Tethniques, K. Fehrer, Ed., Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1985. Technical Staff, Bell Laboratori es,Engineering and Operations in the Bell System,Bell Telephone Laboratories, Indianapolis, Indiana, 1977. "The History and Future of Commercial Satellite Communications," W. L. Pritchard, IEEE Communitations M agaarne,May 1984, pp. 22-37 . Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB), Framing structure,channel coding and modulation for digital tenestrial television, EN 300 744, (ETSI TM 1545), 1999, "Spech Codec for the I. Boyd, C. B. Southcott, D. P. Crowe, and P. J. Bolingbroke, Skyphone Aeronautical Telephone Service,"BritishTelecommunications Engineering, July 1986,pp. 83-91. "Evaluation of MessageCircuit Noise," Bell System A. J. Aikens and D. A. Lewinski, Technical Jountal, July 1970, pp. 879-909. J. L. Sullivan, t'A Laboratory System for Measuring Loudness Loss of Telephone Techniml Joumal, Oct. 1971, pp. 2663-2739. Connections," Bell System "A Basis for Transmission Performance Objective in a Telephone W. K. Macadam, Communications System," AIEE Transactions on Comntunications and Electronics, May 1978,pp. 205-209.

ll

t2
l3

70

BACKGROUND ANDTERMINOLOGY

performance 14 F. P. Duffy and T. W. Thatcher,Jr,, "Analog Transmission on the Switched Telecommunications Network,"BelI SystemTechnical Journal,Apr. 1971, p p .l 3 l t - 1 3 4 7 . l5 W. R. Bennett andJ. R. Davey, Data Transmission, McGraw-Hill,New york, 1965, 16 Membersof Technicalstaff, Bell Telephone Laboratories,Transmissionsystems for Communitatiorrs, 4th ed,,Westem ElectricCompany, Winston-Salem, NorthCarolina, 1971. 1l H. R. Huntley, "Transmission Designof Intertoll Telephone Trunks,',BeII System Tethnical Joumal,Sept.1953, pp. l0l9-1036, l8 K. Murano,S. Unagami, andF. Amano,"EchoCancellation andApplications,,' IEEE Communictttions Magazine, Jan.1990,pp. 49-55. 18a E, A, Lee and D. G. Messerschmin, Digital communication, Kluwer Academic Publisher, Norwell,MA, 1993. 19 "A TechnicalReporton Echo Cancelling," ReportNo, ?7, ANSI T14,l.6 Working Groupon Specialized SignalProcessing, Nov. 1993. "Echo Connol in Telephone 20 H. G. Suyderhoud, M. Onufry, and S. J. Campanella, Communications," National Telecomtnunications ConferenceRecord, 1976, pp. 8 . 1 - l - 8I .- 5 . 21 F. T. Andrews,Jr. and R. w. Hatch, "Nationa]Telephone Network rransmission Planningin the AmericanTelephone andTelegraph company," IEEE Transactions on Communitations Technology, pp. 302-314. June1971, cornpatibility Information for Telephone Exchange service, Bellcore Technical Advisory TA-NPL-000:9/2, Bell Communications Research. Issuel. Feb.1989. Notes on THE NETWORK, AmericanTelephone and Telegraph Company, Network Planning Division,AT&T, New York, 1980, pp. 44-58. "specialIssue: storedhogram conftol Network,"Bell systemTechnical Joumal,sept. 1982. "CommonChannel past, P. J. Kuhn,C, D. Pack,andR. A. Skoog, Signaling Networks: Present, Ftfitre," IEEEEJoumalon selededAreas in communications, Apr.1994, pp. 383-393, J. S. Doyle and C. S. McMahon, '-The Intelligent Network Concept," IEEE Transactions on Communicafdons, Dec. I988,pp. 1296-130L J. M. Alcinpelu, "The overload Performance of Engineered Networks with Nonhierarchical andHierarchical Routing,"Bell systemTechnical rountal, sept.1984, p p .l 2 6 l - 1 2 8 1 . G. R. AshandE. oberer,"DynamicRouting in theAT&T Network-tmproved service at LowerCost,* IEEEGlobecom Proceedings,lgSg, pp.g.l.l-9.1.6, Quality C. Mason,"SoftwareProblem CripplesAT&T Long-Distance Network,',Telephony, Ian.22, 1990, pp. l0-l l. "specialIssueon Advanced Mobile Phoneservice(AMPS),"Beil system Technical Joumal,Jan. 1979. D. c. cox, '?ortable Digital Radio communications-An Approachto Tetherless Access," IEEE Communications Magaaine, pp. 30-40. July 1989, "Mobile stationLand stationcompatibility specificarion," ANsI/EIA./TIA standard 553,Electronic Industries Association, I 989,

22 23 M 25

26 27

28 29 30 3l 32

PHOBLEMS71 "TheTl CarrierSystem," TethnicalJoumal, BelI Systern 33 K. E. FultzandD. B, Penick, pp. 1405-1451. Sept. 1965, Nippon ElectricCompany, 34 ..SupplyRecordon NEC PCM MicrowaveEquipment," Tokyo,May 1974. "Optical Fiber Transmission-FromConception in 20 to Prominence 35 M. Schwartz, Magazine,May1984'pp. 38-48' Years,"IEEE Communications "The New Approaches and solutionsoffered by the Digital ESS.El0 to 36 J. B. Jacob, Deal with Switching, Operation, and Maintenance'Functions," International gs, I 979' pp. 46.6-I -46.6-5. e Proceedin ationsConferenc Communic "special Technical Journal,JulylAng'l98l ' Issue: No, 4 ESS,"Bell System 3'l "A Digital switching system," Integrated 38 J. C. McDonaldand J. R. Baichtal, New cord, 1976' pp. 3.2-| -3'2-5. renc e Re ationsConfe communit NationalTele Aug. I ' Telephony, in Georgia," into Service OfficeGoes 5 Digital Central 39 "FirstClass 1977,pp.M-25. Feb.1972,pp. Bell LabsRecord, LinesGo Electronic," Jr,, "Customer 40 F. T. Andrews, 59*64. "Digital Loopcarriersystems," Bell andc. H. sharpless, G. A. Nelson, 4l M, T. Manfred, pp. I 129-1142. Joumal,Apr. 1978, Technical System "Thesubscriber Loopcarier system andG. R. t eopold, 42 S.J. Brolin,G. E. Harrington, , pp. ll9-122. GetsEvenBetter,"BeIl labs Record,May1977 "Insidethe New Digital 43 S. Brolin, Y. s. cho, w. P. Michaud,andD. H. williamson, Belt l-absRecord,Apr' 1980'pp. I 10- I I 6. Loop System," Subscriber "A 'smart' slc carrier Meetsthe changing 44 G. E. HarringtonandR. w, wyndrum, Natureof servicesin the EvolvingDigital Loop," Bell l-absRecord,sept. 1985,pp. l3-17. "Digital anda LocalDigital System DigitalLoopCarrier theSLC-96 Between Interface 45 Aug' 1987' Bellcore, TR-TSY-000008, Requirement$, Switch,"BellcoreTeohnical 'DataUnderVoice,"' "lA Put Terminals RadioDigital 46 R. R. GradyandJ. w. tuupT, 16l-166. 1974,pp. Bell LabsRecord,May January29' 1975,modifyingFCC Opinionand Order,released 4'7 FCC Memorandum 27,1974. September l, released l93l andOrderofDocket Report "Digital Digital MicrowaveTransmission Economics," Transmission 48 W. S. Chaskin, Sept.I 978. sium,RockwellInternational, ering Sympo Engine "AT&T's Digital NetworkEvolution,"IEEE International Conference 49 R. C. Hansen, pp. 198'l'l -1. 1.5. 1987, on Communications, "Research Communication," Integrated Model for Time-Separation 50 H. E. Vaughan, pp.909-932' Joumal,July 1959' BelISystemTechnical 'ElectronicTranslator IEEE for Toll Switching," System 5l B. T. FoughtandC. J. Funk, June1970'p. 168. on Communications, Transactions

PROBLEMS l.l of absolute andmilliwatts of picowatts in terms 33 dBmCof noise Express power.

72

BACKGROUND ANDTEHMINOLOGY

1.2 Twenty-seven picowatts of noisewith a flat spectrum between 0 and3 kHz is how manydBmC? 1.3 A valueof 30dBrnc0 is howmanypicowarts of absolute powerat a -3-dB noise TLP? t.4 An idle-channel noisepowermeasurement of 2l dBrnc occurs at a -7-dB TLp. Express the noisepowerof this measurement in dBrnc0 and determine what powermeasurement thisnoisewouldproduce pointin thecircuitthat at another is designated asa -2-dB TLP. 1.5 A transmission link has14dBrn of absolute noisepowerat a -13-dB TLp input testpointand27 dBmof absolute noi$e powerat a -3-dB TLp outputte$tpoint. How muchabsolute noiseis added on thetransmission link? r.6 A transmission link with a -Z-dB TLp at the rransmit endanda -4-dB-TLp at thereceive endis partof a voicecircuitthatproduces thefollowingidle-channel noisemeasurements: 18 dBrnc0 at the transmitend and20 dBrnc0 at the receiveend.what is the conrribution (in pwp0) of the transmission link toward thetotal absolute powerat thereceive end? 1.7 why is echocontrolunnece$sary on short-delay voiceconnections? what about singing?

WHYDIGITAL?
The first chapterprovides an overview of an analog telephonenetwork and a brief introduction to digital ffansmission and switching technology introduced to replace of digi' the basic technical advantages older analog equipment.This chapterdiscusses tal implementationsthat stimulated the replacementof the analog systems.

VOICENETWORKS OF DIGITAL 2.1 ADVANTAGES

A list of technical featuresof digital communicationsnetworks is provided in Table 2. L Thesefeaturesare listed in the order that the author considersto be their relative importancefor generaltelephony.In particular applications,however, certain considerationsmay be more or lesssignificant. For instance,the last item, easeof encryption, is a dominant feature favoring digital networks for the military. Most of the featuresof digital voice networks listed in Table 2.1 and discussedin the following paragraphspertain to advantagesof digital hansmission or switching relative to analog counteryarts.In some instances,however, the featurespertain only to all-digital networks. Encryption, for example,is practical and generallyuseful only is establishedat the sourceand translatedback into if the secureform of the message Thus an end-to-enddigital systemthat operates destination. only at the the clear form of the traffic (i.e., provides transparenttransmission) the nature knowledge of with no applications. For similar reasonsend-to-end for digital encryption requirement is a of data (no modem)-When a nettransmission for direct is needed transmission digital universal use of the netdigital equipment, analog and mixture of consists of a work to the leastcommon dictates conformance transmission as data for services such work analog channel. network: the of the denominator

2.1.1 Ease of Multiplexing telephony to general werefirst applied l, digitaltechniques in Chapter As mentioned thesesystems In essence, in interofficeT-carrier(time divisionmultiplex)systems. pathfor thecostof multiplepairs of a transmission costs at theends electionics traded 73

74

WHYDIGITAL? TABLE 2.1 Technical Advantages ot Dlgltar communlcations Networks

1. Ease0l multiplexing 2. Ease of signaling 3. U$eof modern technology 4. lntegration of kansmission andswitching 5. Signal regeneration 6. Performance monitorability 7. Accommodation of other services 8. Operability at lowsignal-to-noi$e/intederence ratios L Easeof encryption'

of wires between them.(A hade that is morecost effectiveeveryyear.)Although FDM of analogsignals hadalsobeenusedto reduce cablecosts, FDM equipment is muchmoreexpensive thanTDM equipment, evenwhenthecostof digitization is included. After voicesignals havebeendigitized, TDM equipment costsarequitesmall by comparison. Sincedigitization occurs only at thefirst levelof theTDM hierarchy, high-leveldigitalTDM is evenmoreeconomical thanhigh-level FDM counrerpans. It shouldbe pointedout thatTDM of analogsignals is alsovery simpleanddoes not require digitization of rhesample values. Thedrawback of analog TDM lies in the vulnerabilityof nanow analog pulses to noise,distortion, crosstalk, andintersymbol interference. Thesedegradations cannotbe removed by regeneration as in a digital system. Hence, analog TDM is not feasible except for noiseless, distortion-free environments.* In essence theability to regenerate a signal, evenat theexpense ofgreater bandwidth, is almosta requirement for TDM fransmission. 2.1.2 Eaeeof Slgnating control information(e.g.,on-hook/off-hook, address digits,coin deposits) is inherentlydigital and,hence, readilyincorporated into a digitalFansmission system. one means of incorporating controlinformationinto a digital transmission link involves time division multiplexingthe control as a separate but easilyidentifiablecontrol channel' Anotherapproach involvesinserting special controlcodes into themessage channel andhavingdigital logic in thereceiving terminals decode that controlinformation'In eithercase, as far asthe transmission sy$tem is concerned, controlinformationis indistinguishable from message haffic. In contrast, analog transmission sy$tems required special attention for controlsignaling.Many analogtransmission presented systems uniqueandsometimes difficult environments for inserting controlinformation. An unfortunate resultwasthatmany varieties of controlsignalformats andprocedures evolved for theanalog network. The controlformats depend on thenature of boththetransmission system undit, terminal
.Aoulog TDM has been used in a fbw telephone applications. Farinon's SubscriberRadio System [l ], for example, used'pulse-width-modulated TDM. As discussedin Chapter 5 some older PBXs also used analog TDM.

VOICE NETWORKS 75 OF DIGITAL 2.1 ADVANTAGES

had controlinformation networksubsystems between In someinterfaces equipment. to be convertedfrom one format to another.Signalingon analoglinks thereforereptelephone andfinancialburdento the operating resented a significantadministrative companies. costsa$removed mostof the signaling signaling The moveto common-channel subindividual situation for change the with interofficetrunksbut did not sociated channel. the message facility as on the same scriber lines,which mustcarrysignaling relative to analog costs thesignaling lines(DSLs)reduces Theuseof digitalsubscriber telephone' a digital lines,which helpsoffsetthehighercostof a DSL and subscriber in ChapterI l. of ISDN, asdescribed aspect DSLsarea fundamental into andexto be inserted allow controlinformation digital systems In summary, medium of thetransmission of thenature stream independently from a message ffacted (e.g., cable,fiber, microwave,satellite).Thus the signalingequipmentcan (and It thenfollowsthatconsystem. from thetransmission separately bedesigned should) subsysof thetransmission canbemodifiedindependently andformats trol functions impacting without be upgraded can systems digital transmission Conversely, tem. at eitherendofthe link. controlfunctions
2.1.3 Use of Modern TechnologY

A multiplexer or switching matrix for time division digital signals is implemented with the samebasic circuits used to build digital computers:logic gatesand memory. The basic crosspoint of a digital switch is nothing more than an AND gate with one signal and other inputs usedfor control (crosspoint logic input assignedto the mes$age selection).Thus the dramatic developmentsof digital integratedcircuit technology for computer logic circuits and memory are applicable directly to digital transmissionand switching fiystems.In fact, many standardcircuits developedfor use in computersare directly usable in a switching matrix or multiplexer. Figure 2.1 shows the basic implementation of a l6-channel, bit-interleaved, digital time division multiplexer using common digital logic circuits. As indicated, the multiplexing function involves nothing more than cyclically sampling the 16 input data streams.Such an operation assumesall of the data streamsare synchronizedto eachother. As discussedin Chapter 7, the processof synchronizing the data sffeamsrequires logic circuitry that is much the implementationof TDM is much more complicatedthan that shown. Nevertheless, less expensivethan analog FDM. of modern technology have been achievedby using largeEven greateradvantages (LSD designedspecifically for telecommunicationsfunctions circuits scaleintegrated such as voice encoding/decoding,multiplexing/demultiplexing, switching matrices, digital signal processing(DSP). Digital sigand general-purpose and special-purpose nal processingfunctions are describedin Section 2'2. The relative low cost and high performanceof digital circuits allows digital implementationsto be used in some applicationsthat are prohibitively expensivewhen implemented with comparableanalog components.Completely nonblocking switches, for example, are not practical with conventional analog implementations, except in

76

WHYDIGITAL?

f;TATA*l
.rr BA F
a t t

BA

4 Bit Gounter

Figure 2.1 Sixteen-to-one TDM multiplexer. small sizes.In a modern digital switch the cost of the switching matrix itself is relatively insignificant. Thus, for medium-size applications,the size of the switch matrix can be increasedto provide nonblocking operations,if desired.The automaticcall distributor developedby collins-Rockwell [2] is an early exampleof a digital switch operating in an analog environment. A digital implementation was chosen largely becauseit could economically provide a nonblocking operation. The benefits ofmodern device technology arenot confined to digital circuits alone. Analog integrated circuits have also progressed significantly, allowing traditional analog implementationsto improve appreciably.one of the primary requirementsof an analog component, however, is that it be linear. It appears,if only becauseof researchand developmentemphasis,that fast digital componentsare ea$ierto manufacture than linear analog counterparts.In addition, digital implementations appear to have an inherent functional advantageover analog implementations.This advantage is derived from the relative easewith which digital signals can be multiplexed. A major limitation with the full use of LSI componentsresults from limited availability of external connectionsto the device. with time division multiplex techniques,a single physical pin can be used for multiple-channel accessinto the device. Thus the same technique usedto reducecostsin transmissionsystemscan also be usedwithin a local module to minimize the interconnectionsand maximize the utilization of very large scaleintegration. In the end, a "switch on a chip" is possibleonly if a great number of channelscan be multiplexed onto a relatively small number of external connections. The technological development to have the most significant impact on the telephonenetwork is certainly fiber optic transmission.Although fibers themselvesdo not favor digital transmissionover analogtransmission,the interface electronicsto a fiber

VOICE NETWORKS 77 OFDIGITAL 2.1 ADVANTAGES

systemfunction primarily in an on-off (nonlinear)modeof operation.Thus digital is comanalog opticaltechnology although fiberapplications, dominates transmission videodistribution. monlyusedin analog 2.1.4 Integratlon of Transmis$lon and $wltching networks of telephone and switchingsystems Traditionallythe analogtransmission In theoporganizations. independent by functionally andadministered weredesigned outside to as are referred classes thesetwo equipment companies, eratingtelephone provide standnecessarily Theseequipments plant and inside plant, respectively. indewasfunctionally equipment intdrfaces, but,otherthanthat,transmission ardized pendent of switchingequipment. areaand into the exchange When TDM of digital voice signalswas introduced apparent digital switching,it became beganconsidering engineers communications In fact, werevery similarto time divisionswitchingfunctions. thatTDM operations generate first-level digital switches stages of the first later chapters, in as described links.Thusthe transmission to analog evenwheninterfaced by nature, TDM signals into the integrated can be easily system of a transmission multiplexingoperations equipment. switching in Figure2.2.Thedeis shown thetwo systems of integrating Thebasicadvantage and (channel officesis unnecessary, banks)at the swirching multiplexingequipment If bothendsof thedigitalTDM trunks is eliminated. switchingequipment first-stage are integratedinto a digital switch, the channelbanksat both endsof the trunk are aredigitizedat or nearthe networkvoice signals In a totally integrated eliminated. all interFurthermore, to their destination. delivered until sourceandremaindigitized signals carry exclusively' TDM system a switching office trunksandintemallinks of exceptat theperiphThusfirst-level multiplexinganddemultiplexingarenonexistent is machines into $witching of DSI signals ery of the nerwork.Althoughintegration

Figure 2.2 Integration of transmission and switching: (a) nonintegrated nansmission and swirching, (b) integrated time time division switching and transmission.

78

WHYDIGITAL?

commonplace, integration of higherlevel signals is complicated by higherlevelmultiplexingformats(pulsestuffing)described in chapter7. A newermultiplexingformat (soNET) described in chapter 8 has someoperational modesthar are more amenable to directinterconnection into a switching sy$tem. Integrationof transmission and switchingfunctionsnot only eliminates much equipment but alsogreatlyimproves end-to-end voicequality.By eliminating multiple analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog conversions and by using low-error-rate transmission links, voicequaliryis determined only by theencoding/decoding pnxesses. In summary, theimplementation benefits of a fully integrated digitalnetworkare: I' Long-distance voicequalityis identicalto local voicequality in all aspects of noise,signallevel,anddistortion. 2. since digital circuits are inherentlyfour-wire,network-generated echoes are eliminated, andtruefull-duplex,four-wiredigitalcircuitsareavailable. 3. Cableentrance requirement$ andmainframe distribution of wire pairsis greafly reduced because all trunksareimplemented assubchannels of a TDM signal. 2.1.5 Signal Regeneration As described morefully in thenextchapter, therepresentation of voice(or anyanalog signal)in a digitalformatinvolvesconvefting thecontinuous analog waveform into a sequence of discrete sample values. Eachdiscrete sample valueis represented by some number of binarydigitsof information. when transmitted, eachbinarydigit is represented by only oneof two possible (e.g., signalvalues apulseversus nopulse or apositive pulseversusa negative pulse).The receiver's job is to decidewhich discrete valueswereffansmitted andrepresent the message asa sequence of binary-encoded discrete message samples. If only smallamounts of noise,interference. or distortion areimpressed uponthesignalduringtansmission, thebinarydatain thereceiver are identical to thebinarysequence generated duringthedigitization or encoding process. As shownin Figure2.3,thetransmission process, despite theexistence of certain imperfections, does not altertheessential nature of theinformation. Of course, if theimperfections cause sufficient changes in thesignal, detection errors occurandthebinary datain thereceiver doesnot represent theoriginaldataexactly. A fundamental attribute of a digital system is that theprobabilityof transmission errors canbemade arbitrarilysmallby inserting regenerative repeaters at intermediate pointsin the transmission link. If spaced closeenoughtogether, theseintermediate nodes detectandregenerate the digital signals beforechannel-induced degradations

H:gmretiw rGgdtr

Ftfttratiw rlPcrtcr

Figure 2.3

Signal regenerationin a digital repeaterline.

VOICE NETWORKS79 OFDIGITAL 2.1 ADVANTAGES becomelarge enoughto causedecision effors. As demonshatedin Chapter4, the endto-end error rate can be made arbitrarily small by inserting a sufficient number of regenerationnodesin the transmissionlink. The most direct benefit of the regenerationprocessis the ability to localize the efon any particular regenerated As long as the degradations fects of signal degradations. segmentof a transmissionlink do not causeerrors, their effects areeliminated. In contrast, signal impairments in analog transmissionaccumulatefrom one segmentto the next. Individual subsystemsof a large analog network must be designed with tight controls on the transmissionperformance to provide acceptableend-to-end quality. An individual subsystemof a digital network, on the other hand, need only be designed to ensurea certain minimum error rate-usually a readily realizable goal. When an all-digital network is designedwith enough regenerationpoints to effectively eliminate channel errors, the overall ffansmissionquality of the network is determined by the digitization process and not by the transmission systems' The analog-to-digital conversion process inherently introduces a loss of signal fidelity by discretesamsincethe continuousanalogsourcewaveform can only be represented ple values.By establishingenoughdiscretelevels, however, the analog waveform can with as little conversion error as desired.The increasedresolution rebe represented quire$ more bits and consequentlymore bandwidth for transmission.Hence, a digital transmission sy$tem readily provides a trade-off between transmission quality and bandwidth. (A similar trade-off exists for frequency-modulatedanalog signals.)

Monitorability 2.1.6 Performance

signal structurein a digital transmisAn additional benefit of the source-independent with no knowlcan be ascertained quality received signal of the is that the sion system to produce link is designed The transmission of the traffic. edge of the nature other than receive signal, in the Any deviation well-defined pulseswith discretelevels. in transmission a degradation represents in the design, nominal amount$planned for quality. In general,analog systemscannot be monitored or testedfor quality while in service since the transmitted signal sfucture is unknown. FDM signals typically include pilot signals to measurechannel continuity and power levels. The power level of a pilot is an effective meansof estimatingthe signal-to-noiseratio-only in a fixednoise environment.Hence, noise and distortion are sometimesdeterminedby measuring the energy level in an unusedmessageslot or at the edge of the signal passband' In neither case,however, is the quality of an in-service channel being measureddirectly. One common method of measuring the quality of a digital transmissionlink is to add parity, or cyclic redundancycheck (CRC), bits to the messagestream.The redundancy introduced to the data streamenablesdigital logic circuits in a receiver to readily ascertainchannel error rates. If the error rate exceedssome nominal value, the transmissionlink is degraded. Another technique for measuring in-service transmission qualiry is used in T-cartier in the signal waveform lines. This techniqueinvolves monitoring certainredundancies

80

WHYDIGITAL?

itself' Whentheredundancy pattern at thereceiver deviates from normal.decision errorshaveoccurred. A complete description of theline codingformatused in T-carrier $ystems is provided in Chapter 4. Othermethods of measuring transmission qualityin digital systems arediscussed in Chapters 4 and6. 2.1.7 Accommodatlon of Other Services It waspreviously pointed outthata digitaltransmission system readilyaccommodates conffol(signaling) information. This factis representative of a fundamental aspect of digital transmission: any digitally encoded message (whetherinherentlydigital or convefted from analog) presents a coillmonsignalformatto thetransmission system. Thusthetransmission system need provideno special attention to individualservices andcan,in fact, be totally indifferent to the natureof the traffic it carries. In an analog networkthetransmission standard is the4-kHzvoicecircuit.All special services suchasdataor facsimile mustbetransformed to ,,looklike voice."In particular,datasignals mustbeconverted to ananalog formatthrough theuseof modems. Thestandard analog channel wa$necessarily optimized for voicequality.In sodoing, certaintransmission characteristics (suchas the phaseresponse and impulse noise)received lessattention thanmorenoticeable voicequalityimpairments. Some lessemphasized considerations, phase distortion in particular, arecriticalfor high-rate dataservices. Useof an analognetworkfor nonvoice services oftenrequires special compensation for variousanalog transmission impairments. If the analogchannel is toopoor,it maybe unusable for a particular application. In contrast, themainparameter ofquality in a digital system is theerrorrate.Low-error-rate channels arereadily obtainable. Whendesired, theeffectsof channel errorscanbe effectivelyeliminated with errorcontrolprocedures implemented by theuser. An additional benefitof the common transmission formatis ttrattraffic from differenttypes of sources canbeintermixed in a single transmission medium withoutmutual interference. The useof a commonffansmission mediumfor analogsignalsis sometimes complicated because individualservices require differinglevelsof quality. For example, television signals, whichrequire greater transmission qualitythanvoice signals, werenot usuallycombined with FDM voicechannels in a wideband analos transmission system [3]. 2.1.8 Operabillty at Low Slgnal-to-Noiee/tnteileronceRailos Noise and inted'erence in an analogvoice networkbecomemost apparent during pauses speech whenthesignalamplitude is low. Relatively smallamounts of noise occuring duringa speech pause canbe quiteannoying to a listener. The same levelsof noiseor interference arevirtuallyunnoticeable whenspeech is present. Hence it is the absolute noiselevelof anidle channel thatdetermines analog speech quality.Subjective evaluations of voice quality t4, 5l led to maximumnoiselevel standards of 2g dBmcO(-62 dBm0)for short-haul systems and34 dBrnc0 (-56 dBm0)for long-haul systems. For comparison, the powerlevel of an activetalkeris typically -16 dBm0.

2.2 DIGITALSIGNALPBOCESSING

81

are46 and ratiosin analognetworks signal-to-noise end-to-end Thusrepresentative ratios on indiSignal-to-noise respectively. 40 dB for short-andlong-haulsystems, higherarenecessarily systems vidualhansmission with a particulardatapatternand pause$ are encoded In a digital systemspeech virsignalregeneration Because powerlevelasactivespeech. at thesame transmitted is noise demedium, idle channel in thetransmission all noisearising tuallyeliminates pauses link. Thusspeech process andnot thetransmission by the encoding termined As discussed system. noiselevelsastheydo in an analog maximum do not determine performance at signallinks providevirtuallyerror-free 4, digitalfansmission in Chapter used' on thetypeof line codingor modulation ratiosof 15-25 dB, depending to-noise more is sometimes system to rejectcrosstalk The ability of a digital transmission One of noise. levels ofrandom high in relatively to operate rhan its ability significant netof the analog maintenance design and in the considerations themosttroublesome The problemwas conversations. between work was the needto eliminatecrosstalk was at maxiinterfering channel while an one channel on mostacuteduringpauses The noticeable. would be crosstalk mum power.At thesetimesrelativelylow level violated therefore and if it was intelligible crosstalkwas particularlyundesirable on signals low-amplitude pau$es do not produce privacy.Again, speech someone's digia constant-amplitude links maintain links.Thetransmission digitaltransmission process in by theregeneration areeliminated tal signal.Thus,low levelsof crosstalk to cau$e is of sufficientamplitude Evenif thecrosstalk or receiver. a digital repeater areunintelligiblenoiseand,as$uch, asrandom theeffectsappear errors, detection a greater bandwidththan typically needs the fact that a digital system Considering greater and crosstalk imply wider bandwidths and ttrat system analog a comparable pafily of a digital a requirement is lower SNRs operate the at ability to noiselevels, system andpartlyan advantage. 2.1.9 Ease of Encryptlon with the ease usershavelittle needfor voice encryption, Althoughmost telephone a digital means that and unscrambled scrambled canbe [6] which a digitalbit $tream with sensitive for users an extrabonus provides network(or a digitalcellularsystem) encrypt andis gendifficult to voiceis muchmore analog In contrast, conversations. of common discussion voice.For a a$digitally encrypted erally not nearlyassecure preAs mentioned see references techniques, voiceencryption [7], [8], and[9]. analog by themiliearlyuseof digital voicesystems stimulated of encryption viously,ease tary.

2.2 DIGITALSIGNAL PROCESSING of digital technologyin implethe advantages emphasize The precedingparagraphs apAnothersignificant of a network. $ystems andswitching thetansmission menting Basically,signal plication of digital technologyis the areaof signalprocessing.

82

WHY DIGITAL?

processingrefers to an operationon a signal to enhanceor transform its characteristics. Signal processingcan be applied to either analogor digital waveforms. Amplif,rcation, equalization, modulation, and filtering are cofilmon examples of signal processing functions. Digital signal processing(DSP) refers to the use of digital logic and arithmetic circuits to implement signal processingfunctions on digitized signal waveforms. sometimes analog signals are converted to digital representations for the expresspurpose ofprocessing them digitally. Then the digital representations ofthe processedsignals are converted back to analog. These operationsare illustrated in Figure 2.4, where a sine wave comrpted by noise is digitally filtered to remove the noise. The main advantagesof digitally processingsignal waveforms are listed in Table 2.2. It is important to point out that DSP in this context refers to the technology usedto condition, manipulate, or otherwise transform a signal waveform (a digitizert representationthereof). In another context signal processingrefers to the interpretation of conffol signalsin a network by the control processorsof switching $ystems. In the latter casethe logical interpretationofa control code is processedand not an underlying signal waveform

2.2.1 DSPApplications
The following four sectionsidentify applications of DSP that either representlower cost solutions to functions that have beentraditionally implementedwith analogtechnology or are functions that have no practical implementationcounterpartwith analog technology.

Echo Cancellers
The cost and pedormanceof DSP echo cancellershave improved to the point that they can be justified for any long-distancecircuit, thereby providing full-duplex circuits (no echo suppression)and no artificial attenuation (no via net loss). A particularly critical needfor echo cancellationoccur$in high-speed,full-duplex data modemsthat incorporate near-end echo cancellation-an unnece$sary requirement for voice circuits. Furthermore, low-cost echo canceling enablespacket-switchedvoice applications that inffoduce artificial delays that are not accommodatedin normal analoe

Anrlog input

Anelog to digitrl

Dieitd dFrl procarEof

Digit l to
fido0

Anrlog ouFut

Figure 2.4

Digital signal processingof an analog signal.

srcNAL PHocE$slNG 83 a.a DrcrrAL Features TABLE2.2 DigltalSlgnalProceeslng elements and parasitic circuit$ to smallimperfections The immunity of digital Reproducibilitltr line without characteri$tics operational withconsistent canbe pioducdd imiliesthatcircuits or aging tolerances. adjustments and type.s of signal canbe usedfor a variety A single basicstructure Programmability -changing memory. in a digital specification or parameilic an algorithmic by'merely applications by signals processing canbe usedfor multiple circuit digital signal A single Timesharing'. each memory andprocessing in random-access retuftsbf eachprocess temforary storing lashion. (time-divided) signal in a cyclic circuit aredigital. of a digital signalprocessing inputs andoutputs Since the Automatic fesfi in stored to datapatterns testresponses routinely by comparing data, testscanbe perlormed memory. logic, digital.signal of digital capahilities Because of thedecision-making versatititr. withanalog or impractical functions thatareimpossible processing many canporform implementations.

logic and delay requirementsof a switched network echo intedaces. The aclaptation canceller virfually preclude any type of analog implementation.

Tone Receivers realized tones is easilyandeconomically of DTMF, MF, SF,or otheranalog Detection of for the explicitpurpose signals to digitalrepresentations the analog by converting when is evenmoreeconomical a DSPimplementation detecting the tone.Of course, within a digitalswitch.Theprogramwhichis thecase digitized, arealready thetones one because usefulfor tonereceivers of a DSPcircuit is particularly mability feature differentfilby selecting for multiplefunctions canbeused hardware implementation on the application depending ter options(programs) [10]. Hlgh-Spead Modems mo(e.g.,?8.8-kbps) voiceband (low bit errorrates) of high-speed Reliable operation modulation networkrequiressophisticated dems[tI] over the switchedtelephone referred to signalconditioning (described 6) anttsophisticated in Chapter techniques is with functions these way to implement Theonly practical equalization. asadaptive of DSPto a 14,400-bps an earlyapplication DSPcircuitry.Reference il21 describes of a 400equalization the useof DSPfor adaptive Reference modem. [13] describes because equalizers digital radiosusedanalogadaptive Mbps digital radio.Previous equalizdigital radiosrequiremoresophisticated Very-high-rate they werecheaper. possible) DSP. (perhaps with only to implement ers,whichareeasier Low-Bit-Rate Voice E ncodi n g 3 inin Chapter described algorithms voiceencoding of low-bit-rate The realization voice digitized in the redundancy processing to remove numerical volve$extensive algothese means of implementing is the only economical DSPtechnology samples. implemendescribe DSP and References real-time basis. rithmson a [16] [14], [15], Reference respectively. voicecoders, [17]describes tations for32-,16-,and4.8-kbps to voice compression' of DSP application general theory and moreof the

84

WHYDIGITAL?

2.3 DISADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL VOICENETWORKS

The first pafr of this chapter discussed the basictechnical advantages of digital networks.To balance the discussion, this section reviewsthe basictechnical disadvantages of digitalimplemenrarions aslistedin Table2.3. 2.3.1 IncreaeedBandwidth In thebrief introduction to voicedigitization presented in Chapter 1,mention is made thattransmission of samples of ananalog waveform requires no morebandwidth than theunderlyingwaveform(at leastin theory).Thebandwidth expansion comes when thesamples areencoded intobinarycodes andffansmitted with anindividualpulsefor eachbit in the code.Thus a Tl system requires approximately eight timesas much bandwidth asdo 24 analog voicechannels since each sample is represented by an8-bit codeword andeachbit is transmitted asa separate discrete pulse.Althoughmoresophisticated digitization algorithms canbe used to encode voiceat a lowerbit ratethan thatusedon Tl systems (64 kbps),eventhemostsophisticated algorithms (described in chapter3) cannot providecomparable voicequalitywithoutat leasta rwo-to-one bandwidth penalty. In some portions of theanalog network,suchasthelocalloops,thebandwidth increase did not represent muchof a penaltysincethe inherent bandwidth was(andis) underutilized. In long-haul radiosystems, however, bandwidth wasat apremium, and digital systems wererelativelyinefficientin termsof the numberof voicechannels provided.one mitigatingaspect of a digital radio system is its ability to overcome higherlevelsof noiseandinterference, which sometimes provides compensation for the bandwidthrequirements, particularlyin congested transmission environments wheremutualinterference canbecome a limiting consideration ro[3]. The inherent bustness of a digital system with respect to interference is oneimportant attribute of digitalcellularsy$tems described in Chapter 9. Thebandwidth penaltyimposed by voicedigitizationis directlydependenr on the form of transmission codingor modulation used.With greater sophistication in the modulation/demodulation equipment, greater efficiencyin termsof the bit ratein a givenbandwidth is achievable. Basically, greater transmission efficiencyis achieved by increasing thenumber of levels in theline code. power. With limitedtransmit however,thedistances between discrete signallevelsin thereceiver arereduced dramatiTABLE2.3 Dlsadvantages of Digitallmplementatlona 1. Increased bandwidth 2. Need fortimesynchronization 3. Topologically restricted muttiplexing 4. Need for conference/extension bridges 5. Incompatibilities withanalog lacitities

VOICE NETWORKS85 OFDIGITAL 2.3 DISADVANTAGES cally. Thus, the transmitted signal is no longer as immune to noise And other imperfections as it is with lower information densities Using a combination of advanceddigital modulation, lower rate digitization, and error-correcting codes,point-to-point digital radios could provide voice channel efficiencies comparableto or even better than analog microwave systems.Full development along these Iines never occuffed, however, becausethe emergenceof optical fiber transmission eliminated the incentive to do so.

2,3.2 Needfor TimeSynchronlzation

a timing reffrom oneplaceto another, is transmitted digitalinformation Whenever "clock," when to samspecifies The clock the hansfer. to control is needed or erence, optimum The transmitted. value was data decide which ple the incomingsignalto pulses. Thus,for opto themiddleof thetransmitted iampletimesusuallycorrespond times'In pulse arrival the to be synchronized clock must the sample timumdetection, is not signal the digital for detecting reference timing ofa local general, thegeneration to establish needed considerations the design some of 4 discusses aimcutt. Chapter linft' of a digital transmission propersample clockingin thereceiver links of digital transmission a number when however, problems anse, More subtle elethe individual must Not only to form a network. areinterconnected andswitches networkwide certain but also mentsof thenetworkmaintaininternalsynchronization, can beforetheindividualsubsystems procedures mustbe established synchronization resynchronization basic network these 7 discusses properly.Chapter interoperate quirements andimplementations. Single' is not uniqueto digital nefivorks' form of synchronization Theneedfor some synchrofor carrier present similarrequirements systems FDM transmission sideband however,the synchronization nization in analog networks.In analog sy$tems, of magnitude I I 8]' arelesscriticalby abouttwo orders requirements 2.3.3 Topologically Restricted Multlplexing for services is broadcast useof multiplexing public,themostapparent To the general of individFDM by using is shared theairspace systems In these radioandtelevision. With this systemthereare no operationalrestrictionsto the channels. ual broadcast confine As long asthetransmitters andreceivers. geographic locationof transmitters sea sufficiently uses andeachreceiver bandwidth to their assigned theii emissions mutual inwithout the networkoperates lective filter to passonly the desiredchannel, to applications terference.On the other hand, TDM is not nearly as amenable Sincethe time of ardvalof datain a anddestinations. source$ involvingdistributed requirea TDM systems of havel, distributed on the distance time slot is dependent the between alsorequireguardbands time slots.FDM systems guardtime between guardbands, Thewidth ofthe FDM separation. channel adequate channels to achieve In a TDM locationof the transmitters. on the geographic is not dependent however, transbetween separation asthegeographic timesmustbe increased theguard $ystem

86

WHY DIGITAL?

mitters increases. Furthermore,eachtime division sourcemust duplicate the synchronization and time slot recognition logic neededto operatea TDM $ystem.For these reason$, TDM has been usedprimarily in applications(e.g., interoffice trunks) where all of the information source$are centrally located and a single multiplexer controls the occurrenceand assignmentof time slots. Time division multiple access(TDMA) satellites and cellular systemsare examples of applicationsof TDM for distributed sources.These systemsuse sophisticated synchronizationtechniquesso that each ground station or mobile unit times its hansmission to arrive at the satelliteor basestation at precisely defined times, allowing the use of small guard times between time slots. Notice that these applications involve only one destination; a satellite or a base station. If an application involves multiple, distributed solurcesand destinatians (with transmissionin more than one direction), larger guard times are unavoidable. Figure 2.5 shows such an application but uses FDM insteadof TDM. The main engineeringconsiderationfor this systemis to ensure that the FDM channelshave sufficient isolation to allow a high-powered sourceto be adjacentto a receiverwith the worst-casereceivelevel. obviously, adequate FDM isolation require$a certain amount of bandwidth overhead,but it is usually fairly easyto design filters with adequate isolation for a large rangeofsignal levels so distanceconsiderationsare minimized.

2.3.4 Needfor Conference/Extension Brldges

The processof combining multiple analog signals to form a conferencecaII or function as multiple extensionson a single telephoneline can be accomplishedby merely bridging the wire pairs togetherto superimpose all signals.Nowhere is this more convenient than when multiple extensions share a single two-wire line, as indicated in Figure 2.6. When digitized voice signalsare combined to form a conference.either the signals must be converted to analog so they can be combined on two-wire analog bridges or the digital signals must be routed to a digital conferencebridge, as shown in Figure 2.l.The digital bridge selectively adds the (four-wire) signals together (using digital signal processing)and routes separate sumsback to the confereesas shown.
FDM srbchrnnels

Multipoint trmcni$ion line

Figure 2.5 Frequency divisionmultiplexing on distributed multipointline,

VOICE NETWORKS 87 OF DIGITAL E.3 DISADVANTAGES

to two-wireline' connected Figure 2.6 Analogtelephones When conferencing is implemented in associationwith a switching system, the and in fact can signeedfor a digital conferencebridge is not much of a disadvantage nificantly improve the quality of a conferenceby eliminating echoesand signal loss causedby power division. However, when digital extensionsneedto have their signals combined so multiple extensionscan be active in a conversation,the need for a centralized bridge can be an onerousproblem. Residentialtelephonewiring typically follows a daisy-chain pattern, as indicated in Figure 2.6. Thus the need to rewire all outlets and install a centralizedconferencebox is a significant impediment to the deployment of digital station equipment in residential applications'

with Analog Faclllties 2.3.5 Incompatiblllties it networks, was first usedin privateandpublic telephone Whendigital equipment Sometimes the network. rest of to the interfaces analog providedstandard necessarily exThe foremost a majorcostof the digitat subsystem. represented theseinterfaces loop subscriber analog Thestandard in digitalendoffices. arose ample of thissituation switching with electronic incompatible 1 is particularly in Chapter described interface its complicates that switching of digital aspect Another (analog or digital). machines mahix' digital a typical inserted by delay aftificial is the environments usein analog 5' in Chapter arediscussed of digital switching aspects Both of these usedigital subis to interface the analog problems with the Oneway to eliminate in investment the overwhelming Unfortunately, loopsanddigital telephones. scriber of digital deployment a widespread complicates telephones the loop plantfor analog thatcomplicate of thelong-established Most notable Practices equipment. subscriLer

Digital Conference Bridge bridgefor digitaltelephones. Figure 2.7 Useof conference

88

WHYDIGITAL?

a transitionto digital loopsaresinglewire pairs,loadingcoils,bridgedtaps,-highresistance or intermittent splices, and wiring gaugechanges. The digital subscriber loop systems described in ChapterI I accommodate mostof the aboveimpediments but do sowith very sophisticated DSp circuip.

REFERENCES I sft-15-76 subscriber Radio, Technical Description, Farinon sR systems, euebec,

2 Canada,1977. R. J. Hirvela,"The Applicationof computerconkolled pcM swirchingto Automatic call Disfibution," IEEE communicafions ,sysferns and Technology conference, Dallas,TX, May 1974. M. R. Aaron, "Digital communicarions-The silent (R)evorution?"IEEE Communications Magafine,Jan.197g, pp. 16_26. I. Nasell,"The lg62 survey of Noise and Loss on Toll connections."Bel/,svsrern Technical Joumal,Mar. 1964, pp. 697-718. Technical staff, Bell relephone L,aboratories, Transmission systems for communications, westem Electriccompany,winston-salem, North carolina. Feb. 1970. H. J. Hindin, "LSI-Based DataEncryptionDiscourages the Data Thief,,,Electronics. June 21, 1979, pp. 107-120. N. S.Jayant, B. J. McDermott, s. w. chrisrensen, andA. M. Quinn,.-AComparison of Four Methods for Analog speech Encryption," Intemational communication, Conference Record, 1980, pp. 16.6, l-16.6.5. A. Gersho andR. steele,Ed., "specialIssue on Encryption of Analogsignals,"rEEE fournal on Selected Areasin Communicariorrs, May 19g4. H. J. Bekerand F. Piper,"speechscrambring," speechTechnology,Mar,/Apr. r9g7, pp.40-45. "A single-chip,4-channel A. Fukui andY. Fujihashi, MFATFC/PB Receiver,"IEEE Globe comConfe renc e Re mrd, 1987, pp. I 2.6.I - I 2.6.4. "A Modem operatingat DatasignalingRates Up to 2g,gfi)bpsfor use on rheGeneral point-to-point2-wire Telephone_Type switchedTelephone Network and on Leased Circuits,"ITU-T Rec.V.34, Geneva, Switzerland, Sept.1994. "rrellis coding T. Kamitake, K. uehara,M. Abe, and s. Kawamura, 14.4kb/s Dara ModemImplemented with a single-chip High-speed Digital signatilocessor,"rEEE Globecom Confe renceRecord,I 987,pp. I 2.9.I - I 2.9.6. H. Matsue,T. shirato, and K. watanabe,"256 eAM 400 Mb/s MicrowaveRadio system with DSP Fading countermeasures," IEEE International conferenceon Communications, I 988,pp.41.5. l-41.5.6. J' L. so' "Implementarion on an NIC (Nearly Insrantaneous companding) 32 kbps Transcoderusing the TMS320cz5 Digital signal hocessor," IEEE Globecom Confe rence Record,1988, pp. 43.4.1-43.4.5.

3 4 5

6 7

I 9 l0 II

12

13

14

A bridg+'d tap is an unused pair of wires connected at some point to an in-use pair as alother extension or for possible future reassignment of a cable pair.

89 REFEHENCES "softwareConsiderations in theDesignof a 16 l 5 J. L. Dixon. V. Varma,andD. W. Lin, Remrd, Conference Globecom IEEE Phone," Portable for a TDMA Coder kbps Speed '5. pp. 26.7.1-26.7 1988, ,.4.8kbit/s speech Digital signalhocessors codecusing Advanced l 6 K. Irie ands. Iai, pp' 20'4't-20'4'5' Record,1987, ConJbrente (DSSP),'IEEE Globecom van Nostrand systerns, in communitations t7 M. E. Frerking,Digital signal Processing New York, 1994' Reinhold, C' D' Near' A' M. Montenegro, P' Greendyk, R. A. Carley, E. W. Butterline, l 8 J.E. Abate, '?T&T's New Approach of to thesynchronization andG. P. Zampetti, s. H. Richman, pp. 1989' Apr. Magazine, Networks,"IEEE Comruunications Telecommunication 35-45.

DIGITIZATION VOICE
in a varietyof apandits usefulness natureof the subject Because of the interesting of intense be anarea to and continues hasbeen thefield of voicedigitization plications, algodigitization of voice types manydifferent hasproduced This research iesearch. implementation on the primarily dependent rithms.Thechoiceof a particular Upe is choThealgorithm impliedby theapplication. requirements costandtheperformance input types of for all quality excellent provides PcM) senfor T1 ,yst*rn, (companded datarate(64 kbps)at whatwasoriginallya (e.g.,voiceor data)at a moderate signals digital PBXs usedlower usedin the first-generation *ia"tutt iost. The algorithms at thetime,a because, modulation) (higherratePCM or delta costcodingtechniques sensitive less cost and to digitalconversion wasmoresensitive application switching introStates, United in the the first digitalPBX to qualityorhatu rate.For example, of rate 144 at a data PCM in 1975,useduncompanded Uy Rolm Corporation auceO adYanSubsequent the time PCM at [1]. it wasiheaperthancompanded kbpsbecause and switchinganda dramaticdrop in the tagesderivedfrom integratingtransmission "switchingthe useof havemadeobsolete "o*t of Tl-.ompatibledigitalvoicecoders Tl-compatible of high-volumeproduction, Because algorithms. only" voicedigitization applications in switching used (ICs) (codecs) canbe circuits integrated coder/decoder a more today, designed to be In fact,if thedigitalnetworkwere withouta costpenalty. 64 below rate significanfly viablecodecwith a dala but economically complicated be utilized. kbpswouldprobably with strict bandwidthlimits suchas high frequency applications Transmissions algovoicedigitization muchmoresophisticated (HF) or digitalcellularradiorequire the data in reducing a help on theorderof 8-16 kbps'As datarates rithmsto achieve as much as relaxed are also of theseapplications requirements rate,the performance allows. the application systems-eitherfor refor digitizedvoice is voice storage enotttet application apProis particularly Digital storage or for voicemessaging' cordedannouncements deteriorate not the playbackquality does because priatefor recordedInnouncements disc(CD) or on a compact in memory stored *ittt ti*" andindividualannouncements of an an example with limited memoryis Storage Speech canbe randomlyaccessed. quality with significant thatcanu$every low ratedigitizationalgorithms application

sl

92

votcEDtctlzATtoN

reductions. The original speak-and-spell learning machine developed by Texas In_ struments,for example, stored words with a few hundred bits per word, representing a datarate of about 850 bps [z]. In a similar example requiring better quality rhe same encoding algorithm (LPC) was used in the voice Aleft sysrem of chrysler automobiles to store 20 secof speech(40 words) in 32,000 bits of read*only memory-a data rate of 1600bps [3]. The main reasonvoice messagingsystemsusedigital storageis to have random ac_ cessto the individual messages. To minimize $toragespace,these systemstypically use 8*32-kbps data rates. At the upper end of digital storageapplicationsarehigh-fidelity recordingsof voice and music. Many of the sameadvantages of digital transmission,as opposedto analog transmission,also apply to digital recordings.Foremostamong theseadvantages is the abiliry of defining the fideliry at the rime of recording and maintaining the quality in_ definitely by periodically copying (regenerating)the digitally stored Informarion before inevitable deterioration produces bit errors. Thus a high-quality (high-bit_rate) digital recording of Bing crosby, Ervis presley, or Luciano pavarotti (depending on your taste in music) can be savedfor posterity. This feat could not be accomplished with analog recordings no matter how well cared for or preserved.As an example of high-fidelity audio recording, compact disc players [4] record two channelsof audio at 705 kbps each. Speechanalysisand synthesismake up anotherareaofwidespread researchclosely relatedto voice digitization. [n fact, some of the lowest bit rate voice encoders and decoders use certain amounts of analysis and synthesisto digitatly representspeech. In its ultimate form, however, analysisand synthesishave unique goals ana applications fundamentally different from those of general voice digitization. Basically, goals of analysis and synthesis are to recognize words [5] or produce machine-generated (e.g.,text-to-speech) speech [6]. one approachto analyzing speechis to processwaveforms with the intent of recognizing speechphonemes-the basic units of speechfrom which spokenwords are constructed.once the phonemeshave been identified, they are assignedindividual codewordsfor storageor transmission.A synthesizercan then genera:te speechby recreating the combinations of phonemes.Analysis of this techniqueindicates that the information contentof speechcan be transmittedwith a datarate of 50 bps It must [7]. be emphasized, however, flrat what is hansmiftedis the information contenta$sociated with the words themselves,not the more subjective qualities of speechsuch as naturalness,voice inflections, accents,and speakerrecognizability. Thus suchtechniques, by themselves,are not applicable to general telephony, which customarily includes qualities other than the message content of spokenwords. Efficient encoding of facsimile images presentssimilar opportunities and limitations. Facsimile machinestypically scanat 200 dots per inch, which implies there are 3.T4millionbitsofrawinformationonaB.5x ll-in.pieceof paper. If thepapercontains only recognizabletext charactersat l0 charactersand 6 lines per inch, the same information can be encodedas 5610 ASCII characters,ot 3g,27obits, a savings of almost 100 to I. Besidesbeing restricted to text-oriented messages, character-oriented

93 MODULATIOru AMPLITUDE 3.1 PULSE encoding and decoding produces the same output character font independent of the $ource (which could conceivably be hand written). Facsimile machines achieve one significant level of coding efficiency without sacrificing tfansparencyby encoding rhit" ,pu*" into run length codes. Although this does not reduce the number of bits in a worst-case(random-dot) image, it greatly reducesthe number of bits in the average image of interesr. similar processing is possible in voice applications by efficiently encoding silence. However, the voice problem is more complicated because reat-time voice requires reconstructingthe temporal aspectsof the source,restricting silence encoding to relatively large intervals' Another level of speechanalysis involves the actual recognition of spokenwords. have been achieved,with the two main restrictionsthat the sysHigh levels of success tem is trained on the speakers and the speakers are trained to speak with isolated goal words. As an example of one implementation [8] that tries to achievethe ultimate recogcontinuous speech,and large vocabularies,7l-96$o of speakerindependence, nition accuracyis possibledependingon the level of the grammar specified.(A gramof words.) mar defines allowed $equences Voice digitization techniquescan be broadly categorizedinto two classeslthose digitally *n*ding analog waveforms as faithfully as possible and those processing waveforms to encode only the perceptually signihcant aspectsof speech and hearing The first category is representativeof the general problem of analog-toprocesses. iigitut *O digital-to-analog conversionsand is not restricted to speechdigitization. The three most common techniquesused to encodea voice waveform are pulse code modulation (PCM), differential PcM (DPCM), and delta modulation (DM)' Except in special cases,telephoneequipment designedto transparenflyreproducean analog waveform used one of thesetechniques.Thus, when studying these common waveform encoding techniques,we are, in fact, sfudying the more generalrealm of analogto-digital conversion [9]. The secondcategory of speechdigitization is concernedprimarily with producing very low datarate speechencodersand decodersfor narrowbandtransmissionsystems o. digitul storagedivices with limited capacity. A device from this special class of is commonly referred to as a'*vocoder" (voice coder)' Very low data rate techrr:iques vocoder techniquesgenerally produce unnatural or synthetic sound1e.g.,t-ZOO-Ups) gening speech.As such, low-data-ratevocodersdo not provide adequatequality for eral telephony. A great deal of effort has been expendedto develop medium-rate (e.g.' 8-kbps) voice coders with natural speechqualities, primarily for digital cellular applications' These coders are implemented as a combination or hybrid of the low-bit-rate techniques and the waveform coders. Thus, these techniquesrepresenta third class of voice digitization algorithm.

MODULATION AMPLITUDE 3.1 PULSE at times a set of discrete is to establish waveform ananalog in digitizing Thefirst$tep
which the input signal waveform is sampled. hevalent digitization techniques are

94

votcE DtetTtzATtoN

based on theuseof periodic, regularly spaced sample times.If thesamples occuroften enough, the original waveformcan be completelyrecovered from the samplesequence usinga low-pass filter to interpolate, or "smooth out,"between thesample values. Thesebasic concepts are illustratedin Figure 3.1. A representative analog waveform is sampled at a constant sampling frequency/,= IIT andreconstructed us_ ing a low-pass filter. Notice that the samplingprocess is equivalent to amplitude modulation of a constant-amplitude pulsetrain.Hencethe techniqu"represented in Figure3.1 is usuallyreferred to asa pulseamplitude qr,lvlr. modulation 3.1.1 Nyqulst Sampting Rate A classical resulr in sampling sysrems wasestablished in 1933 by HarryNyquistwhen he derivedthe minimumsampling frequency required to extractall information in a continuous, time-varying waveform. This result-the Nyquistcriterion-is defined by therelation

l, > (2xBw)
wheref = sampling frequency BW = bandwidth of inpursignal Thederivation of this resultis indicated in Figure3.2,whichportrays the$pectrum of theinputsignalandtheresulting spectrum of thepAM pulsetrain.ThepAM spectrum canbe derived by observing thata continuous trainofimpulseshasa frequency specffum consisting of discrete term$at multiplesof the sampling frequency. The input signalamplitude modulates these termsindividually.Thusa double-sideband spectrum is producedabouteachof the discretefrequencytermsin the spectrumof the pulsetrain. The originalsignalwaveform is recovered by a low-pass filter designed to remove all but theoriginalsignalspectrum. As shown in Figure3.2,thereconstruc_ tive low-pass filter musthavea cutoff frequency that lies between BW andf, - Bw. Hence, separation is only possible iff, - Bw is grearer thanBW (i.e.,iffr > zBw).

PAM samplet

Irtllt,,,,,
Lour-Fa$ filter

Figure 3.1 Pulseamplitude modulation.

MODULATIOI'I 95 AMPLITUDE 3.1 PULSE

Inpultpectrum

Output filter

B w \ t , /.-sw of PAM signal. Figure3.2 Spectrum

3.1.2 FoldoverDietortion (f, < zBw), the original If the input wavefonnof a PAM systemis undersampled in Figure3.3,thisoutAs indicated withoutdistortion. berecovered waveform cannot aboutthe samplingfrecentered the frequencyspectrum put distortionarisesbecause from the original qo"o"y overlapsthe original spectrumand cannot be separated "folded" backon of the input specffum by filtering. Sinceit is a duplicate spectrum impairment thedistortion,this typeof $ampling top of thedesiredspecrumthatcauses to as"foldoverdistortion'" is oftenreferred frein the desired component$ frequency foldoverdistortionproduces In essence, termfor thisimThusanother quency bandthatdid notexistin theoriginalwaveform. digitization prrrn""t is "aliasing."Aliasing problemsare not confinedto speech Motionpicdatasystem. in anysample is present for aliasing pr*rrr"r. Thepotential A comaliasing. thatcanproduce system sampling is another iuretaking,for example, Oftenthe in old Westemsoccurswhenfilming movingstagecoaches mon example and wheelmovements, process is too slow to keepup with the stagecoach sampling

Distortionenergy

-BW
Input tpeclrum

BW

-3f"

-2f

an input, by undersampling produced Figure 3.3 Foldoverspectrum

96

VOICEDIGITIZATION

2 . 5k H z

Figure 3.4 Aliasingof 5.5-kHzsignalinto a 2.5-kHzsignal. spuriousrotation ratesareproduced.If the wheel rotates355" betweenframes,it looks to the eye as if it has moved backward 5". Figure 3.4 demonstrates an aliasing processoccurring in speechif a 5.5-kHz signal is sampled at an 8-kHe rate. Notice that the sample values are identical to those obtained from a 2.5-kHz input signal. Thus after the sampled signal passes through the 4-kHz output filter, a 2.5-wlz signal arisesthat did not come from the source.This exampleillustratesthat the input must be bandlimited, hefore sampling, to remove fre_ quency terms greater than j,[, even if thesefrequency terms are ignored (i.e., are inaudible) at the destination.Thus, a complete pAM system,shown in Figure 3.5, must include a bandlimiting filter before sampling to ensurethat no spuriousor source-related signals get folded back into the desired signal bandwidth. The input filter of a voice codec may also be designedto cut off very low frequenciesto remove 60-cycle hum from power lines. Figure 3.5 shows the signal being recoveredby a sample-and-holdcircuit that produces a staircaseapproximation to the sampled waveform. With use of the staircase approximation, the power level of the signal coming out of the reconstructivefilter is nearly the same as the level of the sampled input signal. The respon$eof the reconstructive filter, in this case,must be modified somewhatto account for the spectrum of the wider "staircase" samples.(The modification amountsto dividing the..flat" filter spectrumby the spectrumof the finite width pulse. SeeAppendix C.) The bandlimiting and reconstructivefilters shown in Figure 3.5 are implied to have ideal characteristics.* Since ideal filters are physically unrealizable,a practical implementation must consider the effects of nonideal implementations.Filters with realizable attenuation slopes at the band edge can be used if the input signal is slightty oversampled. As indicated in Figure 3.2, when the sampring frequencyf is somewhargreater than twice the bandwidth, the spectralbandsare sufficiently separated from eachother
-An id-ul filter is one with a frequency-independent time delay (linear phase), no attenuation in the passband(except as might be desired for pulse shaping),an arbitrarily steepcutoff, and infinrte attenuation everywhere in the stopband.

g.t puLSE AMPLITUDE MoDULATtotrt 97

,++

, r l l r , ,,,\

A=

SEmFle cl(sk

PAMsYstem. 3.5 End-to-end Figure sampled canbe used.As an example, roll-off characteristics thatfilters with gradual 3.4 filterswith a 3-dBcutoffaround kHz and typicallyusebandlimiting voicesystems attheoverattenuated signalis sufficiently rateof 8 kHz.Thusthesampled a sampling theenergylevel of thefoldoverspectrum. reduce of 4 kFIzto adequately lap frequency for outto meetITU-T recommendations designed Figure3.6 showsa filter template is proNoticethat 14dB of attenuation in PCM voicecoders. of-bandsignalrejection videdat 4kllz.

'/L

6'

-r0

.= -tl t'

-t0

''ff.t::.:!:i
-tl -lo

.10 r1.00

{000 rnqurrrcy (Hz)

for PCM to meetITU-T recommendations Figure 3.6 Bandlimiting filter templatedesigned coders. voice

98

VOICE DIGITIZATION

As mentioned in chapter l, the perceived quality of a voice signal is not greatly dependentupon the phaseresponseof the channel(the relative delay of individual frequency components).For this reason the phaseresponsesof the bandlimiting filters in the encodersand the smoothing filters in the decodersare not critical. Nonlinear phaseresponses in thesefilters, however, do impact high-rate voiceband data signals when digitized. Hence a somewhatparadoxical situation ariseswhen voicebanddata are transmittedover a T-carrier line: the processof converting the voicebanddata signal (28,8ffi bps typical maximum) to a virtually error free 64-kbps digital signal causesdistortion in the lower rate data signal. However, becauseofregeneration the transmissionprocessitself does not add to the signal degradation. By interleaving the samplesfrom multiple sources,pAM systemscan be used to sharea transmissionfacility in a time division multiplex manner.As previously mentioned, PAM systemsare not generally useful over long distancesowing to the vulnerability of the individual pulses to noise, distortion, intersymbol interference,and crosstalk.* Instead, for long-distance transmission the pAM samples are converted into a digital format, thereby allowing the use of regenerative repeaters to remove transmissionimperfections before errors result.

3.2 PULSE CODEMODULATION

The preceding section describespulse amplitude modulation, which uses discrete sample times with analog sample amptitudesto extract the information in a continuously varying analog signal. Pulse code modulation (pcM) is an extension of pAM wherein eachanalog samplevalue is quantizedinto a discretevalue for representation as a digital codeword. Thus, as shown in Figure 3.7, a pAM systemcan be convefied into a PCM system by adding an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter at the source and a digital-to-analog (D/A) converter at the destination. Figure 3.9 depicts a typical quantizationprocessin which a set ofquantization intervals is associated in a one-toone fashion with a binary codeword. All sample values falling in a particular quantization interval are representedby a single discrete value located at the center of the quantization interval. In this manner the quantization process introduces a certain amount of error or distortion into the signal samples.This error, known as quantizaPAM rampler Digitally encoded

Sdmple clock

to digital

Figure 3.7 Pulse codemodulation.

'As discussed in Chapter I 1 the emergence of sophisticated DSP equalization algorithms in V,90 modems enablesPAM ransmission on analog subscriberloops.

MODULATION 99 3.2 PULSE CODE

samples' of analog Figure 3.8 Quantization tion noise,isminimized by establishinga large number of small quantizationintervals. Of course, as the number of quantization intervals increases,so mu$t the number of bits increaseto uniquely identify the quantization intervals.

3.2.1 QuantizationNoise
A fundamental aspectof the design and developmentof an engineeringproject is the of systemsperformance.Only then can a systembe obneed for analytical measures comparedto alternatedesigns.One of the jectively measuredand its cost effectiveness is the quality of speechdelivered engineer communication measures neededby a voice by subjective aftribquality are complicated of speech to the listener. Measurements aspect ofnoise or dissubjective listener. One utes of speechas perceivedby a typical of the or spectrum, content, tortion on a speech signal involves the frequency function as a of noise disturbancein conjunction with the power level. Theseeffects of frequency are discussedin Chapter I with the introduction of C-messageand psophometricweighting. quantizationerrors of a PCM encoderare generally assumedto be disSuccessive tributed randomly and uncolrelated to each other. Thus the commutative effect of quantizationerrors in a PCM systemcan be treatedas additive noise with a subjective effect that is similar to bandlimited white noise. Figure 3.9 shows the quantization noi$e as a function of signal amplitude for a coder with uniform quantizationintervals' Notice that if the signal has enough time to change in amplitude by several quantization intervals, the quantization errors are independent.If the signal is oversampled samplesare likely to fall (i.e., sampledmuch higher than the Nyquist rate), successive errors' quantization in the in the sarneinterval, causing a loss of independence signal is cusan analog The quantization elror or distor"tioncreatedby digitizing power. signal tomarily expresseda$ an averagenoise power relative to the average ratio (SQR, also called a signal-to-distortionratio Thus the signal-to-quantizing-noise or a signal-to-noiseratio) can be determinedas

100

votcEDtctlzAloN

lnput amplitude

Ouantization error

Figure 3.9 Quantizationelror as a function of amplitude over a range of quantization intervals.

sQR= -r(r)12} E{Ly(r)

whereE{.} = expectation or averaging x(t) = srulo* input signal y(t) = decoded outputsignal

Etfu)l

(3.1)

In determining theexpected valueofthe quantization noise, threeobservations are necessary: l. The errory(r) - x(r) is limited in amplitude to 4/?, whereq is theheightof the quantization interval.(Decoded output samples are ideally positioned at the middleof a quantization interval.) 2' A sample valueis equallylikely to fall anywhere within a quantization interva1, implyinga uniformprobabilitydensityof amplitude l/q. 3. signal amplitudes are assumed to be confinedto the maximumrangeof the coder.If a sample valueexceeds therange of the highest quantization interval, overload distortion(alsocalledpeaklimiting) occurs. If we assume (for convenience) a resistance level of I o, the average quantization noisepoweris determined in AppendixA as

noir"po*er= d Quantization fr

(3.2)

MODULATIOT'|101 CODE 3.2 PULSE

(uniformquantization), thequantihaveequallengths intervals If all quantization as* the SQR is determined values and the sample of noise is independent zation

lorogrot-+) sQR(db)= =10.8 +201"s,. FqJ

(3.3)

for a sinewaveinputtheSQR of theinput.In particular, v is therms amplitude where is produced by uniformquantization

=rorogl,1w#) (dB) sQR

=7.78 +ro "*,. [+J

whereA is the peakamplitudeof the sinewave'

(3.4)

is to be digitizedwith Exampte3.1. A sinewavewith a l-V manimumamplitr'rde quantization intervalsare spaced many uniformly a minimumSQR of 30 dB. How each sample? to encode andhow manybits areneeded needed, interval is Solution. Using Equation3.4, the maximum size of a quantization as determined q = (l)10{3F7'78)/20 = 0,078V for eachpolarity for a iotal of 26 intervals Thus 13 quantizationintervalsareneeded as is determined eachsample to encode of bitsrequired in atl. Thenumber trl = lo9r(26)= 4.7 = 5 bits per sample is oftenweighted content quantization noisepower,the spechal Whenmeasuring weighted spectrally circuit.Unforhrnately, asnoisein an analog manner in the same voice quality enperceptual of a do not alwaysreflect the h.ue noise measurements
.The SeRs commonly compaxe unfiltered decoder outputs to unfiltered quantization errors. In actual practice, the decoder output filterreduces the power level ofboth the signal and the noise. The noise power ixperiences a greater feduction than the signal power, since the uncorrelated noise samples have a wider spectrum than the corelated voice samples. Thus filtered signal-to-noise ratios are usually higher thal the values calculated here by l-2 dB'

102

votcEDlctlzATtoN

coder/decoder.If the spectraldistribution of the quantization noise more or less follows the $pectralcontent of the speechwaveform, the noise is masked by the speech and is much less noticeable than noise uncorrelatedto the speech[l0l. on the other hand, ifthe quantizationprocessproducesenergy at voicebandfrequenciesother than those contained in particular sounds,they are more noticeable. High-quality PCM encodersproduce quantization noise that is evenly distributed acrossvoice frequenciesand independentof the encodedwaveforms. Thus quantization noise ratios defined in Equation 3.4 are good measuresof pcM performance.In some of the encoders discussed later (vocoders in particular), quantization noise power is not very useful. Referencestgl, I I I l, and I I z] describeother measures of encoder speechquality providing bettercorrelationsto quality asperceivedby a listener.

3-2.2 ldle ChannelNoise

Examination of Equations 3.3 and 3.4 reveals that the SeR is small for small sample values.In fact, as shown in Figure 3.10, the noise may actually be greaterthrurthe signal when samplevaluesare in the first quantizationinterval. This effect is particularly bothersomeduring speechpausesand is known as idle channelnoise. Figure 3.I t depicts one method of minimizing idle channel noise in pCM systemsby establishinga quantizationinterval that straddlesthe origin. In this caseall samplevaluesin the central quantization interval are decodedas a constantzero output. pCM systemsofthis type usean odd number of quantizationintervals sincethe encodingrangesof positive and negative signals are usually equal. The quantization characteristicsrequired to produce the output waveforms shown in Figures3.10 and 3.ll are shown in Figures3.12 and 3.13, respectively. The first characteristic(midriser) cannot produce a zero output level. The secondcharacteristic (midtread) decodesvery low signalsinto constant,zero-level outputs. However, if the signal amplitude is comparableto the size of the quantization interval or if a dc bias exists in the encoder,midtread quantization will produce about as much idle channel noise as midriser quantization. As mentioned in chapter l, noise occurring during speechpausesis more objectionable than noise with equivalent power levels during speech.Thus idle channel

2.0

r.0

-1.0 -2.O

Figure 3.10 Idle channel noiseproduced by midriserquantization.

MODULATION 103 3.2 PULSE CODE

Figure 3.ll

Elimination of idle channel noise by midtread quantization.

noise,whichis specifrom quantization in absolute termsseparate noiseis specified D3 channel bankspecificaBell system fied relativeto the signallevel.For example, noiseas23 dBmCO[13]. tionslist themaximumidle channel 3.2.3 Uniformly Encoded PCM produces codefor all samples quantization intervals usingequal-length An encoder numerical equivalent Thatis, the values. to the analogsample wordslinearlyrelated In this sample valueit represents. to the quantized is proportional of eachcodeword to genconverter analog-to-digital uses a conventional mamera uniformPCM sy$tem is deterfor eachsample The numberof bits required codes. eratethe binarysample noisepower.Minimum digitizedvoice quality minedby the maximumacceptable to of 26 dB [ 14].For a uniformPCM system ratioin excess requires a signal-to-noise = positive For equal 0' l23A' indicates that Equation 3'4 of 26 dB, achieve a sQR 4*o thatjust (encoding from -A to A), this resultindicates signalexcursions andnegative per are required.* sample, intervals, or 4 bits over l6 quantization

characteristic. Flgure 3.12 Midriserquantizer

.This SeR objective is for minimum acceptable perform$nce and assumesall degadations occur in a sin gle encoder, If additional sigrral impairments occur (such as multiple A/D conversions), the encoder must use more bits to ptovide noise margin for other elements in the network.

104

votcEDtctTtzATtoN

Figure3.13 Midtread quantizer characteristic. In addition to providingadequate qualityfor smallsignals, a telephone system musr be capableof transmittinga largerangeof signalampritudes, referredto asdynamic range. Dynamicrange(DR) is usuallyexpressed in decibels astheratio of themaximum amplitudesignalto the minimum amplitudesignal:

DR= to**,.fts]
ffirn \_ /

=zorog,oti"_il

(3.s)

A typicalminimumdynamicrangeis 30 dB tt4l. Thussignalvaluesas largeas 3l timesA mustbe encoded withoutexceeding the rangeof quantization intervals. Assumingequallyspaced quantization intervals for uniformcoding,thetotalnumber of intervals is determined as496,whichrequires 9-bit codewords.* Theperformance of ann-bit uniformPCM system is determined by observing that

q =-T -

M*^*

(3.6)

whereA.u* is the manimum(nonoverloaded) amplitude. substituting Equation 3.6into E4uation 3.4produces thepcM performance equa. tion for uniformcoding:

=116 seR +6.ozn+ 2o log,o t^*l

(3.7)

This rcsult is derived with the assumption of minimum performance requirements. Higher performance objectives (less quantization noise and grcater dynamic range) require as many as I 3 bits per sample for uniform PCM systems. This coding performance was established when it was likely that multiple conversions would occur in an end-to-end connection. Now that the possibility of multiple ArD and D/A conversionshas been eliminated, end-to-endvoice quality is much better than it was in the analog network,

105 MODULATIoN 3.2 PULSE CODE sine a full-range 3.7providetheSQRwhenencoding Thefirst two termsof Equation These a lowerlevelsignal. a lossin SQRwhenencoding wave.Thelasttermindicates in Figure3.14,which showsthe SQRof a uniformPCM relationships arepresented of an input andthe magnitude asa functionof thenumberof bits per sample sy$tem sinewave. must Example3.2. What is the minimumbit rate that a uniform PCM encoder range of 40 dB?Assume provideto encode a high-fidelityaudiosignalwith a dynamic of a 20-kHz bandwidthwith a minimum dictatepassage the fidelity requirements input signals' sinusoidal ratio of 50 dB. For simplicity,as$ume signal-to-noise ratemustbeat least40 kHz. the sampling foldoverdistortion, Solutinn. To prevent banks to thatusedin D-typechannel sampling factorcomparable Assuming anexcess for a practical rateof 48 kHz as a compromise (4000/3400), a sampling we choose with an SQR signalis encoded thata full-amplitude filter. By observing bandlimiting of bitsn required thenumber 3.7to determine of 40 + 50 = 90 dB, we canuseEquation to encode eachsample: '" 90 - 1.76 6.02

n - G

= 15 bits bit rateis Thustherequired = 720kbps (15 bits/sampleX48,O00 samples/sec)

e
[ *

s o
t EI
F

.E 40
E

Teo
o c

a
- 40 -30
A/A6.\

-20
(dB)

- l0

Figure 3.14 SQRof uniformPCM coding.

106

vorcEDlcrrzATroN

3.2.4 Companding
In a uniform PCM systemthe size of every quantization interval is determinedby the SQR requirement of the lowest signal level to be encoded.Larger signals are also encoded with the same quantization interval. As indicated in Equation 3.7 and Figure 3.14, the SQR increaseswith the signal amplitudeA. For example, a Z6-dB SeR for small signals and a 30-dB dynamic range producesa 56-dB SQR for a maximumamplitude signal. In this manner a uniform PCM system provides unneededquality for large signals.Moreover, the large signalsarethe leastlikely to occur. For thesereasonsthe code spacein a uniform PCM systemis very inefficiently utilized. A more efficient coding procedureis achievedif the quantization intervals are not uniform but allowed to increasewith the sample value. When quantization intervals are directly proportional to the sample value, the SQR is constantfor all signal levels. with this technique fewer bits per sample provide a specified seR for small signals and an adequatedynamic rangefor large signals.When the quantizationintervals are not uniform, a nonlinear relationship exists between the codewords and the samples they represent. Historically, the nonlinear function was first implemented on analog signalsusing nonlinear devices such as specially designeddiodes [15]. The basic processis shown in Figure 3.15, where the analog input sample is f,rrstcompressedand then quantized with uniform quantizationintervals.The effect of the compressionoperationis shown in Figure 3.16. Notice that successivelylarger input signal intervals are compressed into constant-lengthquantizationintervals. Thus the larger the samplevalue, the more it is compressedbefore encoding. As shown in Figure 3.15, a nonuniform PCM decoder expandsthe compressed value using an inversecompressioncharacteristicto recover the original samplevalue. The processof first compressingand then expanding a signal is referred to as compandlng. when digitizing, companding amounts to as* signing small quantization intervals to small samplesand large quantization intervals to large samples. various compression-expansion characteristics can be chosen to implement a compandor.By increasingthe amount of compression,we increasethe dynamic range at the expenseof the signal-to-noiseratio for large-amplitude signals. one family of compression characteristicsused in North America and Japan is the p-law characteristic, defined as

Compressed digital codewords Compre$ion Lin6ar PCM encoder Linear PCM decoder Expansion

Figure 3.15 Companded PCM with analog compression andexpansion.

g,E PULSE coDEMoouLATtoN 107

rot t
E

E",,'8
oro $

E t*rt 9 E

Input sfirple vrlus

Figure 3.16 Typicalcompression characteristic. ..ln(l+ULtl) =sen(x) Fr(r) ffi[y wherex = input signalamplitude( -1 {x { 1) sgn(x) = polarity ofx F = pllrameter used to defirneamount of compression Becauseof the mathematicalnatureof the compressioncurve, compandedPCM is sometimes referred to as log-PCM. A logarithm compression curve is ideal in the sensethat quantizationintervals and, hence,quantizationnoise are proportional to the sample amplitude. The inverse or expansioncharacteristicfor a p-law compandor is defined as

(3.8)

1, F'r(v):'s"0) +p;rrr[iJr(1
where ) = thecompressed value,=Fp(x)(-l < y < l) $gn(y) polarityofy parameter F =' companding

(3.e)

banks[16], which used in theUnitedStates Dl channel Thefirst T-carrjersystems = functions approximated and expansion Bquation3.8 for F 100.The compression previously. mentioned Figure3.17 wereimplemented with thespecially biased diodes depicts a blockdiagram bank.Noticethatthetimedivisionmultiplexof a Dl channel on analog Thusthe ing anddemultiplexing functions areimplemented PAM samples. wereshared companding by all 24 voicechannels. andencoding/decoding functions

108

vorcE DtetT|zATtoN

-+E
Tl transmirsion line Analog Inpuli
I a t

Bandlimiting filterB

Figure 3.17 Functional block diagram of Dl channel bank. The ability to sharethis relatively expensive equipment was one of the reasonsthat PCM was originally chosenas the meansof digitally encoding speech.subsequentdevelopment of integratedcircuit PCM codecsdiminished the need to sharethis equipment, Thus later generation$ystemscould use per-channelcodecsand provide more flexibility in implementing various $ystemsizes.when most of the cost of a channel bank is in the common equipment,as in the original channelbanks,lessthan fully provisioned sy$temsare overly expensive. Each sample produced by a Dl channel bank was encodedinto 7 bits; I polarity bit and 6 compressedmagnitude bits. In addirion, I signaling bit was added to each channel to produce an 8-bit codeword for eachtime slot. since the sampling rate was I kHz, a 64-kbps channelresulted. Even though the Dl channel banks have been su* percededby newer channel banks utilizing a different coding format, the 64-kbps channel rate has persistedas a standard.

3.2.5 Eaeily Dlgltally LinearlzabteGoding The success of the flrst Tl sy$tems for interofficeexchange paved areatransndssion thewayfor fuftheruseof digitaltimedivisionmultiplexsystems. As it became apparent that digital transmission wasusefulwithin the toll network,it alsobecame clear thattheform of PCM encoding used in theDl channel bankswasinadequate. In contrastto the exchange area,an end-to-end connection throughthe toll networkcould haveconceivably involvedasmmy asninetandem connections. Sincedigitalswitching wasnot in existence at the time that T-carier systems for the toll networkwere beingdeveloped, eachof thesetandemconnection$ implied an extraDiA and A/D

109 3,2 PULSE CODE MODULATION conversion. Thus the quality of each conversion had to be improved to maintain the desired end-to-endquality" The D2 channel bank [ 7] was therefore developedwith improved digitized voice quality. When the D2 channelbank was being developed,digital switching was recognized as a coming technology, implying that channel banks would be paired on a dynamic basis, as opposedto the one-to-onebasis in T-carrier systems.Thus a greater degree of uniformity in companding characteristicswould be required to allow pairing of channelbankson a nationwide basis.The main featuresincotporatedinto the D2 channel bank (and ensuingchannelbanks suchas D3, D4, and D5) to achievethe improved quality and standardization are: L Eight bits per PCM codeword 2. Incorporation of the companding functions directly into the encoder and decoder 3. A new companding characteristic(p255)

and7 bitsfor voice.Thus TheDl channel banks useI bit pertimeslotfor signaling for basic which wasmorethannecessary rateof 8 kbpswasestablished, a signaling D2 andall between voiceservice. To providea higherdataratefor voice,signaling subsequent channelbanksis insertedinto the leastsignificantbit positionof 8-bit contains only in everysixthframe.Thuseverysixthp255PCM codeword code-words per sample is number of bits implying that the effective 7 bits of voiceinformation, is often sixth frame for signaling actually7f bits instead of 8. Theuseof 1 bit in every is utilized,the signaling bit signaling." Whencommon-channel referred to as"robbed information on a perno longerneedto carrysignaling T-carriersystems associated in everytime slot of every channel basisanda full I bits of voicecanbe transmitted foame. bankswereimof theDl channel andexpansion characteristics The compression The D2 charurel bankincorpoplemented anddecoders. separately from theencoders In these anddecoders themselves. operations into theencoders ratesthe companding a sequence ofnonuniformlyspaced channel banksa resistor arrayis usedto establish theinput comparing valueis encoded by successively thresholds. A sample decision quantization interval ofdecisionthresholds until theappropriate valueto thesequence to represent theparticular whatever codeis used is located. Thedigitaloutputbecomes ofthe directencoddescription quantization interval.(See AppendixB for a detailed functhecompanding banks.) By incotporating usedin theD? channel ing procedure D2 channelbanks avoid certain and decoders, tions directly into the encoders sensitivity of comproblems variabilityand temperature associated with parameter Dl panding banks. diodes in channel in termsof theeffect improvedperformance The D2 channel banksalsointroduced paramount is concern in a PCM system outputs. Of of channel errorson thedecoded position Bit erof a codeword. bit theeffectof a channel enor in themostsignificant A channel to a listener. aremuchlessnoticeable rorsin otherpositions of a codeword produced bankcauses by a Dl channel bit of a codeword errorin themostsignificant of thecoder' equalto one-half of theentirecodingrange anoutputerrorthatis always

11O

Vo|cEDIGITIZATIoN

The D2 channel bank, on the other hand, usesa sign-magnitudecoding format. With this format, a channel error in the polarity bit causesan output error that is equal to twice the samplemagnitude (i.e., the polarity is inverted). In the worst casethis enor may correspondto the entire encoding range.Maximum-amplitude samplesare relatively rare, however, so most channel error$ in a D2 coding format produce outputs with error magnitudeslessthan one-half the coding range.Thus, on average,the signmagnitude coding format of the D2 and ensuingchannelbanks provide superior performance in the presenceof channel enors I I 7]. In addition to a need for improved voice quality, it also became apparentthat as more of the network beganusing digital techniques,it would be necessary, or at least desirable,to implement many signal processingfunctions directly on digital signals and not convert them to an analogformat for processing.Most signal processingfunctions (such as attenuating a signal or adding signals together) involve linear operations. Thus before processinga log-PCM voice signal, it i$ necessaryto convert the compressedtransmissionformat into a linear (uniform) format. To simplify the conversion process,the particular companding characteristicwith =255 was chosen.This compandingcharacteristichas the property of being closely F approximatedby a set of eight straightJine segmentsalso refened to as chords. Furthermore,the slopeof eachsucces$ive segmentis exactly one-half the slopeof the previous segment.The flust four segmentsof a p255 approximation are shown in Figure 3.I8. The overall result is that the larger quantization intervals have lengths that are binary multiples of all smaller quantizationintervals.Becauseof this properly, a compressedcodeword is easily expandedinto a uniform representation. Similarly, the uniform representationis easily converted into a compressedrepresentation.*In fact, commercially availablePCM codecsdigitally compressuniform codewordsinsteadof using direct compressedencoding, as in the D2 channel banks. These techniquesuse a uniform encoderwith a relatively large number of bits to cover the entire dynamic rangeof the signal. As describedin Appendix B, the leastsignifrcantbits of large sample values are discardedwhen compressingthe code. The number of insignificant bits deletedis encodedinto a specialfield included in the compressed-code format. In this mannerdigital compandingis analogousto expressinga number in scientific notation. As shown in Figure 3.18, each major segmentof the piecewise linear approximation is divided into equally sizedquantizationintervals. For 8-bit codewordsthe number of quantization intervals per segment is 16. Thus an 8-bit p255 codeword is composedof I polarity bit, 3 bits to identify a major segment,and 4 bits for identifying a quantizing interval within a segment.Table 3.1 lists the major segmentendpoints, the quantization intervals, and tlre corresponding segment and quantization interval codes. The quantization intervals and decodedsample values in Table 3. I have been expressedin terms of a maximum-amplitude signal of 8159 so that all segmentendpoints and decoderoutput$are integers.Notice that the quantizing stepis doubled in eachof
'The inexorable advance of semiconductor technology has obviated much of the ingenuity that weflt into selecting EDL coding fbrmats. Brute-force table look-up conversion between codes using read-only memories (ROMs) is now the most cost-effective approach,

3.2 PULSE coDEMoDULAToN 111

.9
ll

$ E
E

ET

31

95

223 Linear tignal

478

Flgure 3.18 First four segmentsof straight-line approximation to p255 compressioncurve.

to the conversion linearsegments. It is this propertythat facilitates eight successive encoding tableis providedin AppendixB and from a uniform format.A complete process ofthe conversion to andfrom uniformcodes. description alongwith a detailed reof the p255 companding curvei$ sometimes The straight-line approximation although approximation. arisebecause, ferredto as a lS-segment The 15 segments nearest segments, the2 segments theoriand8 negative thereare8 positive$egments gin arecolinearandtherefore as l. Whenviewedin this manner, canbe considered the straddling intervalswith I segment contains 3l quantization the middlesegment -1 quantization (from for this interval 3.1). middle to Codewords +1 in Table origin valuegreater than-1. Thereare,in ariseasa positivevaluelessthan+1 or a negative Table 3.1,these values in effect,a positivezeroanda negative eero.As represented as00000000 respectively. and 1ffi00000, However,p255 PCM codecs areencoded signals, with mostly0 The smalleramplitude for transmission. invert all codewords cause les$than50% andwouldtherefore code,aremostprobable bits in the segment is increased of the pulses line. Thedensityof pulses by inversion on thetransmission of the transmitteddata,which improvesthe timing and clock recoveryperformance Thus the actual transmittedcodereceiving circuitry in the regenerative repeaters. 111111I1 wordscorrespondingtoapositivezeroandanegativezeroarerespectively an idle channel. for the strong timing line signal of and01111II 1, indicating content p255 in the Tl repeaters, PCM clock synchronization ln the interest of ensuring in Table3.1,a maximumdatain oneotherway.As indicated codecs altertlrc ffansmitted to all 0's for negative signalis all I ' s, whichwouldnormallybe converted amplitude

I 12

vorcE DrcrrzATtoN

TABLE 3.1 Encodlng/Decoding Table for p2SSPCMd

Input Amplitude Range 0-1 1-3 3-5 ; 29-31 31-35 ; 91-95 95-103 21F.223 2?3-239

Step Size

Segment Code S

Quantization Code Q Code Varue

Decoder Amplitude 2
4

000

0000 0001 001 0 1111 0000

30 33 9; 99 219 231 471 495 975 1023 1983 2079

111 112

001 1111 0000 : 1111 0000

010

16

011

463479 479-51 1 32
oEo-ool 991-1 055

rrir
0000 1111 000

100

64 r ss1-ZOr S 201ts2143

101

1111 0000 110 1111 0000 256 1111

3935-4063 4063-431 I 7903-81 59

3999 4191 8031

127

this table displays magnitud Bncoding only.Polarity bitser6a8signed a "0"forpositive enda ,'1" fornegatlve. h transmission ell bitsareinverted.

transmission. Instead, for the all-0 codeword only, the second least significant bit is

setto I sothat00000010 is transmitted. In effect,anencoding erroris produced to precludeanall-Ocodeword. Fortunately, maximum-amplitude samples areexffemely unlikely sothatno significant (If theleastsignificant degradation occurs. bit wereforced to a 1,a smaller decoding errorwouldresult.However, in everysixthframethisbit is "stolen"for signaling pu{poses andtherefore is occasionally setto 0 independently of thecodeword. To ensure that "all-zero"codewords arenevertransmitted. thesecond leastsignificant bit is forcedto a I whennecessary.) Example3.3. Determine the sequence of codewords for a p255 PCM encoded channel bankformatrepresenting a half-maximum-power l-kHz digital signal.

113 3,2 PULSE CODE MODULATION Solution. Since the samplingrate of the standardp255 PCM channelbankis 8 kHz, a sequenceof eight samplescan be repeatedin cyclic fashion to generatethe l-kHz . waveform. For convenience,the phasesof the samplesare chosento begin at 22.5o Thus the eight samplescorrespond to 22.5", 67 .5", II2.5o , l5'l .5", 202.5", 247.5", 292,.5",and 337.5o.With thesephases,only two different magnitudescoresponding to 22.5oand 67.5' are required. The maximum amplitude of a half-maximum-power sine wave is 0.707 x 8159 = 5768. Thus the two amplinrdescontained in the sample sequences are

(5768)sin(22 .5")= 2207

= 5329 (5768)sin(67.5o)

the codesfor thesesample Using the encoding tablein AppendixB, we determine Thesequence of eightsamples respectively. magnitudes to be 1100001 and1110100, asfollows: cannow be established
SamplePhase (deS) Polarity Segment Quantization

2 2 . 5 0 6 7 . 5 0 1 112.5 0 1 157.5 0 1 2 0 2 .1 51 247.5 1 1 2 9 2 .1 51 1 3 3 7 .1 51 1

1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0

1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0

0 1 0 0 0

0 0 0 1
1

0 0
U

0 0
1 1

0
1 1

0 0 0 0 0

0 0
1

Note: This sequence defines a 1-kHz test signal at a power lv6l of 1 mW at the transmissionlevel point (0 dBmo). However,the actualtransmltteddata patternis the complementof lhat provid6dabove. because only two amplitudesamples are requiredto produce the test ton6, this tono does not test all encoding/docoding circuitry. In general, a 1004-Hztone is a better t6st tone since it is not harmonically relatedto an 8000-Hzsamplingrate and will thereforeexerciseall encoder and decoder levels.

Pertormance of ap255 PGM Encoder

As mentioned, the main motivation for changing the encoding algorithm of the Dl channelbank was to provide better speechquality for digital toll network transmission links. The SQR for a maximum-amplitude $ine wave in the first segmentof a p255 codec is determinedeasily from Equation 3.4 as

: 31)= 7.78+ 20t"*r. [*l SQR(A \.- / = 31.6dB sincethe are not as easyto calculate The SQRsfor largeramplitudesinusoids general size. Thus a calcuvary with the sample lengths of the quantization intervals power value of the lationof thequantizing noisepowerinvolvesfindingtheexpected errors; of the quantization

114

VotcE DtctlzATtoN

. l _ =;lW? power noise

r'4

(3.10)

p; = probabilityof a sample where in ith segment p255coding sizefor segment i, =!i+t for segmented 4; - quantization UsingEquation 3.10,we determine the SQRpowerfor a full-rangesinusoid as = 8159) = 39.3dB SQR(A For comparison, if all quantization intervals hadthemaximumlengthof 256asin trquation theuppersegment, 3.4provides an SQRof 37.8dB. Thedifference of only 1.5dB reflects thefactthata full-scale sinewavespends 67Vo of thetime in theupper segment wherethequantization intervals aremaximum(i-e.,pt = 0.67).A voicesignal,on theotherhand,hasa higherpeak-to-average ratiothana sinewave.Theaveragequantization erroris smaller, but sois the average signalpower.Hence the SQR is approximately the same. Thedynamic range of a segmented PCM encoder is determined asthesignalpower difference between a low-levelsignaloccupying theentirerange of the first segment anda high-levelsignalextending to thelimits of thecode.Thusthedynamic range of a segmented 255coderis determined as = 20log,o(8159/31) = 48.4dB DR(A= 3I toA = 8159) In summary, provides an 8-bitp255PCM codec atheoretical SQRgreaterthan 30 dB across a dynamic range of 48 dB. For comparison, Equation 3.4or Figure3.14reveals that a uniform PCM encoder/decoder requires13 bits for equivalent performance. (Theextraqualityof uniformencoding at high signallevelsis unneeded.) Thetheoretical performance of an 8-bit segmented F255coderis shownin Figure 3.19asa functionof theamplitude of a sinewaveinput.Also shownis thetheoretical performance p255 coderand a 7-bit plfi) coderusedin the Dl of an unsegmented channel bank.Noticethatthe 8-bit coders provideabout5 dB improvement overthe 7-bit coderfor high-levelsignals andevenmoreimprovement for low-levelsignals. Theperformance shownfor the 8-bit coders does not includetheeffectofusing only 7 bits for voice codingin everysixth frame.Whenthis effectis included, the B-bit coders lose I.76 dB in performance. Thescalloped effectofthe segmented coderoccurs because thequantization intervals change abruptlyat the segment endpoints instead of continuously asin analog companding. AIso as shownin Figure3.19,notethe required performance of a D3 channel bankandcodecs designed to meetthis specification [13]. This specification assumes all noisemeasurements are madeusing C-message weighting.C-message weighting reduces theeffectivenoiselevelby 2 dB andtherefore improves theSQR. Thusan ideal 8-bit p255 coderactuallyexceeds the specif,rcation by morethanthat

3.2 PULSE coDE MoDULATIoN 115

Full load rignal = +3d8m0

g
o ,t E o

: .E

'n E 3

Unfiltered pieccYviBe linEdrI-258

Unfiltered

il c .gl th

6 -!

B-bir#-?55

-50

-40

-30

-20

(dBm0l porrnr of rinewave Signal Figure 3.19 SQR of pJaw coding with sine wave inputs.

bit of everysixth frameis usedfor shownin Figure3.19.rilhen the leastsignificant is reduced 1.76dB. however, by a comparable signaling, theSQR A-Law Compandlng recommended characteristic by ITU-T for Europeandmost of the The companding hasthe This characteristic restof the world is referred to asanA-law characteristic. p-law characteristic. as does the features advantages same and implementation basic by shaight-line In particular, theA-law characteristic canalsobe well approximated andcanbe easilyconveltedto and segments to facilitatedirect or digital companding characteristic A-law compression is definedas from a uniform format.Thenormalized

f . . f a u I| lSsn(Jl | -------

0<rxr<f
(3.1 l)

l" [1+ln(A)l Fa(x)= i | . It+tntt.ll i ss n'( x l-+ln(A) |_J -) [ 1 f*r*r<r l.

is definedas characteristic Theinverse or expansion

116

votcEDtctlzAlor\

*entrluT@ o<ryr<*fu
F;t(v) =

(3.12)

'*olT

pFl(1+|fl(A)l-l

*fustvt(l

where y = F.A($ and A = 87.6. Notice that the first portion of the A-law characteristicis linear by def,rnition.The remaining portion of the characteristic(l/A < lxl < I) can be closely approximatedby linear segmentsin a fashion similar to the trr-lawapproximation. In all, there are eight positive and eight negative segments. The first two segment$ of eachpolarity (four in all) are colinear and thereforeare sometimesconsideredas one straight-line segment. Thus the segmentedapproximation of the A-law characteristicis sometimesrefened to as a "13-segment approximation." For easein describing the coding algorithms of the segmentedcompanding characteristic,however, a ld-segment representationis used,just as in the caseofthe segmentedp-law characteristic. The segmentendpoints,quantization intervals, and correspondingcodesfor an 8bit segmentedAlaw characteristicare shown in Table 3.2. The values are scaled/o a maximum value of 4096 for integral representations. Figure 3.?0 displays the theoretical performance of the Alaw approximation and compares it to the performance of a p-law approximation presentedin Figure 3.19. Notice that the A-law characteristic provides a slightly larger dynamic range.However, theAJaw characteristicis inferior to the p-law characteristicin terms of small-signal quality (idle channel noise). The difference in small-signal performanceoccurs becausethe minimum step size of the A-law standardis 2/4096 whereasthe minimum step size of the p-law is 2/8159. Furthermore, notice that the A-law approximation does not define a zero-level output for the first quantizationinterval (i.e., usesa midriser quantizer).However, the difference between midriser and midtread performanceat 64 kbps is imperceptible tl8l.

3.2.6 SyllabicCompandlng
A significant attribute of the companding techniquesdescribed for pcM systems is that they instantaneou$lyencompassthe entire dynamic range of the coder on a sampleto-sample basis. Thus p-law and A-law companding is sometimesreferred to as instantaneouscompanding. However, because the power level of a speech signal remains fairly constantfor 100 or more 8-kHz samples,it is wasteful of code spaceto be able to encode very low level signals adjacentto very high level signals.In other words, it is unnecessary to allow for instantaneous changesin the dynamic rangeof a signal. One techniqueof reducing the amount of transmissionbandwidth allocatedto dynamic range is to reduce the dynamic range of the signal at the source before encoding and then restorethe original dynamic range of the signal at the receiver while decoding. when the adjustmentsto the dynamic range occur on a periodic basisthat more or lesscorrespondsto the rate of syllable generation,the techniqueis referred to as syllabic companding.Becausethe dynamic range adjustmentsoccur only every 30 msec or so, there is very little bandwidth neededto communicatethe adjustments.

3.2 PULSE CODE MODULATION 117 TABLE 3.2 $egmented A-Law Encodlng/Decoding Tablea

Input Amplitude Range

StepSize

Segment CodeS 000

Ouantization CodeQ Code Value 0000 0001 1111 0000

Dcoder Amplitude
1

r2
24 3G-32 32-34 : 62-64 64-8 i 124-128 12B-136 : 248-256 25tsl272 : 2 496-51 512-544 i 024 992*1 1024-1088 : 1984-2048 ?048-2176 i 3968*4096 2 001

3 3; 33 63 66 126 132 252 264 504 528 95 96 ; 111 112 127 1008 1056 201 6 2112 4032

1111 0000 4 010 1111 0000 I 0 11 1111 0000 16 100 1111 0000 : 1111 0000 1111 0000 128 111 1111

3e

101

64

110

alntransmission, everyoth6rbitis invened.

Syllabic companding was first developed for use on noisy analog circuits to improve the i<lle channel noise. As shown in Figure 3.21, the power level of low-level syllables is increased(compressingthe dynamic range) for transmissionbut attenuatedupon reception (expandingthe dynamic range).The processofattenuating the received signal restoresthe low-power syllable to its original level but attenuatesany noise arising on the transmissionlink. Thus the receiver signal-to-noiseratio (SNR) is improved for low-level signals.The amount of amplification applied at the source is dependenton the short-term (syllabic) power level of the transmitted signal. Similarly, the compensatingattenuation applied at the receiving terminal is determined from the short-term power level of the received signal. Syllabic companding on digital systemsprovides the samebasic improvement in SQRs as it doeson noisy analog transmissionlinks. When the digital encodersand de-

1 18

VOICE DIGITIZATIoN

6 E

a q 30
fl .E
.E c A I
g E o

: .E

.F
6

-70

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

_lo

powr of rinswrve (dBm0l Siqnel

Ftgure 3.20 SQR of A-law PCM coding with sine wave inputs.

Input porvr level(dBm)

Output povt/t level(dBm)

*to[-'"
TrEnsrfiittd l6vBl {dBm}

*7.5-.r0

* ' J * f f i u u,rr\s-a,
(//w^c.*oi*'
Variable Expanrion --sH \\ Varieble\ --59 attenuetion Ponnr ftreasuromnt Figure 3.21 Power meesuteftent Syllabic companding of an analog signal.

MODULATION 1 19 3.2 PULSE CODE

coders are consideredas part of the transmissionlink, the processof amplifying lowlevel signalsbefore encoding and attenuatingthem after decoding effectively reduces the quantization noise with no net changein signal level. In practice, syllabic companding as implementedin digitized voice terminals doesnot amplify the signal at the sourceand attenuateit at the destination.Instead,an equivalentprocessof controlling the step sizesin the encoderand decoderis used. As far as the transmitted bit stream is concerned,it makes no difference if the signal is amplified and encodedwith fixed quantization or if the signal is unmodified but encodedwith smaller quantization intervals.Thus syllabic compandorsin digital voice terminalstypically reducethe quantization intervals when encoding and decoding low-power syllables but increasethe quantization intervals for high-power syllables' Although syllabic companding can be used in conjunction with any type of voice coding, the techniquehasbeen applied most often to differential sy$temsdescribedin the following sections.In many of the applications,the adaptationtime has been reduced to 5 or I0 msec,which is somewhatshorterthan the duration of a typical syllable (approximately 30 msec). The technique is still generally referred to as syllabic variety. companding, however, to distinguish it from the instantaneous To adjust the step sizes in the decoder in synchronism with adjustmentsmade in the encoder.some mean$must be establishedto communicatethe step size information from the sourceto the destination.One method explicitly transmits the step size information as auxiliary information. A generally more usefirl approach is to derive of chanthe step sizeinformation from the transmittedbit stream.Thus, in the ab$ence proceThis same information. operate on the nel erTors,the decoderand the encoder determines the receiver systems in which dure is analogousto syllabic compandedanalog its attenuation requirementsfrom the short-term power level of the received signal. In a digital system the bit streamis monitored for certain datapattems that indicate the power level of the signal being encoded.Indications of high power level initiate an increasein the step size, whereasindications oflow levels causea decrea$e. Determining the step size information from the transmittedbit streamis generally better than explicitly transmitting the step sizes for the following reasons.Because there is no explicit transmissionof step size, the transmissionof sampled speechinformation is never intemrpted, and the speechsamplerate is equal to the transmission rate. Also. the bit sheam does not have to be framed to identify step size infbrmation separatelyfrom the waveform coding. Furthermore, if the step size adjustmentsare made on a more gradual basis,the individual incrementsare small enough that occasional incorrect adjustmentsin the receiver causedby channel errors are not critical' However, on transmissionlinks with very high error rates (one error in a hundred bits or so), better decodedvoice quality can be obtained ifthe step size is transmitted explicitly and redundantly encodedfor error correction [19].

3.2.7 AdaptiveGain Encoding is range of a signal 3.21 thedynamic example of Figure companding In thesyllabic dyhas 36 dB of signal Thus, if anuncompanded reduced by a factor of 2 (in dBm).

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votcEDtctIzATtoN

namic range, the encoder seesonly 18 dB. The 18-dB reduction implies three fewer bits are neededfor dynamic rangeencoding.In the limit, if the power level of alt input signals is adjustedto a single value, no bits ofthe encoderneed to be allocatedto dynamic rangeencoding.A processthat adjustsall signalsto a standardvalue is referred to as automatic gain control (AGC). AGC is traditionally usedon carrier transmission systemsto adjust all received signalsto a standardvalue, thereby removing variations in propagation attentuation.AGC cannot be applied to a sourcevoice signal without allowancesfor speechpauseswhen there is no signal present.Otherwise, idle channel noise would be amplified to the averagelevel of active voice. Notice that with AGC there is no residual information in the power level of the encodedsignal as there is in syllabic companding.To ascertainthe original power level, AGC must be augmented with adaptive gain encoding (AGE), as indicated in Figure 3.22. There are two basic modes of operation for gain encoding dependingon how gain factors are measuredand to which speechsegments the factors are applied. one mode of operation,as implied in Fi gureS.ZL,involvesmeasuringthe power level of one segment of speechand using that information to establisha gain factor for ensuingspeech segments. obviously, this mode of operationrelies on gradually changing power lev* els. This mode of operation is sometimesreferred to a$ "backward estimation." Another mode of operation involves measuring the power lever of a speechsegment and using the gain factor thus derived to adapt the encoderto the samesegment. This approach,referredto as "forward estimation," hasthe obvious advantage,Ihat the encoderand decoderuse gain factors specifically related to the speechsegments from which they are derived.The disadvantage is that eachspeechsegmentmustbe delayed while the gain factor is being determined.Although the availability of digital memory has made the cost of implementing the delay insignificant, the impact of the delay on echoesand singing in a partially analog network must be considered.(As long as the subscriberloops are analog, the network is partially analog.) Adaptive gain control with explicit kansmission of gain factors is not without shortcomings.First, when the periodic gain information is inserted into the transmitted bit stream,some meansof framing the bit streaminto blocks is neededso gain in* formation can be distinguished from waveform coding. second, periodic insertion of gain information disrupts information flow, causinghigher transmitterclock ratesthat might be inconveniently related to the waveform sample clock. Third, correct recep-

adiustment

Flgure 3.22 Adaptive gain encoding.

12I 3.3 SPEECH HEDUNDANcIES tion of gain factors is usually critical to voice quality, indicating a needto redundantly encodegain information. Reference[20] describesa modified form of PCM using forward estimationof gain factors that is referred !o as nearly instantaneously companded PCM' The need for transmitting speechsegmentsin blocks is not a disadvantagein the application mentioned (mobile telephone)becauserepetitive bursts with ertor checking are used as a meansof overcoming shortJived multipath fading. This systemprovides a bit rate reduction of 30Vowith respect to conventional PCM. Another example of the use of AGE is the subscriberloop multiplexer (SLM) system developedby Bell Labs [21]. The SLM systembecameobsoletewhen low-cost PCM codecsbecameavailable and the subscribercarrier systemscould be integrated into digital end offices (with SLC 96 and later DLC systems).All of the encoding algorithms describedin the following sectionsuse syllabic companding or AGE in some form to reduce the bit rate'

REDUNDANCIES 3.3 SPEECH

Conventional PCM systemsencodeeach sampleof an input waveform independently from all other samples.Thus a PCM system is inherently capableof encoding an arbitrarily random waveform whose maximum-frequency component does not exceed one-half the sampling rate. Analyses of speechwaveforms, however, indicate there is considerableredundancyfrom one sampleto the next. In fact, as repofted in reference t101,the correlation coefficient (a measureof predictability) between adjacent$-kHz samples is generally 0.85 or higher. Hence the redundancy in conventional PCM codes suggestssignificant savings in transmissionbandwidths are possible through more efficient coding techniques.All of the digitization techniquesdescribedin the rest of this chapter are tailored, in one degree or another, to the characteristics of speechsignals with the intent of reducing the bit rate. In addition to the correlation existing between adjacent samples of a speechwaveform, severalother levels ofredundancy can be exploited to reduceencodedbit rates. related Not included are higher level redundancies Table 3.3 lists theseredundancies. (phonemes), and senwords, interpretationsof speechsounds to context-dependent

Hedundancles TABLE3.3 Speech redundancies Time-domain amplitudedi$tributions 1, Nonuniform 2, Sample-to-samplecorrelations (periodicity) correlatians 3. Cycle-to-cycle conelations 4. Pitch-interval to pitch-interval pauses) (speech factors 5. lnactivity Frequency-domain redundancies spectral densities long-term 6. Nonuniform spectral densities 7. Sound-specific shorl-term

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tence$. Thesetopicsarenot covered because techniques that analyze speech waveforms to extractonly informationcontenteliminatesubjective qualitiesessential to generaltelephony. 3.3.1 Nonuniform Amplltude Dietrlbutlons As mentioned in theintroduction to companding, lower amplitude sample values are morecommon thanhigheramplitude sample values. Most low-levelsamples occuras a resultof speech pau$e$ in a conversation. Beyondthis,however, thepowerlevelsof activespeech signals alsotendto occurat the lower endof the encoding range. The companding procedures described in the previoussectionprovideslightly inferior quality(i.e.,lower signal-to-noise ratios)for smallsignals compared to largesignals. qualif of PCM speech Thusthe average could be improvedby furthershortening lower level quantization intervalsand increasing upperlevel quantization intervals. The amountof improvement realized by sucha technique is minimal andprobably would notjustify the additional complexities. Themosrbeneficial approach to processing signalamplitudes in orderto reduce encoder bit rate$ involvessomeform of adaptive gaincontrol,asdiscussed earlier. 3.3.2 Sample-to-SampleCorrelatlon Thehighcorrelation factorof 0.85mentioned in Section 3.3indicates thatanysignificantattempt to reduce transmission ratesmustexploitthe correlation between adjacentsamples. In fact, at 8-kHz sampling rates,significant correlations alsoexist for samples two to threesamples apafr. Naturally,samples become evenmorecorrelated if the sampling rateis increased. Thesimplest way to exploitsample-to-sample redundancies in speech is to encode only thedifferences between adjacent samples. Thedifference measurements arethen accumulated in a decoder to recover the signal.In essence these systems encode the slope or derivative ofa signalat thesource andrecover thesignalby integrating at the destination. Digitizationalgorithms of this type arediscussed at lengthin later sections. 3.3.3 Cycle-to-Cycle Correlatlons Althougha speech signalrequires the enrire300-3400-Hz bandwidth providedby a telephone channel, at anyparticular instant in time certainsounds may be composed of only a few frequencies within the band.when only a few underlying frequencies exist in a sound,the waveformexhibitsstrongcorrelations over numerous samples corresponding to several cyclesofan oscillation. Thecyclic nature ofa voicedsound is evidentin thetime waveform shownin Figure3.23.Encoders exploitingthecycleto-cycle redundancies in speech aremarkedly morecomplicated thanthose concerned only with removingtheredundancy in adjacent samples. In fact,these encoders more

123 REDUNDANCIES 3.3 SPEECH

of voicedsound. Flgure 3.?3 Time wavefbrm or lessrepresenta transition from the relatively high rate, natural-soundingwaveform encodersto the relatively low rate, synthetic-soundingvocoders.

Gorrelations 3.3.4 Pitch-lnterval-to-Pitch.lnterval

Human speechsounds are often categorized as being generatedin one of two basic "voiced" soundsthat arise as a result ways. The first category of soundsencompasses of vibrations in the vocal cords. Each vibration allows a puff of air to flow from the lungs into the vocal hact. The interval between puffs of air exciting the vocal tract is referred to as the pitch interval or, more simply, the rate of excitation is the pitch. Generally speaking,voiced soundsarise in the generationof vowels and the latter portions of some consonants.An example of a time waveform for a voiced sound is shown in Figure 3.23. "unvoiced" sounds.FricaThe secondcategoryof soundsincludes the fricatives, or tives occur as a result of continuous air flowing fiom the lungs and passingthrough a vocal tract constricted at some point to generateair turbulence (friction). Unvoiced soundscorrespondto certain consonant$such asf j, s, and x' An example of a time waveform of an unvoiced sound is shown in Figure 3.?4. Notice that an unvoiced sound has a much more random waveform than a voiced sound. As indicated in Figure 3.23, not only doesa voiced soundexhibit the cycle-to-cycle redundanciesmentioned in Section 3.3.3, but also the waveform displays a longer qtre of lgtn rEpetitive pattern poffesponding to the duration of a pitch interval. $11p the glo$t Afficient ways of encoding the voiced portions 9f speechis to encode one pitch that encoding,asa templatefor each successive p,te4+Jp*41--1vpv9{pyr+ an"d.use typ,i[a]ly-last gom 5 to 20 mpes f,or men and i[GwU"in th.eqamesound,-fi!9,!r in1-elvals flrqp 2.5 to 10 msegfor.yomen*"Sincea.typica] voiced.sogndf4ptsfo,rapprq4i5nately 100msec, there may be as many as 20-40 pitch intervals in a single sound. Although iitdh inierval encoding Can provide significant reductions in bit rates, the pitch is sometimesvery difficult to detect. (Not all voiced soundsproduce a readily identifi-

Figure 3.24 Time waveform of unvoiced sound.

124

VOICEDIGITIZATION

able pitch interval as in Figure 3.23.) rf the pitch gets encodecl erroneously, straxge soundsresult. An interestingaspectof pitch interval encodingis that it provides a meansof speeding up speechwhile maintaining intelligibility. By deleting some percentageof pitch intervals from each sound (phoneme),the rate of sound generationis effectively increasedin a manner analogousto more rapid word formation. The pitch of the sounds remains unchanged.In conffast, if the rate of reconstruction is merely increased,all frequenciesincluding the pitch increaseproportionately. Moderate speedups produce obvious distortion while greaterspeedups becomeunintelligible. Devices designedto simulate faster word formation have demonstrated that we are capableof assimilating spokeninformation much faster than we can generateit.

3.3.5 InactivityFactor$
Analyses of telephone conversationshave indicated that a pafiy is typically active about4OVa of a call duration. Most inactivity occurs as a result of one personlistening while the other is talking. Thus a conventional (circuit-switched) full-duplex connection is significantly underutilized. Time assignmentspeechinterpolation (TASD describedin Chapter I is a techniqueto improve channelutilization on expensiveanalog links. Digital speechinterpolation (DSI) is a term usedto refer to a digital circuit counterpart of rASI. DSI involves sensingspeechactivity, seizing a channel,digitally encoding and transmitting the utterances, and releasingthe channel at the completion of each speechsegment. Digital speechinterpolation is obviously applicable ro digital speechsrorage$ystems where the duration of a pausecan be encodedmore efficiently than the pauseitself. In recorded me$sage$,however, the pauses are normally short since a "half-duplex" conversationis not taking place. DSI techniqueshave been used to expand the voice channel capacity of digital TDM links. The inputs are standardPCM signalsthat are digitally processed to detectspeechactivity. The DSI operationis often combined with speechcompressionalgorithms to implement digital circuit multiplication (DCM) equipment.when a 2 : I voice compressionalgorithm is combined with a2.5 : I DSI concentrationfactor, an overall 5 : I circuit expansionis achieved.Depending on the quality of speechdesired,even greater concentrationfactors are possible. The use of such equipment in a network must be carefully managedto ensure that voiceband data and digital data channelsbypassthe DCM operations.

3.3.6 NonunlformLong-Term SpectralDenslties

The time-domain redundanciesdescribed in the preceding sections exhibit characteristics in the frequency domain that can be judiciously processedto reduce the encoded bit rate. Frequency-domain redundancies are not independent of the redundancies in the time domain. Frequency-domaintechniquesmerely offer an alternate approachto analyzing and processingthe redundancies.

REDUNDANCIES 125 3.3 SPEECH

a
I

-ro E t

T
.H -20
o -6

o EL

-30
Ftequeilcy (Hrl

powerspectral densityof speech. Flgure 3.25 Long-term A totally random or unpredictablesignal in the time domain producesa frequency speckum that is flat acrossthe bandwidth of interest.Thus a signal that producesuncorrelatedtime-domain samplesmakes maximum use of its bandwidth' On the other inefficient use of the bandwidth and is hand, a nonuniform spectraldensity repre$ent$ the waveform' indicative of redundancyin Figure 3.25 showsthe long-term spectraldensity of speechsignalsaveragedacross two populations: men and women [22]. Notice that the upper portions of the 3-kHz bandwidth passedby the telephonenetwork have significantly reducedpower levels. The lower power levels at higher frequencies are a direct consequenceof the timepreviously. Large-amplitude signals correlationsdiscussed domain sample-to-sample cannot change rapidly because,on average,they are predominantly made up of lower frequency components. A frequency-domain approach to more efficient coding involves flattening the spectrumbefore encoding the signal. The flattening processcan be accomplishedby passingthe signal through a high-passfilter to emphasizethe higher frequenciesbefore sampling.The original waveform is recovered by passing the decoded signal through a filter with a complementary, low-pass characteristic.An important aspect of this processis that a high-passfilter exhibits time-domain characteristicsof a differentiator and a low-pass filter has time-domain characteristicsanalogousto an integrator. Thus the spectrum-flatteningprocessessentiallymeansthe slope of the signal is encodedat the $ource,and the signal is recoveredby integrating at the destinationredundancyremoval the basic procedure describedpreviously for sample-to-sample in the time domain. In studying Figure 3.25 it is natural to think that the remarkably low levels of signal energy at the higher frequencies(2-3.4 kHz) meansthat more bandwidth is being alThe error in such a conclusion,howlocated to a voice signal than is really necessary. ever. lies in the distinction between energy content and information content of the voice frequency speckum. As any beginning computer prograflrmer soon leams,- the
*I am assuming that beginning prograflmers seven-character name limitations. still encounter older languages or file systems with

'

lrHtl rPUq lrllsds

126

MODULATION 127 PULSE CODE 3.4 DIFFERENTIAL

by meaningof a programvariablecan often be retainedeventhoughit is shortened the vowelsrequiremostof the energyandprideletingall of the vowels.In speech on theother band.Theconsonants, marily occupythe lowerportionof the frequency higher but usemuchlesspowerandgenerally hand,containmostof theinformation enof the originalspeech a high percentage Hencemerelyreproducing frequencies. or storage system. goalfor a digital speech transmission ergyis an inadequate 3.3.7 Short-Term Spectral Densitiee of thespeclong-term averages shown in Figure3.25represent Thespeech spectrums and vary considerably periods the spectral densities of time Over shorter hal densities. (resonances) peaks some frequencies at with energy structureri exhibitsound-specific occurarecalled at whichtheresonances Thefrequencies valleysat others. andenergy contain speech sounds typically formants. Voiced or simply formantfrequencies, are density the short-term spectral These features of threeto four identifiableformant$. specis a displayofspeech ofFigure3.26.A spectogram illustrated in thespectogram time, The horizontalaxis represents tral energyas a function of time and frequency. levels.Thus represent energy frequency, andthe shadings the verticalaxisrepresents levels(formants) at relativelyhigh energy thedarkerportionsin Figure3.26indicate in time. particular instants by encoding provideimproved codingefficiencies voicecoders Frequency-domain on a dynamicbasis.As the sounds of the spectrum the mostimportantcomponents The period bandareencoded. ofthe frequency differentportions(formants) change, Instead of usingperiodicspectrum is typically 10-20 msec. between formantupdates in trackgradual changes continuously somehigherquality vocoders measufements, provide lower vocoders often higher rate.Frequency-domain densityat a thespectral codersbut typically producelessnaturalsounding bit ratesthan the time-domain speech.

PULSECODE MODULATION 3.4 DIFFERENTIAL (DPCM)is designed to takeadvantage specifically pulsecodemodulation Differential waveform. Sincetherange in a typicalspeech redundancies of the sample-to-sample fewer bits are of sampledffirences is lessthan the rangeof individual samples, asfor a comrateis oftenthesame Thesampling samples. to encode difference needed andthe smoothing Thusthe bandlimitingfilter in the encoder parable PCM system. FCM system$. in conventional to those used identical arebasically filter in thedecoder samples for a DPCM coderis to thedifference of generating means A conceptual circuitanduseananalog inputsample directlyin a sample-and-hold store theprevious andenin the signalis thenquantized The change to measure thechange. subtracter shownin Figure3.27is morecompliThe DPCM structure codedfor transmission. loop by a feedback inputvalueis reconstructed because theprevious cated, however, signal is an the feedback In essence, sample differences. the encoded that integrates

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vorcE DtctrtzAnoN
gandlimiting filter

Prsvioiti input

CBtimate Aftumulrtor Flgure 3.27 F\rnctional block diagram of differential pCM.

estimate of theinputsignalasobtained by integrating theencoded sample differences. Thusthefeedback signalis obtained in thesame manner used to reconstruct thewaveform in thedecoder. Theadvantage of thefeedback implementation i$ thatquantization errorsdo not accumulate indefinitely. If thefeedback signaldrifts from theinputsignal,asa resultof an accumulation of quantization errors,the next encodingof the difference signal automatically compensate$ for thedrift. In a system withoutfeedback theoutputproduced by a decoder at theotherendof theconnection mightaccumulate quantization errorswithoutbound. As in PCM sy$tems, the analog-to-digital process conversion canbe uniform or companded. someDPCM systems alsouseadaptive techniques (syllabiccompanding) to adjustthequantization stepsizein accordance with theaverage powerlevelof the signal.(See reference [9] for an overviewof varioustechniques.) Example3.4. speechdigitizationtechniques aresometimes measured for quality by useof an 800-Hzsinewavea$a representative test signal.Assuming a uniform PCM systemis availableto encode the sine wave across a given dynamicrange, determine how manybitsper sample canbe saved by usinga uniformDpcM system. solution. A basicsolutioncanbe obtained by determining how muchsmallerthe dynamicrangeof the differencesignal is in comparison to the dynamicrangeof the signalamplitude. Assume themaximumamplitude of the sinewaveis A, sothat =A sin(2n'800t) "r(f) Themaximumamplitudeof thedifferencesignalcanbeobtained by differentiating andmultiplyingby thetime intervalbetween samples:

= e?n)(A0o) '8oor) cos(2n

MODULATIOru 129 PULSE CODE 3.4 DIFFERENTIAL

A(2nX800) lAx(t)l*u*= [,#l

\

= 0'628A
/

as canbe determined in bits per sample The savings

t r \ tits loc,| 0628l=0.62

\ / lessthan canuseJ bit per sample that a DPCM sy$tem Example 3.4 demonstratetl providea full l-bit quality.Typically DPCM systems with the same a PCM system because, on average' reductionin codewordsize.The larger savingsis achieved havea lower slopethanan 800-Hztone(seeFigure3.25). speech waveforms

3.4.1 DPCM lmplementatlons in a varietyof waysdecanbeimplemented anddecoders DifferentialPCM enCoders between analogand functionsarepartitioned pendingon how the signalprocessing f'unctions canbe imandintegration thedifferencing digitalcircuitry.At oneextreme can all signalprocessing circuitry,while at the otherextreme plemented with analog as input. Figure 3.28 PCM samples digitally using conventional be implemented of with differing amounts of tfueedifferentimplementations showsblock diagrams digital signalprocessing. Analogandintegration. usinganalogdifferencing a sy$tem Figure3.28adepicts fot the andD/A conversion signal, on thedifference is performed to-digitalconversion code. Analog difference performed on thelimited-range loopis immediately feedback (S/H)circuitis usedto provideintegration. in a sample-anrl-hold andstorage $ummation functiondigitally. Inthe integration that perfbrms Figure3.28bshowsa system for feedback, the back to analog code converting the difference of immediately stead repregenerate a digital in data register to and stored a code is summed difference to prois thenused D/A converter A full-scale inputsample. sentation of theprevious in the D/A converters Notice that for differencing. feedback signal ducethe analog in FigD/A converters range whereas the full amplitude must convert the Figure3.28b signal. ure 3.28aconvertthemorelimited difference is performed by digital processing where all signal Figure3.28cshowsa sy$tem which sample codes, full-amplitude-range produces TheA/D converter logic circuits. code. previous amplitude of the generated approximations to digitally are compared range of the dynamic must encode the entire in this case Noticethat theA./Dconvefter on only the differversions operate in the other two input whereas the A/D convefters encesignals. of whichconprocessing components, some of digitalsignal Dueto theavailability generally (as is the in Figure 3.28c) processing digital tain intemalA./Dconverters, most DPCM apIn fact, a DPCM algorithm. of implementing mosteffectivemean$ speech signalsthat have alreadybeendigitizedinto plicationsinvolve processing no usuallyrequires ThustheDPCM implementation PCM formats. standard 64-kbps

130

votcE DtGtlzATtoN

processing. analog As an aid in processing log-PCMsignals, someDSp components provideinternalp-law andA-law conversion functions. Thedecoders in all threeimplementations shown in Figure3.28areexactlylike the feedback implementations in theconesponding encoder. This reinforces thefact that thefeedback loopgenerates anapproximation of theinputsignal(delayed by onesample).Ifno channel elrorsoccur,thedecoder output(before filtering)is identical to the feedback signal. Thusthecloserthefeedback signalmatches theinput,thecloserthe decoder outputmatches the encoder input.

Decoder

Encoder

Oecoder

Encoder

(t)

Figure 3.2t DPCM implementations:(a) analog integrarion; (b) digital integration; (c) digital differencing.

pulsEcoDEMoDULATIoN 131 s.4 DTFFERENTTAL

3.4.2 HlgherOrder Prediction

case of a linear it asa special considers viewpointof a DPCM encoder A moregeneral signal error.Thefeedback of theprediction predictor andtransmission with encoding prediction value,andthe of thenext sample first-order represents of a DPCM sy$tem can is a prediction elror.Underthis viewpointtheDPCM concept difference sample cirvalueinto the prediction morethanonepastsample to incolporate be extended can be from all previoussamples available cuitry. Thus the additionalredundancy With a of the next input sample. a betterestimate andsummed weighted to produce with to allow encoding the rangeof the predictionerror decreases betterestimate, haveshownthat predictorcoefficients, results fewerbits. For systems with constant valwhenusingonly thelastthreesample occurs mostof therealizable improvement values usingthe lastthreesample of linearprediction ues.Thebasicimplementation showsanalog purposes this implementation is shownin Figure3.29.For conceptual asin Figure3.28a.The mosteffectiveimplementations andintegration differencing in lieu of the andadditionin a DSP component usedigital memory,multiplication, diginvolvealready particularly because mostapplications processing shown, analog itized (PCM) signals. with first-order PCM systems of differential 3.4,analysis in Section As mentioned reduction in codelengthrelativeto a 1-bit-per-sample predication typicallyprovides utilizingthirdDPCM sy$tems performance. Extended with equivalent PCM systems of f -2 bitsper sample canprovidereductions orderprecliction [23]. Thusa standard linear canprovide64-kbpsPCM quality at 56 kbps,andthird-order DPCM system quality at 48 kbps. However,somesubjective predictioncan provide comparable 64-kbps to match areneeded higherbit rates thatsomewhat haveindicated evaluations PCM quality. 3.4.3 Adaptive Differential PGM of I -2 bits of DFCM canprovidesavings implementations straightforward Relatively Even greatersavingscan be PCM encoding. to standard per samplewith respect

Decoder

Encoder

prediction. Figure 3.29 Extension of DPCM to third-order

132

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achievedby adding adaptationlogic to the basic DPCM algorithm to create what is refened to as adaptive differential PcM (ADpcM). Many forms of ADpcM have been investigatedand used in various applications.Two of the most prevalent applications are voice messagingand DCM equipment for increasingthe number of voice channelson a Tl line. with respectto the latter application, ITU-T has establisheda 32-kbps ADPCM standard(RecommendationG.721) [24]. This algorithm has been extensively testedand characterized to not significantly degradetoll quality voice circuits when insertedinto the internal portions of the network. Design considerationsof the standard are: 1. Multiple tandem encodings and decodings berween both pcM and analog interfaces 2. End-to-end signal quality for voice, voicebanddata, and facsimile 3. Effects ofrandom and bursty channel errors 4. Performanceon analog signals degradedby loss, noise, amplitude distortion, phasedistortion, and harmonic di$tortion 5. Easy transcodingwith p-law and Alaw pCM The 32-kbps rate implies a 2 : I savingsin channelbandwidth with respectto standard PCM. A significant impairment inffoduced by implemenrarionsof the ADpcM standard is the comrption of modem signalscarrying data ratesgreaterthan 49fi) bps [24]. Voiceband data at rates of 4800 bps and below are adequatelysupported. The G.721 ADPCM algorithm is conceptually similar to rhat shown in Figure 3.29 but more sophisticatedin that it usesan eighth-orderpredictor, adaptivequantization, and adaptive prediction. Furthermore, the algorithm is designedto recognize the difference between voice or data signals and use a fast quantizer adaptationmode for voice and a slow adaptationmode for data.

4 v,

*q
-*o*****__=# ---* PCM ADPCM

3 3
2
1

$r
2 t
2

3 4 5 I 7 I Numbsr of Encodlner (el

3 4 E g 7 I Numbsr of Encodl4r

tbl

Figure 3.30 AverageMOS versusnumberof encodings for PCM and ADPCM: (a) linear microphone; (b) carbon microphone.

g.s DELrA 133 MoDULATtoN subjectiveevaluation [25] of the G.721algorithmusingthe meanopinionscore quality is shownin Figure 3.30. The MOS (MOS) methodof evaluatingspeech of I : 5. Figure qualityon a scale evaluate the speech listeners to uses trained method a functionof PCM as ADPCM and 64-kbps 32-kbps scores of theaverage 3.30shows with multiple quality associated The speech encodings. tandem of analog thenumber first transcoding beyond the (to not degrade from PCM) does digitaltranscodings and errors or slips suchaschannel impairments aslong asthereareno digitaltransmission be an important (or used to any other coder) of ADPCM (Chapter 7). Theperformance anddigiof analog of mixtures whenthepublicnetworkwascomposed consideration performance digital, network are all porxions of the Because theinternal tal equipment. (Multiple PCM-tois no longera consideration. with multiple analogconversions are encountered DCM systems multiple can still occurwhen ADPCM conversions within a network.) costandpower goodqualityat a moderate ADFCM at 32 kbpsprovides Because digital cellularsysor low-tiertelephone cordless it is usedin several consumption, tems: (PACS)(NorthAmerica) System Communications Personal Access (CT2) (Europe) Telephones Generation Cordless Second (DECT)(Europe) Telephones Cordless Digital European (PHS)(Japan) System Handyphone Personal

3.5 DELTA MODULATION exploitsthe that specifically (DM) is another technique digitization Deltamodulation In fact,DM canbe considered waveform. in a speech redundancy sample-to-sample signal.The of the difference caseof DPCM usingonly I bit per sample asa special singlebit specifiesmerelythe polarity of the differencesampleandtherebyindicates An approximation since thelastsample. or decreased whither thesignalhasincreased up onequantipathby stepping in the feedback to the input waveformis constructed downwhenthedifis positive("one")andstepping zationlevel whenthedifference of'trps" a$a sequence ("zero").In this way the input is encoded is negative ference aDM approximaFigure3.31shows a staircase. and"downs"in amannerresembling to stepin one signalcontinues tion of a typical wavefonn.Noticethat the feedback direction stepreverses the input,at whichtime thefeedback directionuntil it crosses Thus,whentrackingtheinput signal,theDM output again. until the input is crossed "bounces" allowingthe input to be accuthe input waveform, backandforth across filter' by a smoothing ratelyreconstructed a relativelysmallamountof information(1 sample contains Sinceeachencoded ratethanPCMor multibitDPCM systems. a higher sampling require bit), DM $ystems much higherthantheminimum(Nyquist)samis necessarily rate In fact,thesampling
*A low-tier cellular system utilizes simple, Iow-power mobile units, and small cells and only suppofts pedesfrian speeds,

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VoIcE DIGITIZATIoN

Figure 3.31 Waveform encoding by deltamodularion, pling rate of twice the bandwidth. From anotherviewpoint, "oversampling" is needecl to achieve better prediction from one sample to the next. The main attraction of DM is its simplicity. Figure 3.32 shows a basic implementation of a DM encoderand decoder.Notice that the A/D conversion function is provided by a simple comparator. A positive-difference voltage produces a l, and a negative-differencevoltage produces a 0. Correspondingly, the D/A function in the feedback path, and in the decoder,is provided by a two-polarity pulse generator.In the simplest form the integrator can consist of nothing more than a capacitorto accumulate the charge from the pulse generator. In addition to theseobvious implementation simplicities, a delta modulator also allows the use of relatively simple filters for bandlimiting the input and smoothing the output [26]. As discussed in section 3.1, rhe speckum producedby a samplingprocess consist$of replicasof the sampledspectrumcenteredat multiples of the sampling frequency. The relatively high sampling rate of a delta modulator producesa wider separation of these spectrums, and, hence, foldover distortion is prevented with less stringent roll-off requirementsfor the input filter.

3.5.1 SlopeOverload
The conceptualoperationof a delta modulator shown in Figure 3.3 I indicatesthat the encoded waveform is never much more than a step size away from the input signal. sometimes a delta modulator, or any differential system such as DpcM, may not be able to keep up with rapid changes in the input signal and thus fall more than a step

Pul* gf,ndtbr

Eruodr Figure 3.32 Delta modulation encoder and decoder.

3.5 DELTAMODULATION

135

"slope size behind. When this happens,the delta modulator is said to be experiencing overload." A slope overload condition is shown in Figure 3'33. Basically, slope overload occurs when the rate of changeof the input exceedsthe by the feedbackloop' Since the maximaximum rate of changethat can be generated mum rate of change in the feedback loop is merely the step size times the sampling rate, a slope overload condition occurs if

l#l'*
wherex(t) = input signal q = steP size f; = samplingfrequencY

(3.13)

two types between a trade-off involves of a DM (or DPCM)necessarily Thedesign to as referred noise, sometimes of distortion:the moreor lessrandomquantization granular in Figure 3-33, indicated noise.As granularnoise,and the slopeoverload slope overwhereas signals, for slowlychanging consideration noiseis a predominant is small noise granular Obviously, signals. duringrapidlychanging loadis dominant the likelihoodof slopeoverload' increase aresmall,but smallstepsizes if stepsizes overandslope the of minimizing totalof granular DM stepsizein terms Theoptimum UyAbate[271. loadnoisehasbeenconsidered signalare sigeffectsof slopeoverloadon the quality of a speech The perceptual As indigranular noise' by effectsproduced nificanitydifierentfrom the perceptual the encoded peaksjustbefore its noise reaches overload in iigure 3.33,theslope cated identical components hassfiong noise slopeoverload Hence, its peaks. signalreaches of the input' Diswith a majorcomponent in phase irifrequencyandapproximately "masked'by is effectively signal to thespeech in thismanner tortionthatis correlated "uncorrelated" In distortion. than is lessnoticeable energyandtherefore the speech granular random or than to a listener noiseis muchlessobjectionable fact, overload from the point of view of perceived powerlevel [28]. Hence, noiseat an equivalent noiseis difficult to andslopeoverload quality,the optimummix of granular speech determine.

Figure 3.33 Slope overload and granular noise of delta modulation system.

136

vorcEDtcllzAloN

slope overload is not a limitation of just a DM system, but an inherent problem with any system, such as DPCM in general, that encodesthe difference in a signal fiom one sampleto the next. A difference systemencodesthe slope of the input with a finite number ofbits and hencea finite range. Ifthe slope exceedsthat range, slope overload occurs. In contrast, a conventional pcM systemis not limited by the rate of changeof the input, only by the maximum encodableamplitude. Notice that a differential systemcan encodesignalswith arbitrarjly large amplitudes,as long as the large amplitudes are attainedgradually. Many versionsof DM for voice encoding were investigatedin the 1960sand 1970s [29, 30]. All of theseefforts focused on ways of implementing adaptive delta modulation (ADM) to improve the performance at a given bit rate. The intense interest at that time was relatedto the simplicity, good toleranceof channelerrors,and relatively low cost implementation.The cost factor is no longer relevantbecause even relatively complicatedcoding algorithms now have insignificant costscomparedto mosr system costs.ADM is still used in some old pBXs, in some military securevoice radio systems, and as a mealls of encoding the residual error signal of some predictive coders describedin the following sections.

3.6 ADAPTIVE PREDICTIVE CODING

operate with lowerdatarates thanpcM systems because theyencode a difference signal thathasloweraverage powerthantheraw inputsignal. Theratioof theinputsignal powerto thepowerof thedifference signalis referred to astheprediction gain.Simple DPCM system$(firsr-orderpredictors)provide about 5 dB of prediction ga1n. ADPCM provides greater levelsof prediction gaindepending on thesophistication of the adaptation logic andthe number of pastsamples usedto predictthe nextsample. Theprediction gainof ADpcM is ultimatelylimited by thefact thatonly a few fast samples areusedto predictthe input andthe adaptation logic only adapts the quantizer,not theprediction weightingcoefficients (thec's in Figure3.zg). Adaptivepredictivecoding(Apc) t3l, 3zl provides greater levelsof prediction gain by adapting the predictioncoefficients to individual speech segments and,in mostcases, usinghigherorders of prediction (e.g., up to 12).If thecoefficients arede_ termined from pasthistoryandused to predictsubsequent speech (backward segments estimation), l3 dB of prediction gainis possible segments [10]. If speectr aredelayed so predictorcoefficients canbe usedon the samespeech segments from which they werederived(forwardesrimation), 20 dB of prediction gainis possible [33]. A blockdiagram of a basicApc encoder/decoder is shownin Figure3.34.Theinput to the encoder andthe outputfrom the decoder areassumed to be uniformpcM, most likely representing conver$ions from and to log pcM. The transmitted data $tream is necessarily composed of blockscontaining threetypesof information:(l) the encoded difference signal(residual), (z) a gainfactor,and(3) rhepredicror coefficients.Themostsignificant difference between this coderanda'DpcM or ADpcM coderinvolvesthe periodicdetermination and transmission of the predictorcoeffi-

Thedifferential sysrems described in theprevious (DpcM,ADpcM,ADM) sections

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cients' Notice that the integratedresidual signal at point A is identical to the input signal delayed by one sample (except for residual quantization error). Thus the corresponding point in the decoderis the reconstructedpCM output. Explicit transmissionof a gain factor, as opposedto deriving a gain factor from the transmitted residual, is useful in this application becausea block-structuredtransmission format is required for transmitting the predictor coefficients anyway. Residual encoding may use any of the waveform algorithms describedpreviously. Arbiharily accuratereconstructionof the input can be achievedif enoughbits are usedin encoding the residual. of course,the purpose of the adaptiveprediction is to achievea low data rate. single-bit PcM thar conveys only the polarity ofthe residual provides adequatepedormancefbr low-data-rateapplications of the feed[33]. Notice that because back path, single-bit encoding ofthe residual essentiallyproducesa delta modulator with very sophisticatedfeedbacklogic that is periodically changedto match the shape and energy level of corresponding(forward-estimated)speechsegments. A large variety of algorithms have been investigatedfor calculating the predictor coefficients, most of which involve extensive computation. If the apflication is for voice responsesystems,the computations do not have to occur in rial time and are therefore sometimes done on a large mainframe computer. Real-time encoding restricts the algorithm to one that can be realized with a DSp or special-purpose IC de_ signed to implement a specific coefficient determining algorithm. A linear predictive coding (LPC) algorithm as describedin Section 3.8.3 is a common algorithm because it provides good performance and is available in custom parts. The u.s. defense deparHnentadoptedan APC algorithm using a fourth-order LPC coefficient analysis as a government standardfor secure voice transmission at 9.6 kbps [34]. This system transmitsblocks of 240 bits containing I 80 one-bit samplesof the residual, 54 bits for parameters and gain factors,5 bits for error correctionsof critical most significant bits, and I framing bit.

3.7 SUBBAND CODING

A subbandcoder is one form of coder using a frequency-domainanalysisof the input signal insteadof a time-domain analysisas in previously described.od"r*. As shown in Figure 3.35, the coder first divides the input spectrum into separatebandsusing a bank ofbandpassfilters. The signal passingthrough eachofthe rilatively nanow subbands is individually encoded wirh separateadaprive ApcM, pcu, or enpcM encoders.After each subbandis encoded,the individual bit streamsare multiplexed for transmissionto the decoder,where they are demultiplexed, decoded,and combined to recon$tructthe input. separatelyencodingeachsubbandis advantageous for severalreasons. First, by using separate adaptationfor each band, the quantization step sizescan be adjustedaccording to the energy level in each band. Those bands with relatively high energy levels can be encodedwith relatively coarsequantization.In this mannei the spectrum of the quantization noise is matched to the short-term $pectrum of the signal. This propefly is very desirablein a perceptualsensebecauseit allows the speechsignal to

CODING 3.7 SUBBAND

BandpErB filters AdaPtive PCM

139

coder. Figure 3.35 Subband

mask the quantization noise. (The human ear perceives speechby measuring the shortterm energy level of individual frequency bands.Hence,relatively low noise in a band with no speechenergy is perceptually more significant than greater noise in a band with significant speechenergY.) A secondadvantageof subbandcoding is that the bit rate (quality) assignedto each individual band can be optimized according to the Perceptualimportance of each for low be used per can sample band. In particular, a relatively large number of bits of frequencies where it is important to preserve the pitch and formant Structure voiced ,ound*. At higher frequencies,however, fewer bits per sample can be used because noiselike fricatives do not require comparablequality in reproduction' As reported in reference [10], subbandcoders provide significant bit rate reductions compared to the more coilrmon and simpler coding algorithms: adaptive delta modulation and adaptive differential PCM. Specifically, subbandcoders at 16 kbps are reported to be perceptually equivalent to ADFCM coders at ?2 kbps. A subband coder at 9.6 kbps is reportedto be eguivalentto an ADM coder at 19.5kpbs. Extensive in reference description and performance analysis of subband coding are available

t351.

codingis the ITU-T recommendaof subband example significant A particularly for encoding provides This standard codingt36, 371. speech nonl.7}Zfbr wideband imof significantly a means with 64 kbps.Thusit provides bandwidth 7-kHz speech Applications are available. digital channels proving voice fidelity whenend-to-end speakerphones' and are teleconferencing fidelity from the higher thatcanbenefitmost of the network,it doesnot have Because it is not intendedfor internalequipment Trananalogconversions. tandem support voicebanddata signalsor to proces$ bridge conference of in support to and from uniform PCM are required scodings affangements. banddividestheinput speech As shownin Figure3.36[36], theG.722algorithm subBoth subbands' equal-sized width from 50 to 7000Hz into two approximately at48 kbpsandtheuppersubband with ADPCM:theIowersubband bands areencoded

140

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l4 blt| l6kHr I

04 kbps oulput

Lowr ilbbEnd ADPCM dftoder (3 vrrirntl

Mode indic8tion

Figure3.36 G.7227-kIIz (From audio codec, reference p. 10.) t361, at 16kbps.Theupperbanddoes not require ashigh a dataratebecause it is not asimportantperceptually and has significantlyless energy.The algorithmpermitsthe lowerbandto be encoded at 40 or 32 kbps,whichallowsg or 16kbpsfor anauxiliary datachannel in teleconferencing applications or for theuseof56-kbpschannels when 64 kbpsis not available. Figure3.37shows theMos performance olthe G.222atgorithm for speech andmusicat threebasicrates[3g].

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Bed I 4$ Bit RErB(kbps)

Figure3.37 AverageMosversusbitrateotG.lzzk-kHzaudiocodec.(Fromreference[3g], p. 15.)

3.8 vocoDEHS 141

3.8 VOCODERS
algorithms describedpreviously have been For the most part, the encocling/decoding possible' concernedprimarily with reproducing the input waveform as accuratelyas and process they the signal nature of of the Thus they u**u-* little or no knowledge occur Exceptions channel. in a voice are basically applicable to any signal occurring when subbandcoding and adaptivepredictive coding are designedfor particularly low to bit rates (20 kbps or iess). At thesebit ratesthe encodershave been closely tailored other sigquality for comparable provide the statisiics of a speechsignal and cannot nals. Differential systems,such as DPCM and DM, also exhibit a certain amount of deficiencies speech-specificproperties by virtue of their high-frequency encoding (slope overload). The digitization procedures described in this section very specifically encode speechsignatsand speechsignals only. For this reasonthese techniquesare referred "vocOders,"an acronym for vOiCe are coderS.Since theseteChniques to collectively as public pottions ofthe to designedspecificatly for voice signals,they are not applicable be actelephonenetwork in which other analog signals (such as modem signals)must commodated.The basic goal of a vocoder is to encodeonly the perceptuallyimportant aspectsof can be speechwith fewer bits than the more general waveform encoders.Thus they cannot. used in limited-bandwidth applicationswhere the other techniques"wrong number") Some of the main applications for vocoders are recorded (e.g., tecellular digital encryptedvoice transmissionover niuT0wbandHF radio, message$, over telephony Iephony, digital circuit multiplication, computer output, games,and provided multiple tnl fnternet. A particularly interesting,early use of an LPC vocoder voice channels over a single voice frequency leasedline' Using a well-conditioned circuit, four 2400-bpsvoice signalswere time division leasedline to obtain a 9600--bps (early 1980) where multiplexed into a single line [39]. This is one of the first cases the bandwidth of a voice signal' This system digitization was usedto actually decrease pr*ovidedintelligible voice, but the overall quality was below telephone standards' This particular systembecameobsoletewhen long-distanceleased-linecosts dropped to the point that the sacrifice in voice quality was unjustified' voThis sectiondescribesthree of the most basic vocoding techniques:the channel variand coder, the formant vocoder, and the aforementioned LPC. Many other forms some of the ations of vocoders have been proposed and studied. For a discussionof other techniques and an extensive bibliography on the subject, see reference [10]' the Most commercial applications for vocoders have concentratedon adaptationsof LPC algorithm, particularly for digital cellular and voice over data networks'

preserving A fundamental requirementfor maintaining good speechquality involves individbetween phase relationship power specffum of the signal. The the shot"t-term
*Vocoders to detect the can be insefted into internal portions of a network if the interfaces are equipped them accordingly' process presencc of voiceband modem or fax signals and

lnsensitlvltq Phtase

142

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Figure3.38 Effect of phase shiftin thesuperposition of twotones. ual frequency components is perceptually muchlessimportant. one of thebestexamplesof theear'sinsensitivity to phase is demonstrated whentwo notesareplayedsimultaneously, or nearly simultaneously, on a piano. The compositeJound, as perceived by a listener, is seemingly no different if onenoteis struct< stightlylaterthan theother.In essence, theearsenses how muchenergy is present at various frequencies in the speech spectrum but doesnot sen$e the phase relationship between individual frequency components. Theeffectof a phase shiftin onecomponent of a composite signalis shown in Figure 3.38.The first composite waveformis produced whentwo individualfrequenry component$ haveidenticalstarting phases. The second composite waveformoccurs whenthetwo frequency termshavestarting phases shiftedby-90o with respect to each other.Noticethat the composite waveforms aremarkedlydifferenteventhough the differenceis imperceptible to the ear.For thesereasons the time waveformproduced by a vocodergenerally bearslittle resemblance to the originalinput waveform.In_ stead, theemphasis of a vocoder is in reproducing the short-term fower specrumof theinput. 3.8.1 ChannelVocoder channel vocoders were firsr developed in l92g by Homer Dudley [40]. Dudley's originalimplementation compressed speech waveforms into an *utog signalwith a total bandwidth of about300 Hz. Based on the originalconcept, digital channel vo_ coders havebeendeveloped operating in therangeof l_? kbps. A majorpart of the encoding process of a channel vocoder involvesdetermining the short-term signalspectrum as a functionof time. As indicated in Figure3.3g,; bankofbandpass filters is usedto separate the speech energy into subbands that are full wave rectifiedand filtered to determine relativepower levels.The individual powerlevelsareencoded andtransmitted to thedestination. Noticethatthis muchof a channel vocoder is very similarto the subband coderdiscussed previously. A sub_ bandcoder,however,typically useswider bandpass filters, whicir necessitate sampling the subband waveforms moreoften (determining a waveforminstead of just a powerlevel)' Sincea subband coderencodes waveforms, it alsoincludes phase informationthatis ignoredby a channel vocoder. In addition to measuring thesignar spectrum, modemchannel vocoders alsodetermine the natureof speech excitation(voiceor unvoiced) andthe pirch frequency of

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voiced sounds.The excitation measurements are used to synthesizethe speechsignal in the decoderby passingan appropriatelyselectedsourcesignal through a frequencydomain model of the vocal tract transfer function. Voiced excitation is simulatedby a pulse generatorusing a repetition rate equal to the measuredpitch period. unvoiced excitation is simulated by a noise generator.Owing to the synthesizednature of the excitation, this form of a vocoder is sometimesreferred to as a pitch-excited vocoder. As indicated in Figure 3.39, a decoder implements a vocal tract transfer function as a bank of bandpassfilters whose input power levels are determined by respective subbandpower levels in the encoder.Thus outputs of each bandpassfilter in the clecoder conespond to outputs ofrespective bandpass filters in the encoder.superposing the individual bands re-creates, in a spectral sense,the original signal. Maly variations in the basic channel vocoder have been developed involving the nature of the excitation and the meansof encoding the power levels. Recentadvances in digital technology have introduced the useof digita-lsignal processingto determine the input spectrumby way of Fourier transform algorithms in lieu of the bank of analog filters. All forms of vocoders that measurethe power spectraldensity are sometimes referred to collectively as spectrum channel vocodersto distinguish them from time-domain vocoderssuch as the LpC describedlater. The most difficult aspect of most vocoder realizations involves determining the pitch of voiced sounds. Futthermore, certain sounclsare not clearly classifiable as purely voiced or purely unvoiced. Thus a desirableextensionofthe basic vocoder involves more accuratecharacterizationof the excitation. Without accurateexcitation information, vocoder output quality is quite poor and often dependenton both the speakerand the particular soundsbeing spoken.Some of the more advancedchannel vocodershave produced highly intelligible, although somewhat synthetic sounding, speechat 2400 bps [231.

3.8.2 FormantVocoder
As indicated in the spectogram of Figure 3.26, the short-term spectral density of speech is rarely distributed across rhe entire voice band (200-3400 Hz). Insread, speechenergy tends to be concentratedat three or four peakscalled formants. A formant vocoder determinesthe location and amplitude of thesespectralpeaksand transmits this information insteadof the entire $pectrumenvelope.Thus a formant vocoder produceslower bit ratesby encoding only,the most significant short-termcomponenrs in the speechspectrum. The most important requirement for achieving useful speechfrom a formant vocoder involves accurately tracking changes in the formants. once this is accomplished, a formant vocoder car provide intelligible speechar less than 1000 bps tl0l.

3.8.3 LinsarPredlctive Codlng predictive A linear coder is a popular vocoder thatextracts perceptually significant
featuresof speechdirectly from a time waveform rather than from frequency specrra, as does a channel vocoder and formant vocoder. Fundamentally, Lpc analyzes a

3.8 vocoDFRS 145

Analvsis

Synthesis

relationship' andsynthesis of LPCanalysis model Figure3.40 Basic

modelof the vocaltractexcitationand a time-varying speech waveformto produce by passthespeech re-creates terminal in thereceiving A synthesizer transfer function. perihact' By of the vocal model excitation througha mathematical ing the specified the excitation, of of themodelandthe specification theparameters odicallyupdating interval, howin either. Duringanyonespecification to changes adapts thesynthesizer process. a lineartime-invariant to represent ever,thevocaltractis assumed is shownin Figbetween theencoder/decoder relationship The analysis-synthesis the A(z) matrixto miniof the coefficients process determines ure 3.40.Theanalysis knowsboth If the decoder x(n)' samples mizetheerrore(n)with a givensetof speech In the mostbasic x(n). (synthesize) the input samples A(z) and e(n),it canre-create specifled is indirectly Instead, e(rr) to thedecoder. form of LPC e(n)is not transmitted of the synexcitation of a vocalhact model.Noticethat e(n)is the asthe excitation in Figure3.40. thesizer in Figure3.41' generation is shown of thebasicmodelfor speech A blockdiagram The equawhich is alsoa modelof the mostbasicfbrm of LPC decoder/synthesizer' tion of thevocaltractmodelshownin Figure3'44 is definedas:

Pirch period

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Figure 3.41 Speechgenerationmodel of linear predictive coding.

146

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y(n)=Eooy@*k)+Gx(n)
FI

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where)(n)= zth outputsample predictorcoefficient er = lcth fi = gain factor x(n) * input at sample time n p = orderof the model Noticethatthespeech outputin Equation 3.14is represented asthepresent inputvalue plus a linearcombination of the previous p outputs of the vocaltract.The modelis adaptive in thattheencoder periodically determines a newsetof predictor coefficients corresponding to successive speech segments. BasicLpC doesnot measure andencodedifference waveforms or errorsignals. Instead, the errorsignals areminimized in a mean-squated sense whenthe predictorcoefficients aredetermined. The ability to avoid encodingthe predictorerrorscomesfrom the fact that LPC usesprediction parameters basedon the actualinput segments to which the parameters are applied (forwardestimation). In confiast, mostof thepredictive coders mentioned previously base their prediction on past measurements only (backwardestimation).Rapid changes in the vocaltractor excitation cause modelsbased on pastmea$urements to be lessaccurate. Thenegative aspect of forwardestimation is thedelayit inserts into theencoding process, which,depending on theapplication, mayor maynotbe a consideration. The information that a LPC encoder/analyzer determines andtran$mitsto the decoder/synthesizer consists of
l. Natureofexcitation (voicedorunvoiced) 2. Pitch period (for voiced excitation) 3. Gain factor 4. Predictor coefficients (parametersof vocal tract model)

The natureof the excitationis determined, as in other vocoders, by determining whetherstrongperiodiccomponents exist in the waveform.pitch is determined by measuring periodicitywhenit exists.In additionto measuring pitch with techniques similarto thoseused by othervocoders, anLpc encoder/analyzer hasparticular propertiesthataid in pitch determination [41]. Thepredictor coefficients canbe determined usingoneof several differentcomputationalprocedures. All procedures useactualwaveformsamples asthe desired outputs of the synthesizer. using thesesamplevalues, a setof p linearequations in p unknowncoefficients is produced. Thusthecoefficients aredetermined by inverting a p-by-pmatrix.sincetheorderof p may varyfrom 6 to rz, depending on the *peecir quality desired, straightforward matrix inversionrepresents a significantamountof computation. Depending on specificassumptions madein the model,however,the

3.8 vocoDEHS 147 that greatlysimpliff the solutionof the equations matrices have specialpropelties of speech, representations process time-domain coders Althoughlinearpredictive peaks of the speech good of the provide estimates they is suchthat their operation in gradual changes tracking of effectively an LPC is capable spectrum. Furthermore, natural sounding provide more envelope. Theoverallresultis thatLPCs thespectrum vocoders thanthe purely frequency-domain-based [23]. Most LPC research speech in therangeof 1.2-2.4kbps' speech on encoding hasconcentrated I0th-orderLPC (LPCa 2400-bps, of Defense established The u.s. Departrnent lines [42' 431. telephone over dial-up communications for secure l0) as a standald as allocated are msec. The 54 bits every 22.5 of 54 bits transmits blocks This system (voiced (gain for 10 coefficients factor),41 bits level 7 bitsfor pitch,5 bitsfor energy and I bit for framing. excitation), is providedin Table to naturalspeech of the coderwith respect The performance the intelligibility of determining rhymetest(DRT) tul4lis a means 3.4.A diagnostic from a standardized of correctword recognitions system asa percentage of a speech list of pairsof rhymingwords(e.g.,goatvs. coator thick vs. tick). The DRT-withnoiseappropercentage whenbackground the word recognition noisetestmeasures The diagnostic before encoding. the test words is added to priateto the application usacceptability and subjective (DAM) [45] rates intelligibility measure acceptabiliry ofthe preferences personal on muchofthe dependence thateliminate ing procedures from 0 to 100' The scores arenormalized listeners. 3.8.4 Enhanced-Excitation Llnear Predlctive Codlng in the speech synthesizes section in theprevious described The basicLPC afgorithm of only aboutlOTo thatrequires usinga very simplemodelfor theexcitation decoder by a simplepulsegeneraremodeled voicedsignals datarate.Because the aggregate pulse-excited linear prediction as a referred to is sometimes an LPC coder ator. sounding synthetic (PELP)coder.The simplicityof the modelinevitablyproduces to developed have been techniques numerous this shottcoming, To overcome speech. LPC multipulse are algorithms enhance the excitation.Threeenhanced-excitation linearpredic(RELP),mixed-excitation (MPLPC),residual excitedlinearprediction (CELP). Because prediction linear of code-excited versions tion (MELP),andvarious prediction error a residual involveencoding LPC algorithms the enhanced-excitation andLPC'10 SPeech of Natural Comparlson TABLE 3,4 Performance
(3.6kHz) Natural Speech DHT DRTwithnoise DAM 95o/" 92"/" 65 LPC-10
90o/o

t4lI.

82"/" 48

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VoIcE DIGITIZATIoN

in some form or another, these algorithms are often referred to as hybrid codecs; a combination of vocoding and waveform coding.

uses theresidual to determine thepitchperiodof voicedsignals, MpLpC uses theresidual to determine a sequence of pulses to morecloselymatch theresidual. In thesimplestcase MPLPCuses a fixed number of pulses in a pulsekain anddetermines only phase the starting of the train andthe amplitudes andpolarities of eachpulsewithin the train. A significanr side benefitof MPLPC is that it doesnot havero identify whether a speech segment is voicedor not andconsequently determine thepitchperiod of voiced signals.Instead, the multipulsedetermination in eachanalysis segment automatically adapts to thenature of theactualexcitation. MPLPCat 96fi) bpsis usedin AT&T's l4A Arurouncement systemfor reco'rded messages to telephone usen [46]. MPLPC is also the algorithmchosen for the skyphoneAeronautical Telephone service using9.6-kbps channels on the INMARSAT maritime$atellite [47]. Another application of an MPLPC algorithmis the panEuropean digital mobileradio system (GsM) [48] thatallocates a l3-kbpsdatarareto voiceencoding. Thespeech codec thar hasbeenstandardized by CEPTfor this application is referred to asregular*pulse excitationLPC with long-term (RpE-LTp) [4g]. This sysrem prediction transmits 260 bit blocksconsisting of 72 bits of prediction parameters and188bitsof excitation encoding.Because the codecdoesnot $upport voiceband dataratesat 1200bps and above, the system hasprovisions for databypass ofthe codec.

Multlpulse LPC As shown in Figure 3.42, where it canbecompared withaconventional Lpc system, MPLPC[46]is a conceptually simple exrension of conventional Lpc. whereLpc

Mlxed-Excltation LPC As the nameimplies,mixed-excitation Lpc (MELP) [50] uses a moresophisticated model for the excitationthan either LPC or Mpl-pc. An MELp algorithmhasbeen

ENCODER Volcsd/unvolced

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3.8 vocoDEFs

149

voice applicationsat 2.4 kbps [51]. Develselectedby the U.S. govemment for $ecure opmsnt of this algorithm has paid particular attention to background noise (as might arise in a tank). Enhancedexcitation featuresof this version of LPC are;

1. Mixed pulseandnoiseexcitation pulsegeneration 2. Periodic or nonperiodic (to improveformantreproduction) enhancement 3. Adaptivespectral (spreading across moreof a pirchinterval) theimpulses 4. Pulsedispersion (to improvepitchdetermination) of residual 5. Fourieranalysis

ResidualExclhd LPC
The APC algorithm describedin Section 3.6 transmits the encodeddifference signal (prediction error or residual) determinedin the encoderso the decodercan integrateit to recover the original input. Notice that the decodedresidual waveform in the APC decoderof Figure3.34actsasthe excitationof the predictionloop.If thepredictionloopuses an LPC formulation, APC essentiallybecomesresidual-waveform excited LPC. The formal term residual excited IIC (RELP) refers to a structure that is identical to the APC block diagram shown in Figure 3.34 but differs in the mannerin which the residual is encoded.An RELP encoderdoes not encodethe residual directly but preprocesses it to allow transmissionat a lower datarate.The fundamentalpremiseof the preprocessingis that the residual consistsof a fundamental frequency and multiples (harmonics)of the fundamental.Thus, an RELP encoderencodesonly the fundamental. The decoderreconstructsthe residual (in a frequency-domainsense)by decoding the fundamental and adding in the harmonics.In the sensethat the processof extract* "residual encoding" and that of decoding and ing and encoding the fundamental is "residual decoding," the diagram in Figure 3.34 servesas a basic adding harmonicsis diagram of RELP. As commonly implemented, an RELP encoder [5?] extracts the fundamental by low-pass filtering the residual and down sampling to reduce the sampling frequency to the Nyquist rate. As an example,if a (DSP-based)low-passfilter has a cutoff of 8ff) Hz, only every fifth sample of the filtered residual is neededto meet the 1600-Hz Nyquist rate. In this manner, an RELP decoder is excited by samplesoccurring at a 1600-Hz rate-approximately the samerate as in MPLPC. Thus the residual decoder In fact, in an RELP receiveris similar to the pulse generatorof an MPLPC synthesizer. its system determines the regular pulse excitation LPC of the Europeandigital mobile fourth every obtained by taking pulse excitation by testing each of four sequences with maximum correlation to sample of a filtered residual and selectingthe sequence Thus even the encoding algorithms of MPLPC and RELP are the residual sequence. sometimessimilar. In a comparison of three specific coders (subband,MPLPC, and RELP), MPLPC codersprovided the best performance [53]. RELP encoding has been used in various mobile radio and satellite applications. An example of the latter is a 9.6-kbps RELP codec designedto supportconversion of analog FM voice channelsto digital voice channels[54]'

150

vorcEDrGtTtzATtoN

Mux

Figure 3.43 CELp encoder blockdiagram.

Code-ExcitedLPC code-excited LPc (CELP) example of enhanced-excitation [55]is yetanother Lpc

whosebasic block diagram can be loosely represented by Figure 3.34. As indicated in the GELP specific block diagram of Figure 3.43, cELp usesa codebookfor encoding residuals.Instead of encoding a residue waveform on a sample-by-samplebasis and using that as excitation in the decoder,CELP a$$umes residualsare not random waveforms with independentsamplesbut rather that a block of residuesamplescan be represented by one of a manageable number of waveform templates. ,,Excitation encoding" in this caseinvolves selectinga codeword in a codebookthat minimizes the overall error in the reconstructed(synthe$ized)signal. "Residual decoding" in this context implies using the received codeword as an index into the table of codewords to obtain the residual sequence chosenin the encoder.Becausea block ofresidue samples can be consideredas a residue vector, this form of coding is also referred to as vector quantization (VQ) excited LPC t561. Maximum coding efficiency is achievedby encoding long sequences (i.e., vectors with many dimensions),which, of course,implies large codebooks.Thus, much of the researcheffort of this class of codecsinvolves establishinga large enough set of vectors in the codebook that all residue vectors can be adequatelymatched.Next, an efficient procedure for searching the codebook is determined to find the vector with the best match. Because the number of vectors is necessarily large, tree-structured searches are required, which implies the enhies in the codebook are grouped into hierarchical families of vectors. BecauseGELP coders provide good quality at low bit rates, an extensive amount ofresearch has been undertakento produce a variety ofCELp algorithms. A parlicularly efficient implementationdeterminesthe excitation codeword as a sum of sequentially determined codewords called vectors. Thus, this technique is referred to as vector sum excited LPC (VSELP) [56]. The following list identifies prominent ver-

151 3.9 ENCODER/DECODERSELECTIONCONSIDERATIONS of CELP Otherver$ions sionsof VSELP andCELPin North Americanapplications. in Section 3.10. codingalgorithms coders areincludedin thelist of ITU standard digitalcellularsystems in NorthAmerican LPC);used VSELP(vectorsumexcited (IS-54/IS-136) at 7.95kbps[57] (Qualcomm vector $um excitedLPc): usedin CDMA digital cellular QSELP (IS-95) at l3 kbPs systems (FS-1016) at 4.8 kbps[58] standard DoD-CELPFederal

CONSIDERATIONS SELECTION 3.9 ENCODEH|/DECODER andhasinfor digitizingvoicesignals several techniques hasdescribed This chapter compa.res thevariousalThis section arepossible. dicated thatmanyothervariations for nonvoicesignals,(3) gorithmsin termsof (l) voice quality, (2) transparency effors,and(4) delay. tolerance of transmission 3.9.1 Volce Quality quality levelshavebeentraditionally and corresponding Voice codingapplications quality, and synthetic quality, toll quality, communications classifiedas broadcast ranges of dataratesare qualitatively and their respective quality. Thesecategories of Therelativelynewcategory from reference shownin Figure3.44asobtained tl 11. from ref3.5, obtained added. Table (e.g., has been MPLPCor cELP) hybrid coding DRT in termsof thequalitymeasures: various coders erences [38] and[59],compares reasonably coders do Noticethatthe low-rate DAM [45], andMos t9, 11, 181. t441, measure$. in termsof subjective well on intelligibility(DRT) but fall off significantly is shownin Figure3'45' obqualityof variouscoders of speech Anotherpresentation coding a goodoverviewofITU standard tainedfrom reference t60l (whichcontains coders.' of specific MOS ratings contains specific This figureessentially algorithms). in refer(APC,RELP,LPC) areavailable of low-ratecoders Additionalcomparisons and ences [61] [62]. netusedfor public telephone The caregory of toll quality,which is traditionally quality in the Toll category. a well-defined is no longer work voicequalityobjectives, response frequency parameters like analognetwork could be quantifiedin terms of wave(e.g.,CELPs)do not reproduce new,low-ratecoders andnoiselevel.Because of highly Suppliers of qualityis notpossible. analytical measure forms,a quantitative like digitalcellularandvoiceovertheIntemetcomcompressed voicefor applications theclaimof "toll quality"underidealhansto support monlyuseDRT or MOS scores hascontributed loss).This practice (e.g., or packet no bit errors mission environments "toll quality" standard' a to a relaxation of
*MOS sco.e* pay vary by 5% ot so from one study to another'

152

vorcEDtetlzATtoN

Waveform coding ) MOS 4 Broadcast quality Toll quality

yntheticquhlity

6 3 2 (kbps) Data rare

Figure 3.44 Generalspeech quality versusffansmission rate.

3.9.2 Transparency for Nonvoice Slgnals Theseparation between communications qualityandtoll qualitycoders in Figure3.44 also separates thosealgorithmsthat do not perform well on nonvoicesignalsfrom those thatdo. Thelowerdatarates of communications qualirycoders areachieved by tailoringthe algorithms to the specifics of voicesignals, therebysacrificing modem and facsimile performance. For a comprehensive theoreticaltreatmentof voiceband

TABLE 3.5 Speech Ouality Comparleons of Common Goders

64-kbps PCM 14.4-kbps OCELPls (c.721) 3Z-kbps ADPCM (c.728) 16-kbps LD-CELP (c.723.1) 6.4kbps MP-MLO 13-kbps (GSM) RPE-LTP 9.6-kbps (Skyphone) MPLPC 9.6-kbps OCELP 8-kbp$ CELP 4,8-kbps DoD-CELP Z.4-kbps LPC

95 94 94 68 70

93 99 90

68 67 54

4.3 4.2 4.'l 4.0 3.9/3.44 3.5 3.4 3.4 3.7 3,0 2.5

performance the lower packet corrosponds to 3qlo loss.

CONSIDERATIONS153 3.9 ENCODERiDECODERSELECTION

S.6cft AJdly

lxrcfn$ffi

(FromR. V. Cox, "ThreeNew encoding algorithms. qualityof standard Figure 3.45 Speech SpeechCodersfrom the ITU Cover a Range of Applications,"IEEE Communications 1997.) Magazine, September data signal digitization, see reference [63]. As end-to-end digital channels become more available, there will be less need to suppolt nonvoice applications as analog voiceband signals. (Seethe discussionof V.90 PCM modems in Chapter I I ') In addition to end user applications, coders installed in the intemal portions of a network must provide acceptablequality for network-related signaling tones such as DTMF, MF, and SF. DTMF tones,in particular, must be accuratelyreconstructedbecausethey are used for end-to-endcontrol by users.G.729 at I kbps has special provisions for carrying DTMF tones. Support for MF and SF signaling is less of a problem becausetheir use is confined to specific transmission links that have been mostly replaced by newer transmission Systemsusing common-channel signaling. An additional considerationfor voice quality is the performanceof fiomevery low bit rate vocoders in the presenceof audio background noise. If a coder is tuned too tightly to processvoice signals and voice signals only, it can go off into left field when speech is superimposedon background sounds such as loud music. The low-bit-rate codersusedin digital cellular applicationshave to be pafticularly sensitiveto this sinaation.

Errors of Transmlssion 3.9.3 Tolerance

Of the waveform coders,the differential systems(DPCM, ADPCM, DM) are the most tolerant of transmissionelror$ and PCM the least. The threshold of perceptibility of random error$ on delta modulation is 10-3. For PCM the threshold is 104. Delta modulation i$ intelligible at random error rates as high as lOVo,but PCM is unintelli-

154

vorcE DrcrrzATtoN

gibleat l7d elror rates. In bursterrorenvironments thetolerances of PCM anddifferentialsystems (If the most significantbit of a pcM codearemorenearlythesame. word is in error,it doesnot matterif the leastsignificant bits arealsoin error.) parameters Those qualitycoders of synthetic thatarecriticalfor voicereconstruction areusuallyredundantly encoded. Errorcorrection ofcritical parameters in digital mobilesystems allowsintelligiblevoiceat errorratesashigh as l Zo. 3.9.4 Delay The effectof encoding anddecoding delayof a voicedigitization/compression algorithm mustbeconsidered in thecontext of theparticular application. If theapplication involvesinsertingartificial delayof morethan 10 msecinto local (analogr connections,echo/singing controlwill haveto beadded. Furthermore, if a significant amount of delayis added into a long-distance circuit,existingechocancelers may not have enough delaycapacity to accommodate thedelayinsertion. Experience wittr satellite-ba.sed voiceconnections indicates thatroundtrip delays onthe orderof 2ff) mseccanbe tolerated witlroutsifficant userdissatisfaction. As indicated in the following, coding/compression algorithms,in themselves, do not approach this limit. ADPCM (G.726) LD-CELP(G.728) (c.729)t64l CS-CELP ACELP(G.723.1) 0.125 msec 2.5msec l0 msec
30 msec (plus 7.5 msec of look-ahead)

Although the roundtrip encoding/decodingdelays (which are double rhe above numbers) do not approachthe 200-msecthreshold, they can add to oflrer systemdelays to exceed the maximum desirable delay. System factors such as interleaving for error correction and packet delay on TDMA mobile systemscan add another30 msec or so in eachdirection. If individual compressed voice packetsare carried through an ATM or packet-switchednetwork, delays in excessor 200 msec are easily produced. (see Chapter I 0 for a discussionof theseapplications.)

3.10 ITU.TCODINGSTANDARDS Thefollowing list identifies variousdigital voicecodingstandards of theITU: o.7ll standardfor speech codecsthat providestoll quality audio at 64 kbps usingeitherA-law or p-lawPCM. G-721 standardfor speech codecsthat providestoll quality audio at 32 kbps usingADPCM. G'722 standard for speech codecs tharprovides (program) high-quality audioat 64 kbpsusingsubband ADPCM (SB-ADPCM). Thealgorithm uses a l6kHz sample rateto capture audiofrequencies between 50 and 7000Hz. Two ADPCM subbandsare used by this srandardto give audio performance superiorto a single-band ADPCM algorithmoperatingat the samebit rate.

REFERENcES 155

quality audio at20or40kbps thatprovidestoll Standardforspeechcodecs usingADPCM. It provides toll quality optimized for modems. G.723.1 Standard for speech codecs audioat 6.4kbps(MP-MLQ) or 5.3kbps(ACELP). or40kbps(using ?-,3-,4-,ot5at 16,24,32, G.726 Adaptive differentialPCM bit samples). speech G.726 for use in packetized of Recommendation G.727 An extension TheADPCM samples aredividedinto 2, 3, or 4 corebits and0, $ystems. bits.Thecorebitsprovidefor thebasicfunctioning l, 2, or 3 enhancement bits addqualityto thatprovided of the algorithmwhile the enhancement the enhancement bits can be by the core bits. In overloadsituations, discarded while thecorebits providebasicquality. neartoll qualityaudioat 16kbps for speech codecs thatprovides G.7ZB Standard (LD-CELP). five p-law or A-law G.728encodes usinglow-delayCELP codewords predictive codewords at 1600 into 10-bit,linear PCM samples per second. toll qualityaudioat 8 kbpsusing for speech codecs thatprovides G.729 Standard CELP. G.723

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tz
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1$7 REFEHENCES "AdaptivePredictive Bell Codingof Speech Signals," B. S. AtaI andM. R. Schroeder, pp. I 973- I 986. chnic dI Joumal, Oct. 1970, Sy stemTe BelI SystemTechnicalJoumal, 32 P. Noll, "On Predictive Quantizing Schemes," pp. 1499-1532. May/June 1978, 33 M. R. Schroeder,"Linear Predictive Coding of Speech:Review and Current pp. 54-61. Attg.1985, Mag,azine, Directions," IEEE Communications 'The GovemmentStandardAdaptive hedictive Coding Algorithm; 34 T. Tremain, 3l pp, 52-62. Feb./IVIar. 1985, APC-04,"SpeechTechnology, "An Dynamic of 16 kb/s Sub-Band CoderPerformance, R. E. Crochiere, Analysis 35 Errors," Bell SystemTechnical Journal'Qct, Tandem Connections, andChannel Range, pp. 2927-2951. 1978, "G.722A New CCITT CodingStandard of for Digital Transmission 36 P. Mermelstein, p' 815. Magazine, Jan' 1988, IEEE Communications Wideband Audio Signals," Areasin 3'7 X. Maine,"7 kHz Audio Codingwithin 64 kbit/s,"IEEEJoumal on Selected pp. 283-298. Feb.1988, Communications, "High-Quality Audio"'IEEE Speech andWideband Codingof Telephone 38 N. S,Jayant, pp. 10-20. Magazine, Jan.1990, Communications 39 L. Radin, "Low-Bit-RarcVoice Digitizer Hits the Market at 2,400 bls," Speech gy,Sept./Oct. pp. 92-95. 1983, Technolo "Remaking Oct. 1939' Society of Amerfua, Speech," "Ioanral of the Acoustic 40 H. Dudley, pp. 169-177. Prentice-Hall, of Speech Signals, andR. W. Schafer, Digital Processing 4l L. R. Rabiner Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1978. 42 T. E. Tremain, "The Govemment StandardLinear Predictive Coding Algorithm: pp. a0-49. Apr. 1982, LPC-10,"Speech Technolagy, "Voiced/Unvoiced of Speech with Classification 43 J. P. Campbelland T. E. Tremain, Applicationsto the U.S. GovemmentLPC-I0E Algorithm," IEEE Intemational pp. 473476. 1986, andSignalProcessing, on Acoustics, Speech, Conference "Evaluating Using the DiagnosticRhyme Test," hocessedSpeech 44 W, D. Voiers, pp. 30-39. 1983, SpeechTechnolagy, Jan./Feb. 45 W. D. Voiers, "Diagnostic Acceptability Measurefor SpeechCommunication and Signal on Acoustics, Speech Intemational Conference Systems," Proceedings . Processing, May 1977,pp.204*207 "TheTelephone Voiceof theFunre," Bell l-absRecord, B. S.Atal andR. Q. Hofacker, pp. 1985, 4-10. July "Speech Codecfor the D. P, Crowe,andP. J. Bolingbroke, I. Boyd,C. B. Southcoft, Engineering, BritishTelecommunications Aeronautical Telephone Service," Skyphone pp. 83-91. July 1986, Digital andJ. deBrito,"speechhocessingin thePanEuropean J. E. Natig,S. Hansen, Proceedings,1989, (GSM)-system Overview,"IEEE Globecom MobileRadioSystem pp.29B. l. l-298.1.1.5. "Speech Codec andM' Russo, J.P.Petit,C. Galand, K. Hellwig,P.Vary,D. Massaloux, Proceedings, 1989' pp' Radio System,*IEEE Globecom for the European.Mobile 298.2.1-298.2.r.s.

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A. V. McCree and T. P. Bamwell. "A Mixed Excitation LPC Vocoder Model for Low Bit Rate SpeechCoding," IEEE Transactions on Speechand Audio Processing,July

1995, pp. 242-250. 51 "Specifications for the Analog to Digital Conversion of Voice by 2,400Bir/Second Mixed ExcitationLinear Prediction,"Deparffnent of Defense Draft, May 28, lggS (www.plh.af.miUddvpc/melp.hnn). 52 C. K, Un and D. T. Magill, "The Residual-Excited Linear Prediction Vocoderwith Transmission RateBelow 9.6 kbot/s,"IEEE Transactions on Communications, Dec. 1975, pp, 1466-1474. "A Studyof Three 53 K. K. PaliwalandT. Svendsen, (Sub-band, Coders RELP,andMpE) fbr Speech with Additive White Noise,"Proceedings IEEE IntemationalConference -43.5.1.4. on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing, pp.43.5,I 1985, proceedings, 54 A. J. Morris and S. Kay, -'Telephony Enth Station,"IEEE Globecom pp,48.I. I -48.1.1.4. 1989, 55 M, R. Schroederand B. S. Aral, "Code-ExcitedLinear prediction (CELP): High-QualitySpeechat Very Low Bit Rates,"IEEE InternationalConferenteon Acoustics, Speech andSignalProcessing, 1985, pp, 25.1.1-?5.1.1.4. "Gain-Adaptive J. H. ChenandA. Gersho, Vector Quantization with Applicationto Speech Coding,"IEEE Transactions on Communicarrons, pp. gl8-930. Sept.1987, "Vector SumExcitedLinear hediction (VSELP)7950Bit PerSecond Voice Coding Algorithm,"Technical Description, Motorola,Shaumburg, IL, Nov. 14, 1989. 'An Expandable J.P. Campbell, V. C. Welch,andT. E, Tremain, Error-hotected 48fi) BPSCELPCoder(U.S.Federal Standard 4800BPSVoiceCoder\,"IEEEIntemational Conference on Acoustics, Speech and SignalProcessing,1989, pp. 735-737. T, S. Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principlesand Practice,Prentice-Hall, UpperSaddle River,NJ, 1996. R. V. Cox,'*IhreeNew Speech Coders from theITU Covera Range of Applications," I EEE Communications Magasrne, Sept.1997,pp. 4O47. R. D. HoyleandD. D. Falconer,'AComparison of Digital Speech CodingMethods for Mobile Radio Systems," IEEE Journal on Selected Areasin Communications, June pp.915-920. 1987, N. Kitawaki, H. Nagabuchi,and K. Itoh, "Objective euality Evaluation for Low-Bit-Rate Speech Coding Systems,"IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communitatio,ns, Feb,1988, pp. U2*24'7. proceedings J.B. O'Neal,Jr.,"Waveform Encoding of Voiceband DataSignals," of the IEEE,Feb.1980, pp. 232-247. C. Schniderand M. H. Sherif, "The Road to G.729.. ITU g-kb/s Speech Coding Algorithm with WirelineQuality,"IEEE Corwnunications Magazine, Sept.1997,pp. 48*54.

56 57 58

59 60 61

62

63 64

PROBLEMS
3.1 Assume a signal con$istsof three tones:one at I kHz, one at 10 kHz. and one at 2l kHz. What tones will be presenrar rhe ouFut of a PAM decoderif the sam-

PRoBLEMS 159

3.2

3.3 3.4

3.5 3.6

3.7

pling rate is I ? kHz and the input is unfiltered? (Assume the output filter cutoff frequency is 6 kHz.) Derive an expressionfor the averagequantization noise power that occurs when the decoder output samples are offset from the center of a quantization interval by adistance equal to 25Voof the interval. (The outputvalues are aLtheTSVa point insteadof the 507opoint.) How much degradationin decibelsdoesthis offset represent(assuminguncorrelatedoffsets)? How much does the signal-to-noise ratio of a uniform PCM encoder improve when I bit is addedto the codeword? A black-and-whitetelevision signal has a banilwidth of about 4.2 MHz. What bit rate is required if this signal is to be digitized with uniform PCM at an SQR of ratio comparableto that used for 30 dB? Use a sampling-rate-to-Nyquist-rate PCM voice encoding. How much dynamic range is provided by a uniform PCM encoderwith l2 bits per sampleand a minimum SQR of 33 dB? What is the signal-to-quantizing-noiseratio produced by a segmentedp255 PCM coder when the input signal is a full-range triangular wave? (Assume the repetition frequency is low enough that the bandlimiting filter does not change the waveform significantly.) Given a samplevalue of 420 mV for a p255 PCM encodercapableof encoding a maximum level of 2 V, determine each of the following: (a) The compressedp255 codeword (b) The linear representationof the compressedcode (c) The A-law code obtained by converting from the p255 code (d) The pJaw code obtained by converting back from the A-law code

3.8 Given the following p255 codewords, determine the (noninverted) codeword the linear sum (0 I 10 1001),(l 01 I 0I I I ). that represents 3.9 Generatean encoding table (i.e., list the quantieationintervals and conesponding codes) for the magnitude of a piecewise linear code with segmentslopes 1, j, i, and f. Assume four equally spacedintervals are in each segment.Assume all intervals in the first segmentare of equal length (as in A-law coding). What is the signal-to-noiseratio of a full-amplitude samplefor the coder of Prob3.10 lem 3.9? 3.11 What is the signal-to-noiseratio of a maximum-amplitude samplein the first linear $egmentof the preceding coder? 3.12 What is the dynamicrangeimplied by Problems3.10 and 3.11? 3.13 For the encoderin hoblem 3.9, how many bits are required for unifotm encoding of the samedynamic range and sameminimum quantization interval? 3.f4 A uniform PCM system is defined to encode signals in the range of -8159 to +8159 in quantizationintervals of length 2. (The quantizationinterval at the origin extendsfrom -1 to +I.) Signals are encodedin sign-magnitudeformat with a polarity bit = 1 denoting a negative signal. (a) How many bits are required to encodethe full range of signals?

160

votcE DlcrrzAloN (b) How manyunused codes arethere? (c) Determine the quantization noise,noisepower,andsignal-to-noise ratio (in -2336.4,and decibels) of eachof thefollowing sample values; 30.2,123.2, 8080.9.

part(c) in Problem 3.15 Repeat 3.l4 for piecewise linearp255PCM. 3.16 Given two A-law piecewise (00110110 linear(noninverted) codewords and 00101100), determine their linearrepresentations, addthem,andconvefiback to compressed representation. "robbed 3.17 A D3 charrnel bankuses digit" signaling wherein theleastsignificant bit of everysixthframeis stolenfor signaling. Determine therelativeincrease in overall quantization noiseproduced by this process underthefollowing conditions: (a) The decoder merelytreatsthe signalingbit as a voicebit and decodes the PCM sample accordingly. (b) The decoder knows which bits are signalingbits and generates an output sample corresponding to themiddleof thedouble-length quantization interval defined by the7 available bits.(Thisis theactual technique specified for D3 channel bankdecoders.) 3.18 If 2 bitsper sample areadded to a PCM bit stream, how muchcanthedynamic range beincreased if thequantization intervals areadjusted to improvetheSQR by 3 dB? 3.19 How muchcantheSQRof a digitizedvoicesignal beincreased if thebandwidth is reduced by 30Vo andthedynamicrange is unchanged? 3.20 AnA-law PCM encoder with a perfect zero-level threshold detect$ anarbitrarily smallinputsinewavebecause thefirst quantization intervaldoes not straddle the origin.Whatis thepowerlevelof thedecoded outputsignal? Assume thepower level of a full amplitude sinewave is +3 dBm. 3.21 Determine the sequence of four p255 PCM samples for a 2000-Hztoneat -6 dBm whenthefirst sample occurs at a phase of 45". 3.?? Repeat Problem 3.21forAlaw signals. 3.23 Determine theA-law codewords thatcorrespond to thep-law codewords of the digital milliwatt signalgivenin Example3.3.Assume both systems arescaled to the same maximumsignalpower.

AND ISSION TRANSM DIGITAL MULTIPLEXING

A fundamental considerationin the design of digital transmission $ystemsis the selection of a finite set of discreteelechical waveforms for encoding the information. In the realm of digital communications theory these discrete waveforms are referred to as signals. The sameterminology is used in this chapter with the understandingthat signals in the present context refer to intemal waveforms (pulses) of a transmission systemand not the control information (signaling) usedto set up and monitor connections within a network. In communicationstheory terminology, signalprocessing refers to filtering, shaping, and transformations of electrical waveforms, not the interpretation of conffol signalsby the processorof a switching machine. A secondaspectof digital transmissioninvolves defining certain time relationships between the individual transmissionsignals. The source terminal transmits the individual signals using predefined time relationships so the receiving terminal can recognize each discretesignal as it arrives. Invariably the establishmentof a proper time baseat the receiver requirestransmissioncapacity abovethat neededfor the digital information itself. Over relatively short distances(as within a switching system or a computer complex), the timing information (clock) is usually distributed separately from the information-bearing signals. Over long distances,however, it is more economical to incorporate the timing information into the signal format itself. In eittrer casethe timing information requireschannelcapacity in terms of bandwidth, datarate, or code space. This chapter discusses the most common digital signaling techniquesfbr wireline transmissionsystems.Thus the subject of this chapteris often referred to as line coding. Thesetechniquesaregenerallyapplicableto any transmissionsystemffansmitting digital signals directly in the form of pulses (such as coaxial cable or optical fiber). The fact that thesetechniquesinclude low-frequency componentsin their transmitted spectrum leadsto their also being called low-pass or basebandtransmissionsystems. In Chapter 6 we discuss bandpasstransmission sy$tems,that is, radio systems or voicebandmodemsthat require modulation and carrier frequencytransmission.Chap-

161

162

DtcrrALrRANSMtsstoN ANDMULTIpLEXtNc

ter 8 discusses some additional baseband transmission formats commonly used in optical fiber system$. Thefollowing discussions concentrate on system andapplication level considerations of digital transmission. Analytic detailsof pulsetransmission systems arenot emphasized sincematerial of thisnature is available in all workson digitalcommunications theory. somefundamentals of pulse transmission systems arepresented in AppendixC, wheremanyof theequations presented in this chapter arederived.

4.1 PULSETRANSMISSION All digitaltransmission systems particular aredesigned around some form of pulse response. Evencarriersystems mustultimatelyproduce pulseshapes specific at thedetectioncircuitry of the receiver. As a first step,consider pulse the perfectlysquare shownin Figure4.1.Thefrequency spectrum corresponding pulse to therectangular is derivedin AppendixA and shownin Figure4.2. It is commonlyreferred to as a sin(x)/xresponse: -_ sin(roll2) aTl2

1'((0= 1(Il+

(4.1)

where co= radian ftequency 2nl, 7 = duration of a signal interval Notice that Figure 4.2 also provides the percentage of total $peckumpower at various bandwidths. As indicated, 90Voof the signal energy is contained within the first spectralnull at f = l/T.The high percentageof energy within this band indicatesthat the signal can be confined to a bandwidth of l/T and still passa good approximarion to the ideal waveform. In theory, if only the samplevaluesat the middle of eachsignal interval are to be preserved,the bandwidth can be confinedto IlZT.From this fact the maximum basebandsignaling rate in a specified bandwidth is determined as

R** = 2BW

(4.2)

r -1

Time -**

Figure 4.1 Definitionof a square pulse.

4.1 PULSETFANSMISSION

163

t *ro
t E fi tt
u
.E E

Frtrtion of out-of-bmd pomr (<tB)

fl -ao

-30
Froqumcy (Hrl

pulse withduration T. of square Figure4.2 Speckum whereR = signaling rate,= IlT BW = available bandwidth theory creditedto resultfrom communications Equation4.2 statesa fundamental througha low'passbandHarry Nyquist;The maximumsignalingrate achievable is equalto twice thebandwidth.This rateR^o width with no intersymbolinterference referredto asthe Nyquistrate. is sometimes preservation ofthe pulses areeasiest to visualize, square-shaped Althoughdiscrete, A more typical requireswide bandwidthsand is thereforeundesirable. squareshape of themain for a singlepulseis shownin Figure4.3.Theringingon bothsides shape with a limitedbandwidth. accompaniment to a channel partof thepulseis a necessary

l(tl

I I

\ ,''i*t
t
I I I I I I

-3r -2
Time.*

+--rlT

2T

4T

of a bandlimitedchannel. Figure 4.3 Typical pulseresponse

164

DTctTALTRANSMtSStoNANDMULTtpLEXtNG

Normally, a digital transmission pulses(or modulated link is excitedwith square equivalents thereofl, but bandlimiting filtersandthetransmission mediumitselfcombineto produce a response like theoneshown. pulseoutputin negaFigure4.3 shows tive time so the centerof the pulse occursat f = 0. Actually, the durationof the preringing is limited to thedelayof thechannel, the filters,andtheequalizers. An important feature of thepulseresponse shownin Figure4.3 is that,despite the ringing,apulsecanbetransmitted onceeveryT seconds andbedetected atthereceiver withoutinterference pulses. from adjacent Obviously, the sample time mustcoincide with the zerocrossings of the adjacent pulses. Pulseresponses like the oneshownin Figure 4.3 can be achievedin channelbandwidthsapproaching the minimum (Nyquist)bandwidthequalto one-halfof the signalingrate.AppendixC describes pulsetransmission design in moredetail. 4.1.1 Intersymbol Interference As the signaling rateof a digital transmission link approaches the maximumratefor a givenbandwidth, boththechannel designandthe sample timesbecome morecritical.Smallperturbations in thechannel response or the sample timesproduce nonzero overlapat the sample time$calledintersymbol interference. The main causes of intersymbolinterference are;
l. Timing inaccuracies 2. Insufficient bandwidth 3. Amplitude distortion 4. Phasedistortion

4.1.2 Timlnglnaccuracies
Timing inaccuraciesoccuring in either the transmitter or the receiver produce intersymbol interference.In the transmitter, timing inaccuraciescauseintersymbol interference if the rate of transmission does not conform to the ringing frequency designedinto the channel.Timing inaccuraciesofthis type areinsignificant unlessextremely sharp filter cutoffs are used while signaling at the Nyquist rate. Since timing in the receiver is derived from noisy and possibly distorted receive signals, inaccurate sample timing is more likely than inaccuratetransmitter timing. Sensitivity to timing errors is small if the transmissionrate is well below the Nyquist rate (e.9.,if the transmissionrate is equal to or lessthan the channelbandwidth, as opposedto being equal to the theoreticalmaximum rate of twice the bandwidth; seeAppendix C).

4.1.3 InsufflclentBandwidth The ringing frequency shown in Figure 4.3isexactly equal tothetheoretical minimum
bandwidth of the channel. If the bandwidth is reducedfurther, the ringing frequency is reducedand intersymbol interferencenecessarilyresults.

TRANSMISSION 165 4,2 ASYNCHRONOUS VERSUS SYNCHRONOUS

purposely theNyquistrate,but do sowith Somesystems signalat a rateexceeding These interference accounted for in thereceiver. prescribed amounts of intersymbol because the pafrial-response systems-so called referred to as systems arecommonly pulse. The most the time of a single to aninputduring channel doesnot fully respond arediscussed in a latersection. $y$tems commonformsof partial-response 4.1.4 AmplitudeDlstoilion spectrums require filtersto bandlimittransmit systems invariably Digital transmission to prothefiltersaredesigned in receivers. Overall, andto rejectnoiseandinterference predetermined mediumwith When a transmission ducea specificpulseresponse. in theoverallfilter design. canbeincluded is used, these characteristics characteristics aderesponse of the channelcannotalwaysbe predicted However,the frequency to asamplitude frequency response is referred quately.A departure from the desired (reduced peakamplitudes andimproper ringing pulsedistortions andcauses distortion refor irregularities in thefrequency Compensation frequencies) in thetime domain. is referred to asamplitude equaliqation. sponse of thechannel 4.1.5 Phase Distortion

of asthe superposition domain, a pulseis represented Whenviewedin the frequency If therelative relationships. andphase frequency components with specificamplitude amplitude distortionresultsas components arealtered, amplitudes of the frequency phase distortionocarealtered, relationships of the components above. If the phase of a signalexwhenthefrequency components phase distortion results curs.Basically, link. Compensation of phase perience of delayin thetransmission differingamounts inFor a goodtutorialon equalization, is referred to asphaseequalization. distortion seereference for datatransmission, equalizer cludinga description of an automatic is available in reference of DSPbased equalizers [2]. [1]. A gooddescription

TRANSMISSION VERSUSSYNCHRONOU$ 4.2 ASYNCHRONOUS difinvolvingtwo fundamentally Therearetwo basicmodes of digital transmission (sample terminal clock)in thereceiving a timebase ferenttechniques for e'rtablishing transmisis asynchronous link. Thefirst of these techniques of a digitaltransmission Within an of groups of bits or characters. transmissions sion,whichinvolvesseparate signal. time intervalis usedfor eachdiscrete individualgroupa specificpredefined to eachother.Thusthe the transmission timesof the groupsareunrelated However, of eachgroup' for reception sample clock in the receivingterminalis reestablished aresent transmission, digital signals technique, calledsynchronous With the second andmainterminalmustestablish rate.Hence thereceiving continuously at a constant to theincomingdatafor an indefiniteperiod tain a sample clock thatis synchronized of time.

166

DIGITAL THANSMISSION ANDMULTIPLEXING

Tran$fiitted waveform

Receivad waneform

l t t | i l 1

l l l l l l r l

ldeol Ea|npletimer for each8-bit character

Figure4.4 Asynchronous transmission.

4.2.1 Asynchronous Transmiesion Between transmissions anasynchronous lineis in aninactive or idlestate. Thebeginningof each transmission group is signified by a start bit.Themiddte of thestart bit
is determined, and succeeding information bits are sampled at a nominal rate beginning at the middle of the secondbit interval. Following the information symbols, one or more stop bits are transmitted to allow the line to return to the inactive state.* Figure 4.4 shows an asynchronousmode of operation commonly used for low-speed data communications. As shown in Figure 4.4, the detection of each information bit is accomplishedby ideally sampling the input waveform at the middle of each signal interval. In practice, sample times depart from the ideal depending on how much the start bit is comrpted by noise and distortion. Since the sampletime for eachinformation bit is derived from a single start bit, asynchronoussystemsdo not pedorm well in high-noise environments. of course,more than one start bit could be usedto improve the accuracyof the starting phase of the sample clock, but this would complicate the receiver and add more overheadfor transmissionof timing information. Sample timing enors also arise if the nominal rate of the sample clock in the receiver is different from the nominal rate of transmission at the source.Even though the start bit might define the proper starting phase for the sample clock, an offset in the clock frequency of the receiver causeseach successive sampletime to drift faflher from the centerofthe respectivesignal intervals. Since the very use ofthe term'hsynchronous" implies a free-running clock in the receiver, a certain amount of drift is inevitable in all asynchronoussystems.The maximum length of each symbol group or characteris determined by the limits of the initial phase inaccuraciesand the maximum expected frequency difference between the kansmitter and receiver clocks.

-Originally,

stop bits were inserterl to allow electromechanical equipment enough time to reset before the next character anived. With elechonic equipment thc only purpose of stop bits is to allow a start bit to always be a fransition to a space(logic 0).

TRANSMISSION VERSUS$YNCHRONOUS 4.2 ASYNCHRONOUS

167

The main attraction of asynchronoustransmissionis the easewith which it determines the sampletimes in the receiver. In addition, asynchronousffansmissionautomatically provides characterframing and is inherently flexible in the range of average data rate$ that can be accommodated. For high rates, one character after another is transmitted. l,ower data rates are automatically accommodated by increasing the idle time between characters.In contrast, a synchronousreceiver must track changesin a transmitter rate before it can sample the incoming signals properly. Normally the receive clock of a synchronoussystemcan be adjustedonly quite slowly and only over a nilrow range. Hence an asynchronoussystem is more naturally suited to applications where the data rate varies. Synchronoustransmissionsystemscan suppofi variable information rates,but the (data link protask of adjusting the information rate falls upon higher level processes tocols) that insert null codesinto the bit stream.The null codesare used as filler when a source has nothing to send. This form of transmissionis sometimesreferred to as "isochronous." An isOChrOnous mode Of Operationis required whenever a SynChronous line carries data from an asynchronoussource. transmissionis its poor performancein terms The major drawbackof asynchronous transmissionevolved for applications oferror rateson noisy lines. Thus asynchronous where implementation costs dominated performance considerations.Asynchronous transmissionhas been usedin voicebanddata sets(modems)for transmissionratesup to 1200 bps. For digital telephony, something similar to asynchronoustransmission was proposedfor two-wire digital subscriberloops. Thesesystemsprovided a full-duplex (four-wire) circuit by transmitting bursts of data alternately in each direction on "ping-pong" a single pair of wires. Thus these systemsare sometimesreferred to as ffansmissionsystems;they are not ffuly asynchronoussinceeachtransmissionin each direction occurs at prescribedtimes allowing timing information in one burst to carry over into the next burst. The use ofasynchronous tran$missionon long-distancetransthe cost of electronicsfor betterperforming synchromission links is obsoletebecause is no longer a consideration' nous transmission

4.2.2 Synchronou$Transmis$ion netlinks usedin thetelephone Tl linesandall otherinterofficedigital transmission for format Thus the line-coding exclusively. transmission works use synchronous that each regenerative to en$ure special considerations mustincorporate these systems clock to the incomingsignaling a local sample can synchronize repeater or receiver miniimply thata certain requirements the synchronization speaking, rate.Generally indication of sigprovide continuous is required to mum densityof signaltransitions provide a relied upon to Often, purely randomdatacannotbe naling boundaries. be made to inprovisions mu$t cases ceftain In these number of transitions. sufficient Althoughthese extratransiwaveforms. into thetransmitted sertartificialtransitions the lossin capacitycan be overhead, tions imply a certainamountof transmission the existtechniques for ensuring of f,rve relativelysmall.Followingaredescriptions for timing recovery: enceof signaltransitions

168

DrcrrAL TRANSMtsstoN ANDMULTIpLEXtNG

l. ?. 3. 4. 5.

Source coderestriction Dedicated timing bits Bit insertion Datascrambling Forced bit errors

A sixthtechnique-inserting thetransitions into the signalwaveforms themselvesis discussed in Section 4.3. Source Code Restrlction Onemeans of ensuring a sufficientnumber of signaltransitions is to re$trict thecode setor datapaftems of thesource sothatlong,transition-free datasequences do not occur.Historically, PCM channel banksin theNorth American telephone networkprecluded all-0's codewordssince the original line code of rl lines producedno transitions for 0's. In thecase of 8-bitPCM codewords, theexclusion of a singlecodeword represents a lossin transmission capacity of only onepartin 256.Relyingon source codingto ensure sufficienttransitions in the line codehasone very significant drawbackThetransmission link cannot beusedfor newapplications where thesource does notexclude theunwanted data pattems. Forthisreason, thetotal capacity of a Tl line couldnot be usedfor randomdatauntil a new line code[binary (B8ZS)]wasintroduced. eight-zero substitution Dedlcated Timing Blts As an altemative to excludingtransition-free datapatterns, the line itself can periodicallyinsetttransition-bearing bits into the datastream. These bits areinserted at regularintervals, independently ofthe source data,to ensure theexistence of a minimumnumber of signaltransitions. Thussome fractionof thechannel capacity is dedicatedto timing bits. As an example, the original Dataphone Digital service(DDS) offering for dara communications over Tl lines providesa maximumcapacityof 56 kbps for each channel. when carriedwithin a 64-kbps Tl channel, only 7 of the 8 bits in eachrime slot of the channel areavailable for the user.Amongotherfunctions, the unused bit in eachtime slotprovides an assurance thatall 8 bits of a time slot arenot 0. Several fiber systems described in Chapter 8 alsouseexplicit timing bits asinherent aspects of their line codes. The densityof timing pulses in thesesystems ranges from I in S bitsto I in 20bits.Noticethatinsertion of a dedicated rimingbit is essentially thesame procedure usedto establi$h timing for asynchronous transmission. In a synchronous receiver, however, a sample clock is obtained by averaging the timing information overa largenumber of timing transitions, notjust one. Blt lnsertion In thepreceding DDS exampleI bit of every8 bits in a time slot is dedicated to ensuringsufficient timinginformation in thebit stream. Anotherpossibilityfor preclud"From an inf'ormation theory point of view the loss in voice information is even lower since the probahility of occunence of the all-()'s codeword is much less than I in 256.

TRANSMISSION 169 VEHSUS SYNCHRONOUS 4.2 ASYNCHRONOUS

As anexamline patterns is to use"bit insertion"only whennecessary. ing unwanted for all 0's in the first 7 bits of ple, the sotuce dataovera Tl line couldbe monitored asthe into the datastream a time slot.Whenever the0's occur,a I couldbe inserted 0's is reeighthbit of thetime slot.At theotherendof theline the I following seven databy the time of I bit, but Eachinsertiondelays the source movedautomatically. is available. of the channel otherwise thefull capacity to the "zero-bitinsertion"algorithmusedin is directlyanalogous This procedure the High kvel DataLink Control(HDLC) protocol.In this protocola specificdata must theendof a datablock.Thetransmitter pattern to indicate calleda "flag" is used The means part data. flag as of the source sending the from inadvertently beprecluded flagsis to inserta 0 followinga stringof five L's in theuser inadvertent of preventing precludes unintended a stringof six I's, zero-bitinsertion data.Sincea flag contains any0 following nodeof anHDLC datalink removes Thereceiving flag transmissions. five I's. The receipt of six 1's, however,can only be part of a legitimateflag all 0's (exit neverproduces (01I I 1I l0). If HDLC dataareinverted for transmission, ceptduringtheidle state). than algorithmallowsfor moreefficientuseof a channel Althougha bit insertion First,this procedure hasa numberof drawbacks. dedicated timing bits, the insertion a Hence is made. everytime aninsertion proce$$ causes thesource datato be delayed the (such requires smoothing as voice) application real-time transmission continuous, process causes thebit insertion Second, buffersatthedestination. arival ratewith data slot structo the time unrelated in theuser'sdatato bebecome anycharacter $tructure data consist of 8-bit link. Thusif user hansmission tureof a timedivisionmultiplexed with cannot be maintained (like PCM voicesamples), character boundaries characters link. respect to 8-bit time slotsin a Tl transmission Date Scrambling thedatapatterns to randomize usedatascramblers systems Many digitaltransmission are similar to thoseused these data scramblers links. Although on their transmission prevent thetransmisis to purpose of these scramblers thefundamental for encryption, genpattems data the traffic. Repetitive patterns, notto encrypt data sionof repetitive point interference from an moredegrading thatcanbe significantly erateline spectra produced by randomdata patterns. distributedspectra of view than continuously at higherpowerlevels areallowedto operate for example, Voiceband datamodems, are thedatatraffic.Also, digitalradiosystems to randomize if theyincludescramblers repetimeans that whichessentially required by theFCC to not ffansmitline spectra, mu$tbe excluded. tive datapatterns datasequence$ areusefulin transforming datascramblers Evenwhennot required, Scraminto sequences with strongtiming components. densities with low transition on (T1 andobsolete T2) but wasused $ystems bling is not usedon lowerrateT-carrier systems. optical fiber system and current T4M coaxialhansmission the274-Mbps [3] long sffings (with equalinput andoutputbit rates) do not prevent Datascramblers patterns short repetition ensure that relatively They merely of 0's in anabsolute sense. purely If of transitions. with a minimum density traffic aretransformed to randomized

17O DrcrrAL TRANSMtsstoN AND MULT|pLExtNc randominput dataarescrambled, theoutputdataarealsopurelyrandomandtherefore havea certainstati$tical probabilityofproducingarbitrarilylong stringsof 0's. The probabilityof a randomoccurrence, however,is acceptable whencompared to the probabilityof nonrandom sequences representing pauses speech or idle dataterminals.To determine whichseemingly random datasequence produces all 0's attheoutput of a scrambler, applyall 0's to the corresponding descrambler. TheT4M coaxialtransmission system useda datascrambler asthebasicmeans of producingadequate timing information.This systemcould toleratemuch longer stringsof 0's because the timing recovery circuitsin the regenerative repeaters used phase-locked loopsthatmaintain timing overrelativelylong periods of time.In contrast, theoriginalTl systems recovered timingwith tunedcircuitsthatresonated at the desired (1.544MHz) whenexcited clockfrequency pulse.Because by a received the tunedcircuitshavelowereffectiveQ's thana phase-locked loop,theoscillations drift from theproperfrequency anddie out morerapidly.Hence the originalrl receivers couldnot tolerate aslong a stringof 0's ascouldT4M receivers. PhaseJocked loop clockrecovery circuitsareused on all latergeneration wirelineandfibertrmsmission $y$tems so muchlongerstringsof 0's canbe tolerated. Forced Blt Errorg A fifrh methodof maintaining sufficienttiming informationin the line signalsinvolveshavingthetransmission terminalat the source forcean occasional bit errorin orderto intenupta long, transition-free datapattern. If the transition-free lrequences arelong enough anduncommon enough, the intentional bit errorsmight be lessfrequent thanrandom channel errors on thedigitaltransmission link. Thustheintentional errorsmay not represent a significantdegradation over andabovethat that alreadyexists.Nevertheless, forcedbit errorsarenot generally recommended aspartof a linecodingprocedure but arementioned in theinterest of completeness. As mentioned previously, NorttrAmericanchannel banksforce a bit errorin the second leastsignificant bit of an all-0's transmission codeto ensure sufficientsignal transitions. An important aspect of thisprocedure is thatit is performed by the source wherethesignificance of thebit erroris known.If thetransmission link itself inserted thebit errors, theeffectswouldnot be ascontrollable, particularly whena varietyof traffic typesarebeingserviced. A moresubtleproblemwith forcedtransmission errorsarises if the digital transmissionlink is usedfor automatic (ARQ) datatransmission. repeat requerrt An ARe datacommunication link is designed to provideerror-free transmission, despite randomchannel errors, by inserting redundancy into thedatastream andchecking thereceived data for error-freereception.If errors are detected, a retransmission is requested. when the erTors arenot random, but forcedby the transmission link, the ARQ system will become frustrated if it everencounters thereshicted sequence, no matterhow unlikelyit is.* once again, if forcederrorsareused, theyshould be incorporated into thesource aspartofthe $ource process coderestriction andnot aga function of thetransmission link.
*If thetransmission link uses a scrambler, theunlikelysequence will not berepeatecl.

coDrNc 171 4.s UNE

4.3 LINE CODING for establishing timing informationare In the preceding sectionvarioustechniques is dependent on particular technique general The choice of any in terms. described line codes the most common describes the specificline codein use.This section if any,areneeded what additionalsteps, andindicates usedfor digital transmission the transmitterandreceiver.Someline-codbetween to maintainsynchronization anddo not require provideadequate timing informationthemselves ing techniques requireto synchronization previously. In addition discussed anyofthe procedures for choosinga line codeare the spectrumof the line ments,other considerations noiseandin' (particularly at low frequencies), bandwidth codeandthe available and performance monitoring, acquisition times, terference levels,synchronization implementation costs.

4.3.1 Level Encodlng form of line codingusesa differentsignallevel to encode Conceptually, the simplest form system the mostcommon Within a computer eachdiscrete symboltransmitted. "0." "1" Over a V for a andnear0 of codingis an on-off codeusinga 3-V levelfor a data power binary in terms of to encode it is moreeff,rcient link, however, transmission balanced about0 V. For exdifference in levelsbut symmetrically with an equivalent is 4.5 W for equallylikely +3- and0-V encodings powerrequired ample,theaverage thesame enor distance (assuming With +l.5- and-1.5-V encodings, 1 fl resistance). (2.25W). Communications engineers with half the powerrequirements is achieved the balanced codeasa as a unipolar code and code referto theunbalanced commonly balits corresponding of binary data and sequence polar code.A representative that the level in Figure 4.5. Notice areshown levelencoding anced andunbalanced for the durationof a signalinterval.For this reason of eachsignalis maintained

n[,]n n
I
Unipoler(unbalanced) rigneling

Figure 4.5 Unipolarandpolar(NRZ) line codes.

172

DIGITAL TRANSMISSIoN AND MULTIPLEXING

Figure 4.6 Direct-current wander of NRZ signal. the balanced(polar) encodingis alsoreferredto asa nonreturn-to-zero (NRZ) code.* As indicated in Figure 4.5, an NRZ signal contains no transitions for long strings of I's or 0's. Hence one of the proceduresdescribedpreviously to en$uretiming transitions must be employed if NRZ encoding is used on a synchronoustransmission link. An NRZ line code is a pulse transmissionsystem wherein the pulse (before filtering) lastsfor the duration ofa signaling interval 7. Hence the frequency spectrum(assuming random data) of an NRZ code is the sin(x)/x specfrum of Equation 4.1 ancl shown in Figure 4.2. As indicated, the frequency $pectrumis significantly nonzero at zero frequency (dc). Most wireline transmissionlinks, however, do not passdc signals by virtue of their being altemating current coupled with transformersor capacitorsto eliminate dc ground loops. Furthermore, some systemspurposely remove dc components from the signal to allow line powering ofrepeaters or to facilitate single-sidebard transmission. The elimination of the low-frequency components in the waveform causeslong strings of I's or 0's to decay gradually in amplitude. Hence a receiver not only would lose timing information during these strings but also would lose its amplitude referencefor optimally discriminating betweena "r" lever and a "0" level. The effect of low-frequency cutof'f; called dc wander, is shown in Figure 4.6 for a typical transmissionsequence. Notice that following the long string of I's, the output of the link is such that 1-to-0 effors are more likely than O-to-l errors. Similarly, long strings of0's increasethe likelihood ofa O-to-1error. This problem arisesnot only for long strings of I's or 0's, but wheneverthere is an imbalancein the number of I's and 0's. Hence periodic timing pulsesare not sufficient to remove dc wander. The existenceof low frequenciesin a random data signal is the basic reasonwhy modems are needed for data communications over the analog telephone network. (Analog telephonecircuits do not pass direct current.) It is also the reasonthat NRZ coding is not often used for long-distancetransmission.Direct-current wander is not unique to data transmission systems.It is a phenomenonthat must be reconciled in television receivers,radar receivers,or radiation detectors. One technique of offsetting dc wander is referred to as dc or baseline restoration [a]. As illustrated in Figure 4.7, dc restoration involves passing received pulses through a capacitor,detectingthem, and then removing the chargeon the capacitorbefore the next pulse arrives. charge on the capacitoris removed by driving the voltage
*Some communications theorists ref'et to a balanced two-level code as a "bipolar code." The North American telephone industry, however, uses the term bipolar torefet to a t}reeJcvel code described in thc next section,

4.s L|NE coDrNc 173

+v
Switch on

Figure4.7 Direct-current restoration for unipolar pulses. (0 V in Figure4.7)andthenremoving to a specific threshold thedrivingvoltage when thethreshold is reached. pulse, Sinceall charge on thecapacitor is removed aftereach thebaseline or decision reference levelis constant at thebeginning ofa signalinterval. An obvious disadvantage technique of this is thatthesignalinputmusthavezeroarnplitudeor be disabled duringtheresettime. A generally for overcoming moreusefultechnique is to usedecibaseline wander sionfeedback, alsocalledquantized feedback equalization to dcres[5*7]. In contrast toration, which drives the capacitor voltage to a constant,predeterminedlevel, quantizedfeedback compensate$ for dc wanderby locally generating the unreceived response low-pass andadding it to ttrereceived signal. To accomplish this,theoriginal datastream is reconstructed. As shownin Figure4.8,thereconskucted datastream is passed througha low-passfilter that generates a pulseequalto the tail or droopcharacteristic of the channel. Thefeedback signaladdsto thereceived signalto eliminate the droop(intersymbol interference). Using a frequency-domain analysis, the feedbackresponse is complimentary to the channel response. is used feedback Quantized in ISDN basicrateline interfaces [8]. 4.3.2 Bipolar Coding The dc restoration in the preceding techniques mentioned simplify pulsedesection tectionby creating pulse a low-pass response in thereceiver. Therearenumerous line

Figure 4.8 Decision feedback equalization.

174

DGTTAL THANSMtsstoN ANDMULTIpLEXtNc

(AMI)coding, Figure4.9 Bipolar codes thatarespecifically designed to notcontain dc energy andthereby beunaffected by dc removal. Bipolarcodingsolves thedc wander problem by usingthreelevers to encode binarydata.specifically,a logic 0 is encoded with zerovoltagewhile a logic I is alternately encoded with positiveandnegative voltages. Hence theaverage voltagelevel is maintained at zero-to eliminate dc components in the signalspectrum. sincebipolarcodinguses polaritypulses alternate for encoding logic 1's,it is alsoreferredto asalternate (AMI).mark inversion Bipolarcodingis thebasicline-coding procedure used by Tl linesin thetelephone network. Rather thanusingfull-periodpulses, however, TI linesusea 50za dutycycle pulseto encode each logic 1.Return-to-zero (RZ) pulses (Figure4.9)wereselected to minimize intersymbolinterference and simplify timing recoveryin the regenerative repeaters of a Tl line [9]. Thepowerspectrum of a bipolarcodeis obtained from I l0]
AS

I cosror s(or)='Plc(co)|2 | 2(2p l)coswT+ (2p- r)z = probability wherep of a 1 = spectrum G(rrl) pulse of anindividual
c(oro)=|* |

(4.3)

fr\ sin(roTl4) j

[rJ

ar/4

forSOVIdurycyclepulses

Equation 4.3 is plottedin Figure4.10 for variousvalues of p. For pureryrandom p = j. Recall,however, data, thatsource codingfor p255PCM codecs produces more I's than0's in theinterest of establishing a shongclock signal. Hence theappropriate valueof p for a Tl voiceline is normallysomewhat largerthan0.5 anddepends on theamplitude of the voicesignal.Low-levelsignals thatremainin thefirst encoding produce segment a valueof p approximately equalto 0.65.on the otherhand,fullscalesinewavesproduce a valuefor p thatis somewhat below0.5 sincemostof the samples occurnearmaximumamplitude. Because a bipolarcodeusesaltemating polarities for encoding I's, stringsof l 's havestrong timingcomponent$. However, a stringof 0's contains no timing information andtherefore mustbe precluded by the source. The specifications for Tl line re*A mark is a term arising from telegraphy to refer to the active, or l, state of a level encoded transmission line,

4.3 L|NE CoDING 175

oStT
Frgquency

density of bipolarcoding. Figure 4.10 Specnal will maintain timing as long as no sfing of greaterthan peatersstatethat the repeaters f,rfteen 0's is allowed to occur I1 11.A string of fifteen 0's can only occur if a 0 framing bit falls between a 10000000code in time slot 24 and a 0fi)00001 code in time slot l.

Coda SpaceRedundancY during butonlytwoof thelevels code space bipolar coding u$es a temary In essence,
any particular signal interval. Hence bipolar coding eliminates dc wander with an inefficient and redundantuse of the code space.The redundancyin the waveform also provides other benefits. The most important additional benefit is the opportunity to monitor the quality of the line with no knowledge of the nature of the traffic being to alternatein polarity, the detection transmitted.Since pulseson the line are supposed pulsesof one polarity implies an error. This error condition is known of two successive as a bipolar violation. No single error can occur without a bipolar violation also occuning. Hence the bipolar code inherently provides a form of line codeparity. The terminals of Tl lines are designed to monitor the frequency of occurrence of bipolar violations, and if the frequency of occurrenceexceedssomethreshold,an alarm is set' bipolar violations are u$edmerely to detectchannelerrors.By In T-carrier systems, adding $omerather sophisticateddetectioncircuitry, the sameredundancycan be used for conecting errors in addition to detectingthem. Whenever a bipolar violation is detected, an effor has occurred in one of the bits between and including the pulses indicating the violation. Either a pulse should be a 0 or an intervening 0 should have been a pulse of the opposite polarity. By examining the actual sample values more closely, a decision can be made as to where the error was most likely to have occurred.The bit with a samplevalue closestto its decision thresholdis the most likely bit in error. This technique belongs to a general class of decision algorithms for redundant signals called maximum likelihood or Viterbi decoders[12]. Notice that this method of error coffection requires storageof pulse amplitudes.If decision values only are stored,error correction cannot be achieved(only error detection)' An additional application of the unused code spacein bipolar coding is to purposely insert bipolar violations to signify special sifuationssuch as time division mul-

176

DIGITALTRANSMISSIoNANDMULTIPLEXING

tiplex framing marks, alarm conditions, or specialcodesto increasethe timing content of the line signals. Since bipolar violations are not normally part of the source data, these special situations are easily recognized. of course, the ability to monitor the quality of the line is compromisedwhen bipolar violations occur for reasonsother than channel errors.

4.3.3 BlnaryMZero Substltution A major limitation (AMI) coding of bipolar is its dependence ona minimum density
of 1's in the source codeto maintain timing at theregenerative repeaters. Evenwhen stringsof0's greater than 14 areprecluded by the source, a low densityofpulseson theline increases timingjitter andtherefore produces highererrorrates. BinaryN-zero (BNZS) [ l3l augments substitution a basicbipolarcodeby replacing all skingsof N 0's with a special NJengthcodecontaining pulses several thatpurposely produce bipolarviolations. Thusthedensity of pulses is increased while theoriginaldataareobtainedby recognizing thebipolarviolationcodes andreplacing themat thereceiving terminalwith N 0's. As an example, a three-zero substirution algorithm(B3zs) is clescribed. This particular substitution algorithmis specified for the standard DS-3 signalinterfacein NorthAmerica[14].It wasalsoused in theLD-4 coaxialmansmission system in canada[15]. In theB3ZSformat,each stringof three 0's in thesource datais encoded with either 00v or BOv. A 00v line codeconsisrs of 2-bit intervals wirh no pulse(00) followed by a pulserepresenting a bipolarviolation(v). A BOv line codeconsists of a single pulsein keeping with thebipolaralternation (B), followedby no pulse(0), rurd ending with a pulsewith a violation(V). With eithersubstitution, thebipolarviolationoccurs ' in the lastbit positionof thethree0's replaced by the special code.Thustheposition of thesubstitution is easilyidentified. Thedecision to substitute with 00V or BOv is madesothatthenumber of B pulses (unviolated pulses) between violations(v) is odd.Hence if an oddnumber of I's has beentransmitted sincethe lastsubstitution, 00V is chosen to replace three0's. If the intervening number of I's is even,BOv is chosen. In this manner all purposeful violationscontainan odd numberof intervening bipolarpulses. Also, bipolarviolations alternate in polaritysothatdc wander is prevented. An evennumber of bipolarpulses between violationsoccursonly asresultof a channel error.Furthermore, everypurposefulviolationis immediately preceded by a 0. Henceconsiderable systematic redundancy remainsin the line codeto facilitateperformance monitoring.Table4.1 summarizes the substitution algorithm. Example4.1. Determinethe B3zs line code for the following data sequence: 1010001 10000000010001 . use + to indicate a positivepulse,- to indicate a negarive pulse,and0 to indicate no pulse.

4.3 L|NE CODTNG 177

TABLE4.1 B3Z$ SubstitutlonRulee (1's) Pulses Number ot Bipolar SinceLastSubstitution Polarity of Pulse Preceding 0000+
+0+ -0-

dependingon whether an odd or even Sotution, There are two possible sequences following the previous violation: pulses been transmitted has number of

Substitutions
\ l0l CaseI (odd): +0Case2 (even): +0* \

000 00+0+

ll

+-

000 +0+ -0-

000 -0+0+

001 000 00+ 00+ 0000-

Violations

JJ

up strings of 0's by substituting of breaking thattheprocess Example 4.1 indicates of pulsesin the line minimum density greatly increases the with bipolar violations is just over607o' the average density is 337o while code.In fact,theminimumdensity Noticethat timing component. strong a continuously Hence theB3ZSformatprovides no restricwith information timing guarantee continuous all BNZScodingalgorithms in a completely any application data.HenceBNZS codingsupports tions on source manner, transparent T2 transusedon obsolete is the862,5algorithm AnotherBNZScodingalgorithm missionlines [16]. The 8625 algorithmis definedin Table4.2. This algorithmproducesbipolar violations in the secondand fifth bit positionsof the substituted sequence. bipolar to ashigh-density BNZS codingformatreferred ITTJrecommends another reHDB coding primary digital signal, in the El (HDB) coding[l7]. As implemented last bit the violation in a bipolar containing places strings of four 0's with sequences rethree, it is greater than stringsof 0's position.Sincethis codingformatprecludes astheB3ZS the same is basically algorithm ferredto asHDB3 coding.Theencoding Noticethatsubstithebasicalgorithm. Table4.3presents described earlier. algorithm substitutions andsuccessive only in thefourthbit position, violations tutionsproduce polarities' produce violationswith altemating

178

DIGITAL TRANSMISSIoN ANDMULTIPLEXING

TABLE 4.2 BZS Subetltution Rulee

Polarity ol Pulse lmmediately Preceding Six0'sto be Substituted

Substitution 0-+0+0+-0-+

Hxample: 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 + * (0- + U + - ) + 0 - + (o* - o - + ) (u+ - U - + +)) 0 0 0 - + (0+ - 0 - + ) - 0 (0- + 0 + - ) (0- + 0 T ) 0 0 0 +

A fundamental feature of end-to-end digital connectivity as provided by IsDN is 64-kbps transparentchannelsreferred to as clear-channelcapability (ccc) [18]. Two aspectsof a bipolar/AMl line code as used on Tl lines preclude ccc; robbed signaling in the least signilicant bit of every sixth frame and the need to avoid all-O's codewords on the channel. Bit robbing for signaling is avoided with commonchannel signaling (also an inherent requirement for ISDN deployment). Two meansof augmentingTl lines Io allow transparent channelshave beendeveloped. The first method is zero-bytetime slot interchange(ZBTSI) describedin reference il 91.ZBTSI was used for upgrading some Tl facilities for ccc but is not a godd long-term solution. The secondmethod, which is most desirablein the long run, involves the use of a BSzs line code for Tl lines. As such, the BBZS line code becamethe new line code standardfor Tl lines with the introduction of D5 channel banks. (D5 channel banks can also operate with bipolar/AMl line codes for backward compatibility.) As indicaredin Table 4.4, the BSZS algorithm is similar to the B625 algorithm in that each individual substitution is dc balanced.Notice that there are two bipolar violations, in positions 4 and 7, in every substitution.The purposeful introduction of bipolar violations requires replacementof any equipment that monitors all violations for performancemonitoring.

TABLE4.3 HDB3SubstltutlonHutes Number of Bipolar Pulses (1's) $inceLastSub$titution Polarity of Preceding Pulse
+

odd 000000+

Even +00+ -{0-

4.3 L|NE CODTNG 179

Rules TABLE4.4 BBZSSubetltution Pulse Polarity of Preceding Substitution 000-+0t.000+-G-+

Ternary 4.3.4 Pair Selected

of areexamples in thepreceding section described algorithms TheBNZS substitution of a binary sigthe timing content space to increase in theternary code selecting codes example. ternaryGST) I20l is another nal. Pairselected pairing the binary input datato producesebeginsby The PST codingprocess into two ternary digcodewords arethentranslated These quences of Z-bitcodewords. four but only ternary codes Since there are nine two-digit its for transmission. the flexibility availablein selecting two-digit binary codes,there is considerable parTable 4.5. This is shown in codingformats codes. Themostusefulof thepossible dc wander but alsoprevents timingcomponent a strong ticularformatnotonly ensures pulses. The positive and negative between a balance to maintain by switchingmodes time the pulse is At that transmitted. from onecolumnuntil a single codes areselected single column until another from theother codes switches modes andselects encoder polarity)is transmitted. pulse(of theopposite Exampte4.2. Encodethe following binary data streaminto a PST line code: l 10101 100. 0t 001 is in theencoder on whether solutions depending Soluti.on. Therearetwo possible of thesequence: modeat thebeginning thepositiveor negative 0l CaseI (+ mode): 0+ Case 2 (- mode): -+ 00 -+ -+ 11 ++l0 -0 +0 10 +0 -0 ll ++00 -+ -+

is thatthebinarydatastream drawback of thePSTcodingalgorithm Onepotential andmaintainpair mustrecognize must be framedinto pairs.Hencea PST decoder
TABLE 4.5 Pair Selected Ternaly Encoding

Binary Input 00 01 10 11

+ Mode *+ 0+ +0

- Mode 0-0 +-

180

D|G|TAL THANSMISSIoN AND MULTIPLEXING

boundaries.Recognition of the boundaries is not difficult if random data are being transmitted since a pairwise misframe eventually producesunallowed codes(00, + +, --). Furthermore, time division multiplex formats typically provide character and pairwise framing automatically. The power spechum of a PST line code with equal probabilities for l's and 0's is obtained from reference [20] and ploted in Figure 4.11. Also shown is the 8625 power spectrum [16] and the conventional bipolar power specffum. An important point to notice in Figure 4.l l is that bipolar coding and its extensions require equal bandwidths.Their only significant difference is that B625 and PST have higher energy levels as a result of greater pulse densities.The higher energy levels have the undesirableeffect of increasing crosstalk interference in multipair cables. However, the degradation from the increasedcrosstalk is somewhat offset by improved accuracyofthe recovered sample clock (assumingall signals in the cable are using the sameline code).

4.3.5 TernaryGoding
SincebipolarandPSTcodingusea temarycodespace to transmitbinarydata,they do not achieve ashigh aninformation rateasis possible with moreefficientuseof the codespace. For example, an eight-element ternary codeis capable ofrepresenting 38= 656I differentcodes. In contrast, produce I bitsof binarydara only 28= 256differentcodes. Thepreviously described line codes do not takeadvantage ofthe higher informationcontentof ternarycodes; they select codesfor their timing contentand properties. spectral one temaryencoding procedure involves mapping groups successive of 4 bits into (483T) digits.sincebinarywordsof 4 bitsrequire threeternary only t6 of the27 possiblethree-digit ternary codewords, considerable flexibility exists in selecting theternarycodes. Table4.6presents onepossible procedure. encoding Ternary wordsin the middlecolumnarebalanced in their dc content. Codewords from the first andthird

0.5tT Frequncy Figure4.ll

ltT

Specftum ofbipolar, B3ZS, and PST line codes for equally likely I's and 0's,

4,3 LINE CODING 181

TABLE4.6 EncodlngTablefor 4B3TLine Code Disparity) Ternary Word(Accumulated Word Binary 0000 0001 001 0 001 1 01 00 01 01 0110 01 11 1000 1001 1010 101 1 11 0 0 11 0 1 1110 1111 --0 -00-- - + - + f - -

+++ ++0 +0+ 0++ ++* +-+ -++ +00 0+0 00+

-00 0-0 000+0-+ +0-0+ +-0 -+0

than If morepositivepulses dc balance. to maintain alternately areselected columns Whenthe disparitybecolumn I is selected. pulses havebeentransmitted, negative Noticethattheall-O's column3 is chosen. pulses changes, tweenpositiveandnegative Because of the is not used.Hencea $trongtiming contentis maintained' codeword is sacrithe ability to monitorperformance higherinformationefficiency,however, 4B3T codingis usedon the boundaries. on three-digit ficed,andframingis required Tprovides by ITT Telecommunications line developed [21].This system TI48 span thatis only (48 channels) usinga bandwidth for two DSI signals carriertransmission of discussion (carrying A generalized 24 channels)' thana Tl bandwidth 50Vogrcatm in reference is contained [22]. 4B3T codingandotherternarycodingtechniques 4.3.6 DigitalBiphase levelsfor flexiBNZS andPSTuseextraencoding Bipolarcodingandits extensions andperno dc wander, features suchastimingtransitions, desirable bility in achieving space and the code by increasing areobtained These features monitorability. formance so far, discussed (The null of all codes first spectral thebandwidth. norby increasing rate 1/2.) at the signaling includinganNRZ code,is located by increasing strong timing andno dc wander achieve of line codes Many varieties data' One of the of the signalwhile usingonly two levelsfor binary the bandwidth andno dc providingboth a strongtiming cornponent mostcommonof thesecodes "Manchester" "diphase" or a code,alsoreferredto as wanderis the digital biphase code.

182

DtctrALTRANSMtsstoN ANDMULTtpLEXtNc

'tfr

'FH IJ
Figure 4.12 Digital biphase (Manchester) line code.

A digital biphasecode usesone cycle of a squarewave at a particular phaseto encode a I and one cycle of an opposite phaseto encode a 0. An example of a digital biphasecoding sequence is shown in Figure 4.12. Notice that a transition exists at the centerof every signaling interval. Hence strong timing componentsare presentin the spectrum.Furthermore,logic 0 signalsand logic I signalsboth contain equal amounts ofpositive and negative polarities. Thus dc wander is nonexistent.A digital biphase code,however, doesnot contain redundancyfor performancemonitoring. Ifin-service performance monitoring is desired, either parity bits must be inserted into the data stream or pulse quality must be monitored. (A later section of this chapter discusses performance monitoring in more detail.) The frequency spectrum of a digital biphase signal is derived in Appendix c and plotted in Figure 4.13, where it can be compared to the speckum of an NRZ signal. Notice that a digital biphasesignal hasits first spectralnill atLlT.Hence the exrrariming transitionsand elimination of dc wander come at the expenseof a higherfrequency signal. In comparison to three-level bipolar codes,however, the digital biphasecode has a lower error rate for equal signal-to-noiseratios (seeAppendix C). Examination of the frequency specffain Figure 4.13 shows that the diphasespectrum is similar to an NRZ spectrumbut translatedso it is centeredabout 1/I instead of direct current. Hence digital biphase actually represents digital modulation of a squarewave carier with one cycle per signal interval. Logic I 's causethe squarewave to be multiplied by +1 while logic 0's produce multiplication by -1. Diphase is pri-

\ \ \ \
1/T ztr 3tT 4tT

Ftgure4.13 Powerspectral density of digitalbiphase.

4.3 LINE CODING 183 marily usedon shorterlinks where terminal costs are more significant than bandwidth "Ethemet" IEEE 802.3 local area data network uses digital biphase utilization. The (Manchester)coding.

Encoding 4.3.7 Dlfferential

up to this point, i$ that One limitation of NRZ and digital biphasesignals,as presented many transmissionmefor a 0' On the signal for a 1 is exactly the negative of a signal phasereferan absolute dia, it may be impossible to determine an absolutepolarity or ence.Hence the decodermay decodeall I's as 0's and vice versa.A common remedy for this ambiguity is to use differential encoding that encodesa I as a changeof state and encodesa 0 asno changein state.In this mannerno absolutereferenceis necessary to decodethe signal. The decodermerely detectsthe stateof each signal interval and comparesit to the stateof the previous interval. If a changeoccured, a I is decoded. Otherwise. a 0 is determined. Differential encoding and decoding do not change the encoded spectrum of purely random data (equally likely and uncorrelatedI's and 0's) but do double the error rate. If the detector makes ar effor in estimating the state of one interval, it also makes an error in the next interval. An example of a differentially encodedNRZ code and a differentially encodeddiphasesignal is shown in Figure 4.14. All signalsof differentially encodeddiphaseretain a transition at the middle of an interval, but only the 0's have a transition at the beginning of an interval'

4.3.8 CodedMarkInversion
A variety of line codeshave evolved similar to the digital biphasecode describedpreviously. One of theseis referred to as codedmark inversion (CMI) in ITU recommendations [l7l. CMI encodes I's (marks) as an NRZ level opposite to the level of the

(d)

Figure 4.14 Differentially encoded NRZ and diphase signals: (a) differentially encoded NRZ; (b) differentially encoded diphase.

184

DIGITAL TRANSMISSION AND MULTIPLEXING

l o l ' l ' l 0 l oI ' l o I

J l

I
Figure 4.I5 Codedmarkinversion.

previous oneand0's asa half-cyclesquare waveof onepar"ticular phase. Figure4.15 showsa sample encoding for cMI. Thereis no dc energyin the signalandan abundanceof signaltransitionsexist asin diphase. Furthermore, thereis no ambiguity between I 's and0's-Eliminationof theambiguity actuallyleads to a majordrawback * of cMI coding;Its errorpedormance is 3 dB worse thandiphase. cMI is thespecified interface codefor the fourrh-level (Bl) ITU multiplexsignalat 139.264 Mbps.cMI is alsousedfor electical interfaces of soNET sTS-3csignals described in chapterg. 4.3.9 MultllevelSignating In the line codes discussed so far, two-lever(binary)signaling hasbeenassumed. In applications where thebandwidth is limitedbut higherdatarates aredesired, thenumberof levelscanbeincreased whilemaintaining thesame signaling rate.Thedatarate R achieved by a multilevelsystem is givenas

- ros,(r) R F)
where.L= numberof levelsthat canbe freely chosen during eachinterval I= signaling interval

(4.4)

The signalingrate llT is often referredto asthe symbolrateand is measured in bauds. within thedatacommunications industryit is common practice to use..baud" as being synonymous with bit rate.strictly speaking, however,the bit rate is only equalto thebaudrateif binarysignaling (l bit persignal interval)is used. Figure4. I 6 shows anexample of aneight-level transmission formatthatachieves 3 bitspersignal interval(i.e.,3 bitsper baud). Multilevel transmission systems greater achieve datarateswithin a given bandwidthbut require muchgreater signal-to-noise ratiosfor a givenerrorrate.Oneaspect of wirelinetransmission thatfavorsmultilevelline codingis thelower baudratefor a givendatarate,which in turn reduces the crosstalk. Hence, in crosstalk-limited svs*The enor performanceof CMI is 3 dB worse than diphasewhen bit-by-bit detection is used.The inetficiency arises because for one-half of an intewal a I lookslike a 0. Because CMI hasredundancv. someof the inefficiency canbe recovered with maximumlikelihood ffiterti) tletection.

4.3 LINE coDtNc 185

wittr 3 bits per signalinterva'' Figure 4.16 Multileveltransmission tems the signal-to-noiseratio penalty of a multilevel line code is not as significant. The TlG T-carrier systemdevelopedby AT&T [23] usesa four-level line code at the TIC baud rate (3.152 MHz) to double the capacity of a TlC $ystem(from 48 channelsto

e6).

Another example of multilevel transmissionof pafiicular significance is the ISDN basic rate digital subscriberline (DSL), which uses fbur-level transmission at a $i8naling rate of 80 kilobauds to achieve 160 kbps. The primary factors that led to selecting a multilevel line code in this application are ( I ) near-endcrosstalkthat cannot be eliminated by pair isolation* as in Tl systemsand (2) high levels of intersymbol interferencecausedby bridged tap reflections. Both of thesefactors are easierto control when lower frequency signalsare used t241.Additional aspectsof this application are describedin the ISDN section of Chapter 11.

$ignaling 4.3.10 Partial-Response

Conventional bandlimiting filters of a digital transmissionsystem are designedto restrict the signal bandwidth as much as possible without spreadingindividual symbols so they interfere with samplevalues of adjacentintervals. One classof signaling techparniques,variously referredto as duobinary [25], correlative level encoding [26]' or of intersymbol amount prescribed a introduces tiai-responsesignaling [27], purposely interferencethat is accountedfor in ttre detection circuitry ofthe receivers.By overfiltering the encoded signal, the bandwidth is reduced for a given signaling rate, but the overlapping pulses produce multiple levels that complicate the detection process and increasethe signal power requirementsfor a given error rate' Figure 4.17 shows the pulse responseof a typical partial-responsesystem. If the channel is excited by a pulse of duration T, channel filters (defined in Appendix c) limit the spectrumsuch that the main part of the pulse extendsacrossthree signal intervals and contributes equally to two sample times. The reason for the term partial is now apparent:The output only respondsto one-half the amplitude of the response input.
*Pair isolation involves separating go and return pairs into separate cables'

186

DIGITALTBANSMISSION AND MULTIPLEXING

\\N6xt output puhe

Figure 4.17 Outputpulseof partial-response channel.

If theinputpulse of Figure4.17is followedbyanother pulse of thesame amplirude, theoutputwill reach full amplitude by virtueof theoverlap between pulse$. However, if thenextinputpulsehasa negative polarity,theoverlap produces zeroamplitude at the sample time.Thus,asshownin Figure4.18,a partial-response system with twolevelinputs(+1,-I) produces anourputwith threelevels(+l , 0, -l). In similarfashion, Figure4.19shows a system with four inputlevels( +3, +1, -1, -3) andseven (+3,+2,+1,0, -1, -2, -3). output levels Detection of a partialresponse signal(PRS) is complicated by theadditional levels producedby the channelfilters andthe fact that samplevaluesaredependent on two adjacent pulseamplitudes. Onemethodof detecting a PRSinvolvessubtracting the overlapof a previously pulsefrom the incomingsignalto generate detected a differencesignalrepresenting thechannel response to thenewpulse.only theoverlap(intersymbolinterference) at the sample times needs to be subtracted. The difference samples are nominallyequalto one-halfthe amplitude of the unknowninput pulse. This technique doubles the errorratein the same manner thatdifferentiallvencoded errorratesaredoubled. Anothermethod of detecting partial-response systems involvesa technique called precoding at thesource. hecodingtransforms theinputdatain sucha manner thatthe outputlevel at thedetector directlyindicates theoriginaldatawithoutcomparison to theprevious sample value. In a binarysystem, for example, a I is encoded with a pulse of the same polarityastheprevious pulse.Hence logic I 's showup at thedetector as -l eithera +l or a sample. Transmission of a 0 is encoded with a pulseof opposite polarity to the previous pulse.Hencelogic 0's alwaysshowup at the detector as a zero-level signal.similar precoding techniques exisrfor multilevelsystems [zg].

Figure 4.I8 TfueeJevel partial-response inputsandourpurs.

4.s LINE coDtNe 187

inputsandoutputs' partial-response Figure 4.19 Seven*level The partial-responsetechniquejust describedis actually a special caseof a more generalclassof signaling techniquesreferredto as correlative level encoding [26]' To or correlative level systems,it describethe properties of generalizedpartial-response delay equal to one signal inD to denote is convenient to introduce a delay operator line of length ?- Two units of delay terval Z. Physically, D can be thought of as a delay is implemented with two delay lines in seriesand is denotedas D2' $y$temdescribedabove is referred to as Using this notation, the partial-re$ponse the superpositionof the input with a delayedversion l+D PRS: The output represents of the sameinput. Other forms of overlap are possible. These systemsdo not necessarily produce the overlapping pulses by over{iltering an input' An alternative approach is to overlap and add the pulsesdirectly in the encodingprocess(hencethe term correlative level encoding). An interesting special caseof correlative level encoding is the I - D system shown in Figure 4.20 and extendedin Figure 4.21 to show the effect of overlapping Pulses' The I - D encoderusesa single cycle of a squarewave acrosstwo signal intervals -+) produce dc to encodeeachbit. Since neither ofthe two individual signals ( +- or positive and negative the energy,the encodedsignal has no dc wander.Furthermore, coding' of bipolar leveis of the composite signal alternate in a manner reminiscent phase the same In fact, if differential encoding is used (i.e., if a 0 is encodedwith
widrh of one signal interurl
I

Overlap into sdiEcent interval

#-r

Logic I

Logic 0

levelcoding' for I - D correlative Figure 4.20 Individual signalelements

188

DtcITALTRANsMtsstoNANDMULTtpLEXtNG

Figure4.21 Representative waveform of I - D correlative levelencodins. astheprevious intervalanda I astheopposite phase), thisform of encoding is identical to bipolarcoding(assuming theNRZ levelsarereplaced by s}vo RZ pulses). Thus I - D correlativelevel encodingis usedto shape the bandwidthratherthan to limit it. The spectra of unfiltered I + D, I * D, and | - Dz signalsareobtained from referencel2Tl andplottedin Figure4.zz.TheTlD T-carrier system of AT&T precoded uses I + D level encoding (alsocalledduobinary). Thespectrum of the 1 * D2signalis particularly interesting. Ithas no dc componenr andan upperlimit equalto ll2T: thesame upperlimit as a maximallyfilteredNRZ codewith no intersymbol interference. The I - D2partial-response systems havebeen

l/
\

\t
Frequency {Hzl Figure 4.22 spectra of unfilteredI + D, I - D, ard I - Dz correlative encoded sisnals.

189 PERFoHMANcE 4.4 ERHoR providing48 voicechannels [29] andfor used by GTE in a modifiedT-carriersystem frequenradiosusingvery low baseband microwave overanalog digitaltransmission exi$ts) (where spectrum no messaBe [30]' Theobchannels ciesfor pilotsandservice of AT&T also used| - Dz codingwith system soletelA-RDs (data-under-voice) Mbpsinto 500kHz of bandwidth [31]' four-levelinputsto get 1.544 the productof the I + D andthe I is essentially Notice that the I - Dz spectrum a I - D enby coxcatenating canbe implemented aI - D2 system Indeed, D spectra. level (1 * D)0 + D) = | Dz'Thusconelative response: coderwith a I + D channel and correlations representing for simultaneously useful are very polynomials system necessary than more levels use level systems correlative Since all shaping. spectrum or full-responsesystemsin for encodingthe data,they are inferior to uncorrelated perfofinance' termsof error is proidentifyingvariousline codes systems of digital transmission A summary in aredescribed in fiber systems usedspecifically videdin Table4.7.Otherline codes 8. Chapter

4.4 ERRORPERFORMANCE rethetiming andpowerspecffum emphasized of this chapter sections Thepreceding in consideration fundamental Another codes. transmission o1 various quirements on noise. Except pre$ence of in the performance rate the error line code is a choosing requireerror performance relativelyshofi lines,wherenoisemay be insignificant, rate is specielror minimum If a celtain cost significantly. system mentrt canimpact lower signal-to-noise rate at error the desired providing schemes fied, thosecoding instalreducing thereby fartherapart, to be spaced repeaters ratiosallowregenerative

Systems TABLE4.7 DigitalTransmiselon Bit Rate CountrY or DesignationAdministration (Mbps) T1 E1 T1C T148 9148A T.ID T1G T2 LD.4 T4M AT&T ITU-T ATAT ITT GTE AT&T AT&T AT&T Canada AT&T 1.544 2.048 3,152 ternary 2.37, 3.152 3.152 6.443 6,312 274.176 274.176
Line Code

Media pair Twisted pair Twisted pair Twisted pair Twisted pair Twisted Twisted oair

Repeater SPacing 6000ft 2000m 6000ft 6000ft 6000fr 6000ft 6000ft 4800ft 1900m 5700ft

AMYBEZS HDBs(B4ZS) Bipolar 4B3T 1 -D2, duobinary 1+D, duobinary Four-level B6ZS B3ZS Polar

pair Twisted Low-capacitance pair twisted Coax (NRZ) Coaxbinary

190

DtctrAl TRANSMlsstoN AND MuLTtpLEXtNc

lationandmaintenance.+ Repeater spacing is animportant economic factorin wireline transmission, in opticalfiber transmission, andon point-to-point radiolinks. Theerrorrateresults andcomparisons presented in this section arebased on white Gaussian noise.This is the mostcoilrmonform of noiseandthe bestunderstood. In someapplications, aswithin theolderelectromechanical telephone network, impulse noise maybemoreprevalent. Thusthese analyses do notprovidea complete errorrate analysis for some applications. Theintentof thissection is to present relative errorperformance comparisons of variousline-codingtechniques. For this purpose a white noiseanalysis is mostappropriate. If impulses arelargeenough, theycause enorsindependent of thecoding$cheme in use. For themostpart,thefollowingsections present only theresults of theerroranalyses in theform of graphs of errorrateasa functionof signal-to-noise ratios. Appendix C derives thebasicequations used to produce theresults. 4.4.1 SignalDetection Invariably,the detectioncircuiuryof a digital receiverprocesses incoming signal waveforms to mea$ure eachpossible discrete signal.In mostcases the mea$ures are nothingmorethansamples of a filteredreceive signal. Depending on thesignalshape andthelevelof performance desired, thereceiver uses moresophisticated piocessing. In anycase, theendmeasurement of a binarysignalnominallyproduces onevotmge level for a 0 andanother voltage level for a I. A decision of which signalwastransmitted is madeby comparingthemeasurement (at the appropriate timeJto a threshold located halfwaybetween these nominalvoltages. Naturally,theerrorprobabilitydepends on thenominatdistance between thevoltages andtheamount of fluctuation in themeasurements caused by noise. Sincesignal mea$urement$ arenormallylinearin nature, theerrordistance between I ' s and0's is proportional to thereceived signalvoltage. Equivalently, theamount of noisepowerrequired to produce anerroris a directfunctionof thesignal-to-noise ratio. Theoptimumdetector for a particular signalsetmaximiees thesignal-to-noise ratio at theinput to thedecision circuit. 4.4.2 Nolee Power white Gaussian noiseis characterized ashavinga uniformfrequency spectrum across anarbitrarilylargebandwidth andanamplitude distribution thatvariesaccording to a normal(Gaussian) probabilitydistribution. A parameterN,l conventionally represents the powerspecfral densityof white noiseandis the amountof powermeasured in a bandwidth of I Hz. Hence therms powerof whitenoisecominf out of a filter with a bandwidth BW is (Nr)(BW).t
Tl lines the rcpeater spacing was predetermined by the locations where loading coils needed to be .removed. Thus the error rate performance essentially determined the maximum oata iate. TThe power spcctral density of white noise is also specifred * oensity. as a fro r* " ir"**ia*a rfr-t4 praclical matter, there is no difference in the specificarions,'since a rcal filter has the mathematical equivalent of identical positive- and negative-frequencybands.Thus the measuredpower corDng through a filter with a one-sided (positive-frequency) bandwidth BW is No BW in either case. 'On

PEHFORMANCE I91 4.4 ERROR

circuit,it is necessary ata decision powerpresent of noise theamount To determine Whenthe decircuitry' detection of the ly'pandthe effectivebandwidth to determine is usubandwidttr the effective than a filter, of nothingmore tectioncircuiky consists sophisticated more With other of the filter. ally very closeto the 3 dB bandwidth As derivedin canbe moredifficult to determine' the effectivebandwidth detectors. noisebandeffective to as the referred is usually bandwidth C, theeffective Appendix is (No) circuit power at the decision noise Hencethe *idth (FIBW)of the receiver. (NBW). 4.4.3 Error Probablllties to cross the signalmeasurement noisecau$es occurswhenever An enor in detection Appencircuitry' thetwo nominaloutputlevelsof thedetection between thethreshold noiseas this probabilityfor white Gaussian dix C derives , ;

\ I I = -:-DfOD(erroD lVZ?t6 "|

nf rzd4,

(4.s)

where v = nominal distance(voltage) to a decision threshold 02 = noise power at detector,= (No)NBW) Equation 4.5 is nothing more than the area under the probability density function of a normal distribution. As shown in Figure 4'23, the equation representsthe error probability as the probability of exceedingv/o standarddeviations in a normal distribution with zero mean and unit varianceN(l' 0). The error rate is completely determinedby the ratio of v to o. Since v is the noiseis a signal-power*to-noisefree sample voltage and o2 is the rms noise power, v?/O2 po*"r rutio at the detector.This ratio is sometimesrefened to as a postdetectionSNR, after the detectioncircuitry. It is usually more important to express iince it is measured error rates in terms of an SNR at the input to the receiver. Figure 4'24 depicts a basic channel. a basic detection model, and the relation between a predetectionSNR and a in Appendix C, the most appropriateprepostdetectionSNR. For reasonscliscussed detection SNR for comparing line codesand digital modulation formats is an energy-

Dlo

l*

of errorfor binarysignaling. Figure 4.21t Probability

192

DGITAL TRAN$MIssIoN ANDMULTIPLEXING

(';m;) (*) F#=(;rs)

v1
i
EquivalBnt noi* bendwidth : NBW Noi* power = o ' = N B I / I ',N o

Noire Epctral denrity Ns

Figure 4.24 Signaldetection model. per-bit-to-noise-densityratro E6/N0. The relationship betweenE6/N0Nrdthe signalpower-to-noise-powerratio is

siEpal Power g111p: power norse _dEs1tr) NoNBW dErlog2l (llT) NoNBW where d= E = Ea= logyL = l/7= NBW = pulsedensity energyper symbol energyperbit number of bits per symbol(i.e.,t = numberof levels) signaling rate effectivenoisebandwidth of receiver

(4.6)

In determining the signalpower in Equation4.6, noticethe dependence on the pulsedensity d. In a balanced NRZ line codethepulsedensity is I, but in manyof the otherline codes thepulsedensityis dependent on thedataandany substitution algorithmsthat may be in use.In these codes, increasing the prrlse densityincreases the sNR but doesnot reduce the errorrate.The errorrateis determined by the energyper-bit-to-noise-density ratio. In fact, increasing the pulsedensitymight worsenthe errorrateifintederencebetween cablepairsis a significant (Interferconsideration. enceis directlyproportional to thesignalpower.) Antipodal Signaling The optimumsignaling formatfor binarysignaling maximizes the errordistance for a given receivedsignalpower and simultaneously minimizesthe noisebandwidth. This conditionarises only whentwo signallevelsareallowedandonly whenonesig-

4.4 ERROR PEHFOBMANCE 193

(the ofthe other.Sincethesignalfor a I is theexactopposite nal is theexactnegative to asantipodalsigis oftenreferred of thesignalfor a 0, optimumsignaling antipode) perfortnance antipodal is any better, scheme signaling no other bit-by-bit naling.Since only previously, described line codes Ofthe comparisons. a basis for used as is oftin perprovide antipodal biphase can (NRZ) digital encoding and twolevel balanced by antipodal provided performance error the optimum 4.25 shows Figure formance. asa functionof E/Ne andthe SNR. signaling Error Bate of Level Encoded $ignale of providingoptitwo-levelline codeis capable a balanced, mentioned, As already level codeis used,suchasunipolar, If an unsymmetric *u* "ooi rateperformance. is Theonly difference levelencoding. is usedasin symmetric basicdetector the same "on" of the amplitude to half the from zero be moved must threshold thatthedecision transmitpoweris increased the average errordistance, signal.To maintainthe same penaltyof 3 dB with reperformance a carries unipolar code 2. Hence a by a factorof spectto antipodalPerformance. of a unipolar(on-oft) codewhereit is Figure4.25 showsthe idealperformance for all SNRsthe enor rateof the onNotice that performance. to antipodal compared system with 3 dB lessSNR' antipodal rate of an the error equal to is exaitly off system Bipolar Slgnaling to a unipolar identical is basically bipolarsignaling to errorperformance, With respect oneof between must decide receiver interval, the signal code.During any particular the decision polarity. Hence appropriate pulse with the levels:zeroor a two possible zeroandthe pertinent to a particularsignalintervallies halfwaybetween threshold interval of the signal pulse to 507o the pulse. Nanowing of theallowed amplitudelevel pulse en(with to average respect performance the theoreticalerror doesnot change to deterused can be Figure 4'25 keying in on*off ergy).Thustheerrorratecurvefor mine theoreticalbipolar effor rates. to a slightlyhigherenor rate in a bipolarline codecontributes Oneconsideration noise positiveandnegative both because occurs thanin on-offkeying. This increase In is transmitted. zero-level signal when a crossing threshold cancause an erroneous level signal a lower positive noise when by only contrast, a unipolarcodeis affected noisewhenthe upperlevel signalis transmitted' andonly by negative is transmitted a bipolarviolation)' pulseas a I (despite ffeatsthe elroneous If the bipolardetector overallerrorprobThus the is doubled. theerroiprobabilitywhen0's aretransmitted likely. are equally if 0's and I's by 50Vo ability is increased not does in theerrorrateof 50Vo ofthe curve,anincrease ofthe steepness Because is increased rate if the error For example, penalty. represent muchof a performance by only to increase powerof a line codeneeds the source from 1 x l0-6 to 1.5x 10-6, penalty occurs rates, a larger enor rate.At higherenor 0.2dB to getbackto a I x 10-6 where 4.25, in Figure aredemonstrated effects These thecurveis not assteep. because perthe to (with be compared 507o 0's) can of a bipolarcode the idealperformance of a unipolarcode, formance

194

DIGITAL THANSMISSION AND MULTIPLEXING

6 lo-t F

SisElll|olrlr-lo-nqllF-pffi rrfi q LdE) 8 9 l 0 l t 1 2 t 3

E
ll

E
>

8 7 B S r En rlv-FoFbit-b{ol$dilrity

rsflo, 4/IVo (dB)

Figure 4.25 Enor rates of polar (NRZ), unipolar, and bipolar line codes.

PEBFORMANCE 195 4.4 ERROH

(at 10-6 errorrate)with respect Thefactthatbipolarcodingincursa 3.2-dBpenalty aresolvedby inproblems dc wander that timing and is indicative to digital biphase incurs a bandwidth biphase digital *r*uring the numberof signallevels.In contrast' BNZS and and its extensions coding, for bipolar penalry. Not all of the3.2-dBpenalty pattiming adding a consistent current and direct to removing PST,"an be attributed or performance monitoring for redundancy considerable tem.Bipolarcodingcontains * possible errorcorrection. cable on Z2-gauge system of a T1 transmission eachsection Example4.3. Assume changes errorrate.Whatdesign with a 10-6 crosstalk limitedandoperating is near-end to reducethe error rateto 10-8? areneeded be improved limited,the enor ratecannot is crosstalk Solution. Sincethe system the is to space The solution repeaters. thepowerout of theregenerative by increasing Figure From solution). ofthis (ignore aspects theimpractical together repeaters closer by I '6 dB to improve powermustbeincreased thatthesignal +.i5 it canuedetermined the main lobe of the the error ratefrom 10-6to l0-8. In Figure4'10 it is seenthat the energyin the up to 1.544MHz. However'most of extends bipolar spectrum of the attenuation that below 1 MHz. UsingFigureL14, we determine spectrumlies = reduction ft is the cableis 5 dB/kft at 1 MHz. Hence1.6/5 '32 kft or 320 Z-Z-gauge required. spacing in repeater of digital transmission a numberof importantaspects 4.3 demonstrates Example with only a small quality can be obtained good transmission arbitrarily iirst, systems. in Chapter2' a Thus,as mentioned spacing.t plnalty in transmitpoweror repeater impalt no degto readily designed can be network switching and digitaltransmission converand digifal-to-analog analog-to-digital where quality, except to voice rJation place. take sions in in errorratefor a relativelysmallincrease improvement the dramatic Second, increase A slight also. direction the opposite in sensitivity implies extreme the SNR in the error rate. would causea largeincrease in noisepoweror signalattenuation performbetter provides considerably link often of a digital design the nominal Hence necessarY. than normallY ance formatusing to anydigitaltransmission 4.3 applies to Example Third, thesolution all line Since per mile. attenuation the same hence, and, of frequencies the same band change relative rate, the a 10-6 error at same steepness the haveapproximately codes detection Thus a Tl systemwith suboptimum in SNR is the samefor all systems. moved 320ft were if the repeaters improvement performance the same wouldexhibit begin rate to 10-6 error less than a provide (Tl to are designed lines closertogether. lines') on Tl rate surveys of error repofl for a thorough with. Seereference [32]
"In pulse is removed to terms of logicJevel decisions, a bipolar code carrrot provide effor conection, If a error is made. another of the time efior is correctedbuthalf of the time the half eliminate abipolar violation, a bipolar Enor corection is possible only with a Viterbi-like detectot described previously. In this case code' performance a unipolar than better code orovides tsome systems, such as the tadio systems discussedin Chapter 6, require a greater decreaseifl repeatel spacing to achieve the same improvement in performance'

196

DIGITAL TRANSMISsIoN ANDMULTIPLEXING

Arrsrrgl snrqy-pFblt-to-ndire-dondty iltio, Ebftro (dB) Figure 4.26 Error rate of balancedmultilevel signals (all systemsproviding an identical data rate).

PERFORMANCE 197 4.4 ENHOH

tl

l3 14 1? EulVo ort tlrtdunncl

ID

ru

Figure 4.27 Error rates of I + D partial-responsesystems.

198

DG|TAL TRAN$MtsgtoN ANDMULT|PLEXING

Multllavel Error Eatee Themultilevelkansmission system shownin Figure4.16does not requirebandwidth in excess of a binarysystem usingthe same signaling rate,yet it achieves threetimes thedatarate.Thepenalty for multileveltransmission comes in theform of greatlyincreased signalpowerfor a given error rate.For example, the average powerof the eight-level system in Figure4.l6 is 8.7 dB abovethe average powerof a symmetric two-levelsystem with thesame errordistance. To makematter$ worse, somesysrems arepeakpowerlimited,in whichcase theeightJevelsystem hasa 12.4-dB disadvantagewith respect to a two-levelsystem. Theerrorratesof multilevelsystems arederivedin Appendix c andplottedin Figure4.26asa functionof E6/N11.For those cases wherethe peakpoweris of interest, the relationship between the peakand average powerof a multilevelsy$tem is derived in AppendixC as Peak-to-average(dB)= l0log,o t. tlt

(u L)E'/: At - rf

(4'7)

whereI is thenumberof equallyspaced levelscentered aboutzero[e.g.,+1, +3, +5, . . ., J (r -1)1. The enor ratesof I + D partial-response rrystems arealsoderivedin Appendixc andplottedin Figure4.27.These errorrate$ arederived under theassumption thatbir by-bit detection is used. Sincepartial-rerrponse systems containredundancy (conelation) in adjacent samples, betterperformance cal be achieved with Viterbi decoders 21. ll

4.5 PERFORMANCE MONITORING Two basic techniques existfor directlymonitoring thequalityof a digitaltransmission link: redundancy checksand pulsequality measurements. Both techniques are designed to providean indicationof thebit errorrate(BER)of the channel. 4.5.1 RedundancyChecks Redundancy canbeincorporated into a digitalsignalusingoneof two common methods.First,the line codeitself may containredundancy asin bipolarcoding.In a random,independent errorenvironment thefrequency of bipolarviolations is verynearly equalto the channel BER (except for extremely high BERs).Second, logic-levelredundancy canbe insefied into thedatastream in theform of overhead bits.For example, parity bits are insertedinto DS3 and DS4 signalsfor the expre$$ purpose of monitoring thechannel errorrate.(Theframestructures of these andotherhigherlevel multiplexsignals areprovidedin chapter7.) cyclic redundancy check(cRC) codes arealsoincorporated into a number of transmission systems asa mean$ of monitoring BERsandvalidating framingacquisition. Two prevarent examples of cRC useare(l) extended (ESF)onT I lines[33] introduced superframe with theD4 channel banks and (2) opticalfiber transmission usingthe soNET standard described in chapterg.

MONITORING 199 4.5 PERFORMANCE

(eitherparity bits or CRC codes) is generally The useof logic-levelredundancy (such because thelatas bipolar violations) redundancy thantheuseofline code better redunlink itself. Logic-level transmission of the on the technology ter is dependent or radio. pairs fiber from cable to by a change dancy,on theotherhand,is unaffected ESF into TI of for theintroduction a majorimpetus As described laterin thischapter, of bipolar independent monitorability wasto get performance transmission systems andcarinto higherleveldigitalsignals areoftenmultiplexed line codes. DSI signals in systems suchasfiber andradio.The CRC codes ried on a varietyof ftansmission pedormance monitoringinfor end-to-end theESFframingformatprovidethemeans systems carrythedatastream. of whatever transmission dependent pafity do not providea bits andCRC codes line code redundancies, In contrast to parityerrorrate equation relates the The following of theBER. one-to-one indication (PER)to thechannel BBR: (4.8)

pER= I [T]p(r * p)N-i -t'J

t=l "

(i odd)

of bits overwhichpantyis generated) whereN = lengthof a parityfield (number = errors random, independent p BER assuming between the PER andthe BER is plottedin Figure4.28for DS3 The relationship N timestheBER thePERis essentially Noticethatat low errorrate$ andDS4signals. because anyoddnumber changes thisrelationship (Np).At high errorrates, however, '\ilhen the BER is high from a singleerror. of errorsin a frameis indistinguishable asanabenough thatmorethanoneerrorin a parityfield is likely, thePERis useless the BER is indicates only that the PER rate. In these cases of the error solute estimate contains format a DS4 frame to 1/N. Because equal approximately abovea threshold than for highererrorrates canbe measured of parirybits,DS4signals a higherdensity canDS3signals. it is unlikelyfor multiple Determination of a CRCerrorrateis simplifiedbecause is I a CRCerror.Thustheprobabilityof a CRCenor (CRCER) errorsto notproduce minusthe probabilirythat no errorsoccur;
CRCER=1-(l-p)N

(4.9)

whereN = lengthof theCRCfield (includingCRCbits) enors random, independent p = BER assuming 4.9 4.9 reverts to N timestheBER (Np).Equation Again,at low errorratesEquation (The CRC is 4614 bits. wheretheCRCfleld is plottedin Figure4.28for ESFframes theC bits themselves.) field doesnot includeF bits in Table4.8 except be long mUSt thesample $equence in enOrratemeasurements, To haveCOnfidence size thesample size(e.g., of about10enorsin thesample enough to allow anaverage

d
:Y E o .f g

= 0

.$
CN (4 rTl

b
F

a
;

s
f
o

E
v

;
E e
bI)

S m
a q

tr &

a
d

U}

E
t t E} h q Fa 'ff (b F!

{)
b!

EI

eler r0r,$ cHs#til-|ed

4.5 PEBFORMANCE MONITORING 201 TABLE 4.8 Extendsd Superframe Framlng Channel Formata

F-Bit Assignment ESFFrame Number

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I

ESFBitNumber 0 193 386 579 772 965 11 5 8 1351 15,14 1737 1930 2123 2316 2509 27Q2 2895 3088 3281 3474 3667 3860 4053 4246 4439

FPS

FDL

cRc
cB1

m m 0 m

c82
m 0 m

s
10
11

c83
m
I

12 13 14 15 16 17 1B 19 20 21 22 23 24

c84
m 0 m

cB5
m
1

;
m 1

aFPS,framingpatternsequonc (. . .001011. data link(message bits m); CRC' GRC'6 . .); FDL,a kbpsfacility cyclic redundancycheck (check bits CBl-CB6).

must be I0/BER). Hence, when trying to measurelow BERs (e.g., 10*6or l0-7), the measurement time may be too long to respondto changing channelconditions such as radio channelfading.

4.5.2 SlgnalQualityMeasurements
The secondbasic technique for monitoring digital ffansmission quality is to process the digital signal directly and measure ceftain properties related to lhe error rate. A simple approach involves merely measuring the received signal power, a coillmon technique in analog systems.In a fixed-noise environment this approachis adequate. However, on transmissionlinks where the noise level can vary or where signal distortions can arise, the quality of the pulsesthemselvesmust be measured.

202

DIGITALTHANSMISSION AND MULTIPLEXING

Docirion threshold

Pmudoerror rcgion

Figure 4.29 Pseudoerrordetection.

Figure4.29demonstrates theoperation of a'!seudo" errordetector designed to depulseswith abnormal tect received amplitudes at the sample times.In the example shown,binarydatais detected by useof a singlethreshold located midwaybetween the normalpulseamplitudes. Two additionalthresholds are includedto detectthe presence of pulses with abnormal amplitudes. Sample valuesfalling into the central decision regiona.re not necessarily dataenors,but a high pseudo-error rateis a good indication thatthechannel is not performing properly. In a random(Gaussian) noiseenvironment theoccuffence rateof pseudo*effors is directlyrelated to theactual errorrate.Figure 4.30shows a Gaussian noise distribution anddecision thresholds chosen to produce pseudo-errors at I 00timesa 10-6 errorrate. Hencean attractivefeatureof this error ratemeasurement is that it can measure very low errorratesusingcomparatively shorttestintervals. Note,however, thattheerror multiplication factoris dependent on theerrorrate.Thetechnique of estimating a vsry low error rateby extrapolatingfrom an artificially generated high error rate is sometimesreferred to asa Q-factortechnique (meanand the parameters [34]. In essence, variance) of a Gaussian distribution areestimated with easilyobtained mea$urements sothemuchlowererrorrates canbe estimated from theparameters. This technique is particularly usefulin opticalfiber systems whereextremely low errorratesareto be determined thatotherwise requireextremely longmeasurement times.

-1

-0.2 0 0'2

Figure 4.30 Pseudoerrordecision thresholdsfor error multiplication of 100.

4 . 5 P E R F O H M A N C E M O N I T O H I N G 203

ratesarenot is that pseudo-elror of pseudo-error detection A majordisaclvantage Channel disaccurately related to actualerrorrateswhenthe noiseis non-Gaussian. rateswhenthe actualerrorratesare cause high pseudo-error tortions,in particular, enorsdo not occurunless pulseamplitudes arepresent, small.Eventhoughabnormal high acnoise mightproduce hand, impulse the distortion. On the other noiseaddsto pseudoerror rates. tual errorrates but relativelylow is improvedwhen errorrates measured anddeduced Thecorrespondence between pseudo-emor decision renarrower Unfortunately, threshold is narrowed. thedecision "error" rate multiplication gions are more difficult to implementand provide lower factors. 4.5.3 Framing Channel Errors of a TDM data of individualchannels in Section4.6.2.identification As described bits with a uniquedatapattemfor frameidentification.After sffeamrequires overhead bit occasional it ignores terminalhas"locked" ontothe ftamingpattern, a receiving (OOF) when the condition pattern an out-of-frame the framing but declares errorsin low errorrates Thusframingbit errorscanbeusedto determine erTorrt areconsistent. lossof framindications and subsequent falseOOF thatcause but not higherrorrates sohigh are usually falseOOFindications to cause ing.Errorrates thatarehighenough thatthelink is effectivelyout of service.

4.5.4 Performance Obiectives link is its BER.If theerrors of qualityof a digitaltransmission Themostbasicmeasure (i.e., manner theyconformto a simplePoisandindependent occurin a truly random Untheperformance. BER completely specifies sonprobabilitymodel),the average fortunately, elror rateobservations [32] showthat ertorsoften occurin bursts,and the qualityof a in differentways,specifying burstsaffectdifferentservices because datatraffic BER. For example, morethanjust the average link requires transmission no matterhow manyerror$ocin blocksthat areretransmitted is generallytransmitted cur in a block.Thus,a bursthaslittle moreeffectthana singlebit error.The rateof of theburststhan of datablocksis morea functionof thefrequency rekansmissions increasingly dehand, is BER. Voice traffic, on the other of the long-teflnaverage graded or not theyoccurin bursts. by all bit errorswhether to certain opcanalsobemuchmoredeleterious thatoccurin bursts Channel errors rate.A lossof error$at a similaraverage erations of a networkthanaredistributed timing Certain occurs moreoftenin a bursterrorenvironment.' framing,for example, by bursts. (pulse in Chapter 7 arealsosimilarlyaffected operarions stuffing)described (e.g., ercontinuous bothproduce outages Losses of framingandtimesynchronization
*Errors in a burst are not necessarily contiguous. They merely occur in a short time intewal at a rate that i$ too high to be rasonably explained as chance independent events.

204

DIGITALTRANSMISSION AND MULTIPLEXING

rors) in the associated haffic channels or eveninadvertent disconnects if the conditionslasttoo long. parameter$ Commonperformance usedto characterize erTor ratesare: (EFS); Because L Error-FreeSecond datablockstransmitred at 64 kbpsrequire much less than a second,the percentage of EFS essentiallyspecifiesthe percentage of time that the channel is available for data transmission (Whentheblock transmissions applications. aremuchshorter thana second. a shorter meA$urement intervalis moreappropriate.) 2. BurstErroredSecond (BES): An errored second with at least100errors. 3. Enored Secand (ES): A second with at leastoneerror. 4. Severely ErroredSecond (SES);A second with a BER grearer than(10)-3. 5. Degraded (DM): Minute A minutewith a BER greater than 10-6. Thelastthrceparameters aredefined in ITU recommendation G.821for performance objectivesof a digitalnetwork. Theobjectives for a 27,5ff)-kmreference (implyconnection ing errorcontributions frommany$ources) areES< 87o, SES<0.ZVo,and DM <l\Vo. The availabilityof fiber optic transmission technology with extremely low error (e.g.,I errorin 1012 rates bits)andhigherlevelcommunications protocols thatrely on very low errorrateshavecreated a situation wherethe very low errorratesarerelied on,eventhough theymightnotbeobtained by metallicor radiosystems. As discussed in chapter10,contemporary datanetworks transfer mode [framerelay,asynchronous (ATM), Internetprotocol(IP)l do not provideerrorcontrolat the datalink layerbut defertheproblemto a higherlevelprocess. 4.5.5 Forward Error Correction On ffansmission channels suchasdigital subscriber linesanddigitalradiolinks,relatively high errorratesaresometimes unavoidable. Whenreal-timeapplications like voiceor videoareinvolved, theeffects ofchannelerrorscannot be accommodated by periodically addingredundant check-sum bits andrequesting retransmis$ion of corruptedblocksof dataasis commonly donein manydatacommunications protocols. As mentioned in the previous particularly chapter, criticalbits of compressed digital mobilespeech areredundantly encoded with enough bits to permiterrorcorrection of some number of bit errors. Because thisbasicprocess does notrequire retransmission of data,it is knownasforwarderrorcorrection (FEC)t351. FEC involvesaddingredundant databits, like parity bits or CRC bits, but in sufficientquantityto enable errorcorrection instead ofjust error detection. Two basicformsof FEC areblock encoding andconvolutional encoding. A block encoderattaches error correctionredundancy to fixed-lengthblocks of data,which implies the needfor establishing block framing to identify the fields of redundanr bits. A convolutional encoder, on the otherhand,continuously insertserrorcorrectionbits that arecontinuously processed by the decodingcircuitry while recoveringthe originaldata.

..5 PERFORMANCE MONITORING 205

Reed-SolomonCodes
Reedalgorithmshavebeendeveloped, Although a wide variety of block-coding data symbols popular (RS) form. When a block of source coding is the most Solomon is produced, an outputblock of lengthN symbols of lengthM is inputto anRScoder, parameters is R. An RS code with these M is the number of check symbols where N = R) code can N ,R) code. An RS(N, ry referred to as a RS(N, M) RS(N, commonly so a symbolconsists of an 8-bit byteof data,* In mostcartes conect+R symbolerrors. Digital video no worse than a single bit enor. in a single byte are multiplebit errors (DVB) $y$tems which means that asmanyas useRS(204,188) codes, broadcasting and be corrected. eightbytescanbe coffupted Exampte4.4. Determinethe probability of failure of an RS(204, 188) code with a bit errorprobabilityof 10-3'Assume in a randomerrorenvironment operating eachsymbolis an 8-bitbyte. theprobabilityof multiplebit errorsin a singlebyteis small, Solution. Because the probabilityof a symbol error pr is very close to 8 x l0-3. Using p,, the probabilityof failure (theprobabilityof morethaneight symbolerrors),pp canbe determined as

-P,)'*' o,=EfI)'*'
I

zo4

=l-T
Lt r'4

f?-)"r'

-Pr)to*t

= 0.00005 GonvolutlonalCoding
Block diagramsof two basic convolutional encodersare shown in Figure 4.31. Both of theseencoder$are referred to as rate l/2 encodersbecausethe sourcedata rate is half the channel data rate. During each bit time of a sourcetwo output bits are generated.As illustrated in Figure 4.32, the constraint-zlength coder in Figure 4.314 outputs odd parity over bits A and B along with the value of B directly. In Figure 4.31b, odd parity acrossoverlapping fields (A, B, C and A, C) are generated.In the caseof odd parity over A, B, C an output value is a I if and only if an odd number of A, B, C are 1. An important considerationof a convolutional coder is the constraint length,wlich specifiesthe number of instancesthat a particular sourcebit getsmappedinto a chan*Reed*Solomon symbol in bits. codes are sometimes denoted as RS(N' N - R, B), wherc ,B designatesthe length of a

206

DIGITAL TRANSMISSION AND MULTIPLEXING

(o)

(b) Figure 4.31 Rate l/2 convolutional (a) sourceconstraint encoders: length 2; (b) source constraint length3. nel bit. In Figure 4.3la the length of the shift registersis 2 bits, which meansthat this coder has a sourceconstraint length of 2. Becausethe output clock is twice the input rate, the channel constraint length is 4. Similarly, the encoder shown in Figure 4.31b has a sourceconsffaint length of 3 and a channel constraint length of 6. Longer constraint lengths produce better performance. Because the encoder shown in Figure 4.31a has the shortestpossibly constraint length, it is not commonly used but is convenient for illustrating the basic operationofa convolutional decoder.Notice that each

Source data

01 11 0 1 1 0 11 00 01 1 1 -

F ,.. h
1 0 1
1

0 -{
I

Channeldata

Figure 432 Exampleinput and outputdatasequences for convolutional encoder in Figure 4.31b.

DIVISIoN MULTIPLEXING ?;O7 4.6 TIME

sourcebit in Figure 4.3la is mappedinto 3 channelbits. It is this redundancythat gets processedto recover the original data. Example 4.5. Determine the decoding logic to decode received data for the convolutional encoderof Figure 4.31a. Assume bit-by-bit decisionsare made on each received channelbit and only consider isolated channel errors. Solution. Two casesare possiblefor isolated channelerrors: an error in a sourcebit B or an error in a parity bit. If a sourcebit is receivedin error, two parity errors result. Thus, when two adjacent parity errors occur, the most likely scenario is that the implied databit needsto be inverted. If a single parity bit is receivedin error, the most likely scenariois that the parity bit is itselfin enor and no sourceerrorshave occurred. Thus, isolated parity error$are ignored. can easily correct isoExample 4.5 illustratesthat a convolutional encoder/decoder lated channel errors-at the expenseof doubling the data rate. In contrastto the previous example and the normal implementation of an RS decoder, a convolutional decoder usually processe$the received signal with maximum-likelihood sequence (Viterbi) detectors[36]. In essence, a sequence of receivedsignal samplesis compared with the closestallowable sequence chosento to all possible channel input sequences benefits. Condetermine the sourcedata. The addedcomplexity provides signif,rcant straint Iength 7 convolutional coding, for example, provides better than 5 dB of improvement in error performance for a given SNR. Since a doubling of the necessary bandwidth (for rate l/2 coding) implies a relative noise increaseof 3 dB, a net gain of 2 dB is achieved- Notice further that a convolutional encoder can correct a much greater number of comrpted bits than can an RS code-as long as the comlpted bits are separated by something greaterthan the channelconstraint length. Hence, convolutional coding is well suited to correct independentenors while RS codeswork well combinationsof the two codesare often in burst error environments.For thesereasons used. is very similar to Maximum-likelihood detection of convolutional code sequencert trellis-coded modulation (TCM) detection discussedin Chapter 6. The TCM discusthat involve the same basic processresion provides some example measurements quired for Viterbi detectionof convolution codes.

MULTIPLEXING 4.6 TIMEDIVISION and is used in some FDMof digital signals is possible special transmission Although
the means of subdividing TDM is by far themotitcolnmon andeconomical situations, whereFDM techniques facility. One application capacityof a digital transmission lines,where is on multidropdatacommunications havebeenusedfor digital signals of thedataaredistributed alongtheline. Most telephone the sources anddestinations of channels however,involve clu$ters in the form of trunk network applications, wheresubgroupsbetweenswitchingoffices.In local digital access applications,

208

DrGrrAL TRANSMtsstoN AND MULTIpLEXtNe

scriberlocations are distributed throughout a servicearea,channels are sometimes addedanddropped on a distributed basis,but only with a limited numberof access pointsbecause of maintenance andreliabilityconsiderations.* Therearetwo basicmodesof operation for TDM: thosethat repeatedly assign a pofiionof thetransmission capacity to eachsource andthose thatassign capacity only asit is needed. Thefirst form of operation is referred to assynchronaus time division multiplexing(STDM) whennecessary, to distinguish it from the "as-needed" mode of operation. Otherwise, TDM is generally understood to imply the synchronous variety.Theas-needed form of TDM is variously referred to asasynchronous time division multiplexing(ATDM), Asynchronous TransferMode (ATM), srarisrical time division multiplexing(Stat-Mux),or packetswitching.Circuit-switched telephone networksuse STDM, whereas datanetworkstypically use ATDM. Discussion of these lattertechniques is deferred to Chapter10. Thetermasynchronous is alsousedin another TDM contextto referto themultiplexingof multiple,independent tributarysignals into a singlehigherratesignal.In "asynchronous" this context, is totallyunrelated to eitherasynchronous transmission asdescribed at thebeginning of thischapter or packetlike multiplexingmentioned in the previous paragraph. In this third contextasynchronous refersto multiplexingof multipleunsynchronized tributaries into a singlehigh-rate serialstream. This chapter is concerned only with multiplexing of synchronized tributaries. TDM of unsynchronizedtributaries is described in Chapter 7. 4.6.1 Bit Interleaving Versus Word Interleaving Two differentstructures of (synchronous) time divisionmultiplexframesareshown in Figure4.33.In thefirst instance each channel is assigned a time slotcorresponding to a singlebit-hence the term bit interleaving. In the second instance eachchannel is assigned a longertime slotcorresponding to some largernumber of bits,referred to asa word-hence the tennword interleaving. Thedecision asto whichstructure to usein a particular application is primarilydependent on the natureof the sources. [n T-carriersystems produces eachchannel a complete 8-bit word at a time.Henceword interleaving is desirable so all bits canbe transmitted asgenerated. ln conffast, higherleveldigitalTDM multiplexers typicallyusebit interleaving of the lower level multiplexsignalssincethe lower level signals represent continuous, I-bit-at-a-time, datastreams. Thespecific formats of thehigherlevelmultiplexsignals aredescribed in Chapter 7 whensynchronization of bit streams is considered. Onenotableexception to higherlevelbit interleaving is theword-interleaved structure of fiber-based SONETor SDH multiplexingdescribed in Chapter L
'The digital network has evolved with ever-increasinglevels ofmultiplexing creating serial bit streams with ever-increasing data rutes. The use of WDM on optical fiber systems represeflts a deparhrre from the single-streamparadigm stimulated by two factors: (l) it is impracticalto tansmit the ultrahigh speed serial channels and (2) separate wavelengths provide transparency for diverse applications.

4.6 TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING 1 Frame

209

f+
Bit intrlervlng I Freme

lilord intcrlearing

'

r'ffl =i L =P r=F r
2 3

TDM multiplexers, andword interleaving of four-channel Figure 4.33 Bit interleaving

4.6.2 Framlng
To identify individual time slots within a TDM frame, a receiving terminal uses a counter synchronizedto the frame format of the transmitter. Just as for synchronization of sampleclocks, a ceftain amount of hansmission overheadis required to establish and maintain frame synchronization.In fact, most of the techniquesusedfor frame synchronizationare directly analogousto clock synchronizationtechniquesdiscussed previously. Specifically, the basic meansof establishingframe synchronizationare; l. Added-digit framing 2. Added-channelframing 3. Unique line signal framing 4. Statistical framing The main considerationsin choosing a framing procedureare time required to esin maintaining frame synchronization,relatabli$h framing, effects of channel erTor$ clocks derived from the line clock, between the line clock and sample tionships the framing circuitry. transmissionoverhead,and complexity of The severiry of a loss of framing and the time required to reestablishsynchronization dependon the nature of the traffic. Since a loss of framing implies a loss of data on all channels,the mean time between misframes must be as long as possible' For voice traffic infrequent misframes can be tolerated if frame synchronization is rees"glitch" in the output speech' tablishedrapidly enoughto minimize the duration of the For data traffic the duration of reframe times is not as critical as the frequency of occurrence since most data communicationsprotocols initiate recovery proceduresand no matter how many data bits are lost. retransmit a mes$age A critical requirement for reframe time in the telephone network comes from the possibility that various in-channel control signals may be lost and interpreted as disconnects.Thus the maximum refiame time on a particular digital transmissionlink is often determinedfrom analognetwork signaling conventions.A loss of framing is also used as a performancemonitor for the transmissionlink and usually setsalatm condi-

210

DrcrrAL THAN$MrssroN AND MULTIpLEXtNc

tions, which in turn causeautomatic switching to spareterminals or transmissionfacilities. Generally speaking,terminals serving 6(X)or more channelsrequire automatic protection switching [37]. Out-of-frame conditions occur in two ways. First, the locally derived sampleclock may lose synchronization with the line clock and produce a slip in the counter sequence.Normally, the timing information in the line clock is sufficiently strongto prevent misframes of this type. An exception occurs on radio links when deep fades reducethe signal power to the point that clock synchronizationis impossible. Receiving terminals can also lose clock synchronizationthrough no fault of their own or of the transmissionlink. If the sourceclock at the transmitting terminal has too much jitter or generates abrupt phase shifts, receiving terminals may be unable to track the clock signal. Both phenomenaarerelatedto network synchronizationpractices,asdiscussedin Chapter 7. A second source of mi$frames is from channel errors creating false out-of-frame framing pattems. Thus considerableredundancyin the framing pattem is required to minimize the probability of false misframes.A loss of framing is determinedwhen the occurrenceof framing pattem violations exceedssome shoft-term density threshold. In all of the framing techniques discussedin the following paragraphs,special framing bits or codesare insertedinto the information skeam. Theseinsertionsdo not have to occur with each frame. lnstead, they can be sent only once for a predetermined number of information frames. In this manner the transmission overhead for framing can be reduced,which is particularly important in bit-interleaved systems.An individual information frame containedbetween framing indicators is sometimesreferred to arra "subftame,"

Added-DigitFramlng Onecommon technique of framing a digitalTDM information stream is to periodically insert a framing bit with an identifiable data sequence. Usually the framing bit is addedonce for every frame and alternatesin value. This particular format is the procedureused to establish framing in the original Dl channel banks. When the Tl line carriesonly voice traffic, this framing format is pafiicularly useful since no information bits can sustainan alternating l, 0 pattem. (An alternatingpattern represents a 4-kHz signal component, which is rejected by the bandlimiting filter in the PCM codecs.) Framing is establishedin a receiving Dl channelbank by monitoring frrst one bit position within a 193-bit frame and then another, until the alternating pattern is located. With this framing strategy, the expected framing time from a random starting point with random data i$ derived in Appendix A as

I averagenumberof ) bitsto I I thatan I I determine position is I linformation not a framingnositionJ I

MULTIPLEXING 21 1 4.6 TIMEDIVISION

= (+N) (2N+ l)
= M + |N bit times (4.10)

where Nis the number of bits in a frame including the framing bit. For D I channel banks, N = 193 so that the framing time is 37,346 bits, or 24. I 88 msec.Also of interest is the maximum framing time. Unfoftunately, fhere is no absolute maximum framing time for a Tl system with random data. It is very unlikely, however, that the framing time would ever exceedthe averagesearchtime fbr all bit positions, or 48.25 msec.This latter measureof framing time is refered to asthemaximum(werageframe time.It i$ the averagetime required to establishframing, but with before the the assumptionthat all bit positions must be testedfor the framing sequence actual framing bit is found. Obviously, the maximum averageframe time is twice the averagevalue from a random statting point defined in Equation 4. I 0. The framing time can be reducedby using more sophisticatedframe searchstrategies. One approach examines one bit at a time, as before, but during a reframe the searchbegins a few bit positions in front of the presentposition under the assumption that short lapsesof clock synchronizationcausesmall counter offsets. A secondapproach [38, 39] uses a parallel searchby monitoring all bit positions simultaneously when the for the framing pattern.With this framing procedure,framing is establi$hed last of the N* I information bit positions finally producesa framing pattern violation. The probability that all information bit positions produce a framing violation in n or less frames is derived in Appendix A as follows:

prob(frame time < n) = [ * (*f]t-t

(4.1l)

of I 's i sj. UsingEquation of bits in a frameandtheprobability where N is thenumber time < n) = i. 4. 11, we determine the medianframingtime by settingprob(frame Hence

n = -logzll- (+)r/(N-')l

{4.r2)

Setting N = 193 for the frame length of the Dl channel bank producesthe result that n = 8.1 frames, or approximately I msec. An even more sophisticatedframing strategyinvolves continually monitoring all bit positions, even while the system is synchronized.Then, when a misframe is deor the frame searchtime is sigtected,a new frame position is immediately established nificantly reduced.Fufthermore, the continuous searchfor framing patternsprovides additional information for declaring an out-of-frame condition. (There is little point is discarding the presentframe position unless anotherbit position exhibits a more consistentfiaming pattern. )

212

DtctrAl TRANSMtsstoN AND MULTIpLEXINc

Theframingpatternof second-generation channel banks(D3, D4) from AT&T was from thealtemating changed l, 0 pattern to establish a longersequence for identificapreviously, tion of signaling frames. As mentioned provideI bits these channel banfts of voicefor all time slotsexcept in everysixthframe,whichuses theleastsignificant PCM bit for signaling. The signaling channels thusderived aredividedinto an A and a B subchannel, implyingeachsubchannel sends a bit in everytwelfth frame.Hence a l2-bit framingsequence is needed to identifythesignaling bitsandthetwo signaling subchannels. (SF) structureand associated The lZ-frame superframe framing sequence areshownin Figure4.34. Whendescribing or processing the framing$equence shownin Figure4.34,it is convenient to divide the framingbits into two separate sequences. During the odd framesthe framingbit altemates, while duringthe evenframesthe framingbit sequence is Offi111000111000. Figure4.34indicates thattheA signaling framecanbe identifiedby a 0-to-l transition in the even-numbered framesequence. Conespondingly, a 1-to-0transition in theeven-numbered framesequence signifies a B signaling frame.Frameacquisition begins by findingthealternating (with 385inbit sequence terveningbits). Then,the 000111framing patternis located. Anotherframing sequence, (ESF),for DSI signals extended superframe is described in Section 4.6.3.

Added-Channel Frdmlng Added-channel framingis basically identical to added-digit framingexcept thatframing digits areaddedin a groupsuchthat an exha channel is established. Hencethe
Framing bir

Freme no, 1 2 3 4
5 6

OFil-T] offi OFilTl Ftr-I 0FI*--*--T--*---] rlilTl lFI l--::] I-I -l f T--TI | I

1 2 0 Figure 4.34 Twelve-frame superframe sfucturc of DSI signalwith robbeddigit signaling, Framealignment signal(F) = l0l0l0; multiframealignment signal(M) = ffil ll0.

MULTIPLEXING 213 4.6 TIME DIVISION transmissionrate of individual channelsis integrally related to the line rate of the entire multiplex. The fact that the frame boundariesare identified by whole codewordsaddsconsiderableperformanceand flexibility to the framing process.First, framing can be established more rapidly since random 8-bit codewords are very unlikely to appear as f'raming codes. (See the problems at the end of the chapter.) Second,the larger code spacesimplifies identification of auxiliary functions such as superframeboundaries, parity bits, or equipment$tatus. In most systemsthe addedchannelcontainsmore than framing bits. The first-level digital multiplex signal of ITU (El) is an example of a system 32 channelsper frame framing. The El standardestablishes using added-channel with one channelproviding framing and one more channeldedicatedto signaling. channels.Figure 4.35 showsthe Thus, 30 of 32 channelsare availablefor message The frame alignment signal (FAS) is insertedinto frame structureof the El signal. frame and a I bit inserted into the the framing channel of every even-numbered (to preclude FAS generationin secondbit position in every odd-numberedframe those frames). The first bit of every FAS frame may carry a cyclic redundancy check (CRC-4) for additional frame alignment integrity and eruor rate monitoring. The remaining bits of the framing channel are used for CRC-4 alignment or alarm indications or re$ervedfbr other uses.(See ITU recommendationG.704 for more details.) The signaling channel ofFigure 4.35 depicts the use ofchannel-associatedsignaling (CAS), which implies that 4 bits per 16-frame multiframe are allocated to each messagechannel. The positions of the associatedsignaling channelsare determined with respectto the multiframe alignment signal (MAS). The 4 bits of each CAS signaling channel should never be 0000 to preclude inadvertent generation of the

Framing channel

Mesage channelr

Signsling ch6nn6l

Metcoge chennols

FramooTTEET-I Framer f'lil-T Framez fl- FAsT-l l

"' "' ...

lMAsTl f rTG-] I ,Tu-]

a

"' "' "'

l-] l-l |_*--l

,rPreclurion of FAS

FrEmB rb Ftame o

I trt [EsT--*]

-l

"' ...

| fi'T3t-l liifrHT-l

"' ...

T---l l-l

formatof ITU primarydigital signal(El). Figure 4.35 Channel

214

DIGITAL TRANSMISSIoN ANDMULTIPLEXING

MAS. The use of thesebits is similar to the "bit-robbed" ABCD birs of the North American DS I signal.When common channelsignalingis carriedon an E1 link, the CAS channelsare replacedby a 64-kbps HDLC signaling link in time slot l6 of the El frame. The averageframe acquisition time of a multibit frame code is derived in Appendix Aas

:#j.+ Frame rime

(inbits)

(4.13)

whereN is the length of a frame including the frame code, /, is the length of the frame code,and it is assumed that I's and 0's are equally likely. From Figure 4.35 it can be seenthat for the El signal N = 512 and L = 7. Thus the averageframe time from a random starting point is determinedfrom Equation 4.13 as 0.5 msec.Again, the "maximum average"frame time is twice the averagefrom a random starting point, or I msec.Notice that theseframe times are much faster than DSI added-digit frame times becausea higher percentageof bits are allocatedto framing.

Unique Line CodeFramlng

Bipolar coding managesto shapethe spectrum(remove the dc component)of the line code by adding extra signal levels to provide more flexibility in selectingsignals.The sametechnique can be used to establishframe synchronization.In fact, with bipolar coding and added-digit framing, bipolar violations can be usedto identify the framing boundariesuniquely and rapidly. A particularly significant exampleof using line code violations for framing is the ISDN S/T basic rate interface describedin Chapter 11. Even without added-digit framing, unique line codescan be used to carry information while simultaneouslyconveying frame positioning. If the number of signal levels is doubled for the framing bit only, the extra levels provide sufficient code spacefor the information but uniquely identify that bit position as a frame boundary. This procedure does not necessarilyincreasethe effor rate, since for any particular bit (information or framing), half of the levels can be disallowed. The main advantageof using unique line codesfor framing is that the information bit positions cannot generateframing pattems. Hence framing is establishedas soon as a frame bit occurs, and misframes are detectedalmost immediately. The main disadvantages ofunique line codes are the added signal processingrequirements(if new levels are established just for framing) and the dependence on the transmissionterminals to locate framing. With the other framing techniquesdescribed in this section, the framing pattems are representedin the data of the bit stream. Hence the transmission equipment can be changed independently of the multiplex equipment. For additional information on framing techniquesand performanceanalysessee references[40] and [41].

4.6 TIMEDlvlsloNMULTIPLEXING 215

Statlstlcal Framing withinindividual bitsof a transmisof data framing relies onthestatistics Statistical
to ascertain thesource of thedatais known,it maybepossible sionscheme. Assuming and bit (MSB) of a PCM codeword information suchaswhichbit is a mostsignificant thereby recover byteframingwithoutan explicitframingbit of anytype.Obviously, applications. Onesuchapplication to special thismethod of framingis only applicable in ADPCM7-kHzaudio[42],asin ITU-T Recoiltmenis determining wordalignment dationG.722. 4.6.3 DSI Extended Superframe telephone link, the operating When a Tl line is usedas an interofficetransmission and performance have access to both endsof the line for maintenance companies includeprotectionswitchingfacilities most installations monitoring.Furthermore, to that thatcanalsobe usedto routinelytesta line while thetrffic normallyassigned arises whena T1 line differentsituation to a spare line.A significantly line is diverted line in a networkor a$a leased to thepublic$witched is used by a customer asaccess created the need privatenetwork.The explosive useof Tl linesin suchapplications for T1 customers. TheESFasprovidedin theD5 maintenance features for enhanced features. bankprovides thedesired channel monitoringof an needs is noninfiusiveperformance Foremost amongthecustomer serviceunit Tl circuit. Monitoring bipolar violationsat the customer end-to-end no infor(CSU)provides monitoringof thereceivesignalbut provides nonintrusive marion regarding thequalityof thesignalattheotherendof theline (whichterminates involveintermeleased Tl circuitsgenerally Furthermore, at theprovider'sfacilities). Because theinterfaces equipment. multiplexing, andcross-connect diatetransmission, hasno access to thecustomer remove bipolarviolations, equipments of eachof these of end-to-end facilities. Determination intemalto theprovider's performance statistics requires takingat leasta portionof theTl in this environment errorrateperformance (for is usually no spare). circuitout of service whichthere pelformance monitoring in-service to achieve end-to-end, ESF allowscu$tomefs 2-kbps framing chanDSI frameto consist of a F bit of each by redefining the8-kbps representing a checksum CRC channel anda Z-kbps nel, a 4-kbpsdatalink channel, intactfromonecustomer is carried bits.Because theCRCchannel overall information CRC facility produce in anyintermediate channel enorsoccurring location to another, errorsat the far end. oneof whichis theability to interrogate numerou$ $ervices, Thedatalink supports statistics. Thus the data for performance equipment, the far end,or any intermediate usefultool provider with an extremely the service provides both the customer and link lines or equipment. for isolatingfaulty span are from reference As indicated in Table4.8 obtained [33], the threesubchannels "extending" 24 DS t frames. formatto encompass the D4 superframe established by thereare771 Because theactualframingbits occuronly onceeveryfour DSI frames, (FPS)00101 I' sequence bits carryingthe framepattern bits intervening between

216

DrcrrAl THAN$MrssroN AND MULTIpLEXtNc

The6 CRCbits (CBI to CB6)of each extended superframe represenr a CRCcheck of all4608information bitsin theprevious superframe.* providingend-to-end Besides performance monitoring, theCRCvirtuallyprecludes thechances of falseframingon a databit po$ition. Eventhoughstaticuserdatacaneasilysimulate the FPS,it is extremelyunlikelythatuserdatacanspuriously generate valid CRCcodes in successive (Sixbitsof random superframes. datamatcha 6-bitcodewith a probability of I in 64.) The performance parameters measured andreportedby the 4-kbpsdatalink (DL) areframingbit errors, CRCerrors, (OOF)events, out-of-frame line code(bipolar)violations,andcontrolled (described slip events in Chapter 7). Individualevent$ arereportedaswell asevent$ummaries. Thefour performance summaries reported are: I. 2. 3. 4. (ESs)(ES= at leastoneCRC event) Enoredseconds (BSs)(BS= 2-3lg ESs) Burstyseconds Severely (SESs) (SES= >319ESsor OOFs) errored seconds (FSs) (l0consecutive Failed seconds SESs)

ESF CSUs typically determine the above parameterson 15-min intervals and store them for up to 24 hr for polling by a controller [43]. The sES report conforms to ITU recommendationG.821. In addition to suppofting remote interrogation of performance statistics,the data link carriesalarm information, loopback commands,and protection switching commands. In addition to the previously mentioned features,EsF introducesa new option for per-channel signaling via the robbed signaling bits in every sixth frame. Becausean ESF is 24 frames long, there are four signaling bits in every channel in every superframe as opposedto 2 bits in sF format (Figure 4.34). whereas the two signaling bits in the sF format are designatedas A and B bits, the four bits in the ESF caseare designated A, B, C, and D. Three signaling modes are defined: z-state where all bits are A bits, 4-state where the signaling bits are ABAB, and 16-sratewhere the signaling bits are ABCD. The SF format provides the first two signaling modes but not the last.

4.7 TIMEDIVISION MULTIPLEX LOOPS ANDRINGS

In Chapter 2 it is mentionedthat TDM is not a$amenableto applicationswith disrributed $ourcesand sinks of traffic as is FDM. In this section a particular form of a TDM network is describedthat is quite useful in interconnectingdiskibuted nodes.The basic structureof interestis referredto as a TDM loop or TDM ring and is shown in Figure 4.36. Basically, a TDM ring is configured as a seriesof unidirectional (two-wire) links arrangedto form a closed circuit or loop. Each node of the network is implemented with two f'undamentaloperationalfeature$.First, each node acts as a regenerativerepeater merely to recover,the incoming bit stream and retransmit it. Second,the net*Calculation ofthe CRC actually includes F bits that are setto I for purposesofCRC calculation only. Thus, charurel errors in the F bits do not create CRC errors (unless they occur in the CRC bits themselves).

MULTIPLEX LOOPS ANDHINGS 4.7 TIMEDIVISION

217

Figure 4.36 Time divisionmultiplexloop'

work nodesrecognize the TDM frame structure and communicateon the loop by removing and insefting datainto specific time slots assignedto eachnode. As indicated betweenany two nodesby in Figure 4.36, a full-duplex connectioncan be establi$hed One node insetts information for a connection. a single time slot or channel assigning propagates around the loop to the secondnode (all inslot that into the assignedtime particular time slot). The destination data in the tervening nodes merely repeat the inserts return data in the passes slot by and node removes data as the assignedtime to the original node where it is propagates around the loop proce$s.The retum data removed and replacedby new data, and so forth. Since other time slots are not involved with the particular connection shown, they are free to be useclfor other connection$involving arbitrary pairs of nodes. Hence a TDM Ioop with C time slots per frame can suppoft C simultaneousfull-duplex connections. to different pairs of nodes,the If, as channelsbecomeavailable,they arereassigned transmissionfacilities can be highly utilized with high concentrationfactors and provide low blocking probabilities betweenall nodes.Thus a fundamental attraction of a loop network is that the transmissioncapacity can be assigneddynamically to meet changing traffic patterns.In contrast, if a star network with a centralized swirching node is usedto intercorutectthe nodeswith four-wire links, many of the links to particular nodeswould be underutilized since they cannotbe sharedas in a loop configuration. Another feature of the loop-connectednetwork is the easewith which it can be reconfigured to accommodatenew nodes in the network. A new accessnode is merely inserted into the nearestlink of the network and the new node has complete connectivity to all other nodesby way of the TDM channels.In contrast,a $tarstructurednetwork requires transmission to the central node and expansion of the centralized switching facilities.

?18

DIGITAL TRANSMI$sIoN ANDMULTIPLEXING

The ability to reassign channels to arbiharypairsof nodes in a TDM loop implies thattheloop is muchmorethana multiplexer. It is, in fact,a distributed tansmission andswitchingsystem. The switching capabilities comeaboutalmostasa by-product of TDM transmission. TDM loopsrepresent the epitomeof integrated transmission andswitching. TDM loopshavebeenusedwithin computer complexes to providehigh capacity andhigh interconnectivity processors, between memories, andperipherals The [,14]. loopstructure in thisapplication is sometimes moreatffactive thanmoreconventional bus structures sinceall transmission is unidirectional and thereforeavoidstiming problems on bidirectional buses thatlimit theirphysical length. Furthermore, asmore nodes areadded to a bus,theelectrical loadingincreases, causing a limitationon the numberof nodes that canbe connected to a bus.Loops,on the otherhand,haveno inherent limits of transmission lengthor numbers of nodes. The loop structure of Figure4.36 is topologically identicalto the token-passing ring developed by IBM and standardized by the IEEE asa 802.5local areanetwork. However,a token-passing ring operates differently than a TDM loop in that thereis only onechannel. when a nodeon a ring becomes active,it uses the entirecapacity of the outgoinglink until it is throughsending its message. In contrast, a nodeon a loopuses only specific time slotsin theTDM $tructure, allowingothernodes to be si"connected" multaneously usingothertime slots.[n essence, a TDM loop is a distributed-circuit switchandan 802.5ring is a distributed-packet switch. A particularly attractive useof a loopwith high-bandwidth linksis shown in Figure 4.37. This figure illustrates the use of add-dropmultiplexers (ADMs) that access whatever bandwidth is needed at a local nodebut passthereston to othernodes. In fypicalapplications theamount of bandwidth allocated to each nodeis quasi-static: It is changed only in respon$e to macroscopic changes in traffic patterns, possiblyasa functionof thetimeof day.Thisbasicoperation is genera-lly referred to asa cross-con-

Figure 4.37 Functional mesh, fiber loop,andADMs.

REFERENcES 219

link failuresin TDM loops. loop to circumvent Figure 4.3E Useof reverse nect function as opposedto a swirching function, which involves call-by-call reconfigurations. Both types of switching operationsare discussedin the next chapter.An important point to note about Figure 4.37 is the ability to utilize a general-purpose physical topology but define an arbitrary functional topology on top of it. One obvious limitation of a loop is its vulnerability to failures of any link or node. The effect of a node failure can be minimized by having bypasscapabilities included in each node. When bypassed,a node becomesmerely a regenerativerepeater,as on T-carrier transmissionlinks. Link failures can be circumventedby providing alternate facilities. Figure 4.38 showsone particular structureusing a second,reverse-direcflon loop to provide backup capabilitiesin the caseof failures. When fully operational,the network can use the reverse loop as a separate, independent network for traffic as needed.Whenever a failure occurs, the nodes adjacent to the break establish a new loop by connectingthe forward path to the reversepath at both places.Hence all nodes continue to have full connectivity to any node on the new loop' A particular example of the useof the dual reverseloop for both protection and disto the channelsis the distributedqueueddual-bus(DQDB) [45] tributed queuedaccess system developedby QPSX in Aushalia and standardizedby the IEEE as an 802.6 metropolitan area network. Further examples of loop structures and applications are provided in Chapter 8 where SOI.IET rings are discussed.

REFERENCE$
"A FastAutomatlcEqualizer for DataLinks,"Pftillps F, deJager andM. Christiaens, Technical Revielu, Vol. 36,1977,pp. 10-24. for High-Speed 2 K. Azadet and C. J, Nicole, "Low-PowerEqualizerArchitectures pp' I I 8- 126. e, October, 1998, Magaein Modems," IEEE Communicatinns "A Z-Level, 274 Mbls Regenerative for T4M"' IEEE Repeater 3 F. D. Waldhauer, renc e, I 975,pp. 48-13-48- t 7. Confe Intemational Communications of 4 N. Karlovac and T. V. Blalock, "An Investigationof the Count RatePerformance I Washington, Symposium, paper presented at theNuclearSciences Baseline Restorers," DC.1974.

22O 5 6 7

DtctrAl TRANSMtsstoN ANDMULIpLEXtNG F. D. Waldhauer, "Quantized Feedbackin an Experimental 280-Mb/s Digital Repeater for Coaxial Transmission," IEEE Trttnsacfionson Communications,Jan, 1974,pp, l-5. J. Salz, "Optimum Mean Square Decision Feedback Equalization," Bell System TechnicalJoumal, Oct. 1973,pp. l34l- I 373. J. M. Cioffi, W. L. Abbott, H. K. Thapar, C. M. Melas, and K. D, Fisher, "Adaptive Equalization in Magnetic-Disk Storage Channels," IEEE CommunicationsMagazine, Feb.1990,pp.15-29. S. Sugimoto, K. Hayashi, and F. Mano, "Design of ZBIQ Transceiver for ISDN SubscriberLoops," IEEE International Conferenceon Communications,Itrne 1989,pp. 8.1.1-8.1.5. M. R. Aaron, "PCM Transmission in the Exchange Plant," Bell SystemTethniml Joumal, Jan. 1962,pp. 99*141. Technical Staff, Bell Telephone Laboratories, Transmission Systems .for Communiuttion,r, Westem Electric Co., Winston Salem, NC, l97l , p. 668. "1.544 Mhps Digital Service," Bell System Technical Reference Publication No. 4l45l,May 1977. G. D, Forney, '"The Viterbi Algorithm," Praceedingsof IEEE, Mar. 1973,pp.268-2i8. V. l. Johannes,A. G. Kaim, and T. Walzman, "Bipolar Pulse Transmission with Zero Extraction," IEEE Transactions on Communications,Apr. 1969,pp. 303-310. "The D3 Channel Bank Compatibility Specification-lssue 3," Technica.lAdvisory No. 32, American Telephone and Telegraph Company, Basking Ridge, NJ, Oct. lgj7. B. Johnstonand W. Johnston,"LD-4 A Digital Pioneer in Action," Telesis,Vol. 5, No. 3, June 1977,pp.66-72. J. H. Davis, 'T2: A 6.3 Mb/s Digital Repeatered Line," IEEE Inrernational ComrnunicationsConferenu, I 969, pp. 34-9-34- 16.

9 l0 ll 12 13 14 l5 16

17 RecommendationG.703, CCITT Orange Booft, Vol. 3, No. 2. 18 R. M. Wienski, "Evolution to ISDN within the Bell Operating Companies," IEEE CommunicationsMagafine, Jan. 1984, pp. 33-41. 19 American National Standard: Digital Hierarchy-Formats Specifications, ANSI Tl.l07-1988, Editorial RevisedApr. 1989. 20 J. M. Sipress,"A New Class of SelectedTernary Pulse Transmission Plans for Digital Transmission Lines," IEEE Transactions on Communitation Technology, Sept. 1965, pp. 366-372. 2l E. E. Schnegelberger and P. T. Griffiths, "48 PCM Channelson Tl Facilities," National Elettronics Conference, 1975, pp. 20 1-205, 22 P. A. Franaszek, "Sequence-StateCoding for Digital Transmission," Bell System Technical Journal, Dec, 1967, pp. 143-157. 23 J. O. Azaret, J. F. Graczyk, W. M. Hauser, and J, V. Mahala, "New Improved T-Canier 24 25 26 Doubles Capacity, Cuts Costs," BelI l-abs Rewrd, July 1985, pp. 26-31. J, W. Lechleider, "Line Codes for Digital Subscriber Lines," IEEE Communit:ations Magazine,Sept. 1989,pp.25*31. A. Lender, -'The Duobinary Technique for High Speed Data Transmission," IEEE Transactions on Communication Electronits, May 1963,pp.2l4-218. A. t ender, "Correlative Level Coding for Binary Data Transmission," IEEE Spectrum, Feb. 1960,pp. I 04- I I 0,

PFOBLEMS 221 "Partial Response on Signaling,"IEEE Transactions 21 P. Kabal and S. Pasupathy, pp. 921-934. Sept.1975, Communications, "Multilevel Partial ResponseSignaling," 28 A. M, Genish and R. D. Howson, p' I 86. 1967, Communicafions Conference, International "Duobinary of Tl Doubles Capacity PCM System 29 D, W. JurlingandA. L, Pachynski, l9TT'pp.32.2-297-32-2-301. Facilities," IntemationalCommunicationsConferente, "An Efficient 96 PCM Channel Modemfor 2 GHz FM Radio,"National 30 T. Seaver, 197 8, pp. 38.4. t -38'4'5' Conference, Telecommunications "special Joumal' Mar. 1984. BeII SystemTechnical Issue: IARDS," 3l "Observations of Errors and Error Rateson Tl Digital Repeatered 32 M. B. Brilliant, 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 4l 42 pp' 7ll*746. Joumal,Mar. 1978, Lines," Bell SystemTechnical ..Carrier-to-Customer krstallation-DSl Metallic Interface," ANSI T1.403-1989, Institute. American NationalStandards Letters' |EEE PhotonhsTechnology F. W. Kerfoot,andC. R. Davidson, N. S,Bergano, pp. 304-306. Vol, 5, 1993, and Storage, S. B. Wicker, Error Control Sysferns for Digital Communication Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1995. Prentice-Hall, Artech and Applications, Coding: Fundamentals L. H. CharlesI*e, Convolutional House. Norwood.MA. 1997. and Operations in theBelI Eng,ineering Laboratories, Technical Staff,Bell Telephone 1978. Electric Co., Indianapolis, System, Western "RobustFrameSynchronization for Noisy D. E. Dodds,L, R, Button,andS.-M.Pan, pp. 465-469. May 1985, IEEE Transactions on Communicatians, PCM Systems," "Statistical Distribution of PCM Framing D. E. Dodds,S.-M.Pan,andA. G. Wacker, pp' 1236-'1241. Nov. 1988, on Communications, Times,"IEEE Transactions Techniques,*IEEE Transacfionson R. A. Scholtz, "Frame Synchronization pp' 1204-1212Aug. 1980, Communications, "On FrameSynchronization of D. T. R. Munhoz.J. R. B, deMarca,andD. S, Arantes, Aug. 1980'pp' 1213-1218. on Communicarions, IEEE Transactions PCM Systems,* "Apparatusand Methodsfor RecoveringAlignment M. Andersonand O. Petruclrka, Sept' U.S.PatentNo.4,955'037' Multi-bit Digital Signal," Encoded from a Non-Ideally 4. 1990. K. Stauffer and A. Brajkovic, "DS-l ExtendedsuperframeFormat and Related pp' 19-23' Magazine,Apt. 1989, IEEE Communications Performance Issues,"

43 44

GeneralDescription,Radio company ReportNo, 523-0561697-20173R, C-System Dallas,TX, May I, 1970. CollinsRadioCompany, "New Feb. of Metro Area Nets,"Data Communicuriorls, the Reach 45 hoposal Extends pp, 139-145. 1988,

PHOBLEMS
4.1 If the transmitter and receiver of an asynchronoustransmission system utilize clock sourcesthat are accurateto one part in 103,determinethe maximum number of bits in a codeword if the maximum sampletiming enor is 207oof a pulse

222

DIGITAL TRANSMISSION AND MULTIPLEXING

interval. Assume the sampleclock is eight times the bit rate and that the stalt bit is determinedby counting four sampletimes from the beginning of the start bit. 4.2 Using the symbols +, 0, and - to representa positive pulse, no pulse, and a negative pulse, respectively, determinethe following line code $equences of the binary data sequence

0l l0 r0000t0001 100000001 0 (a) Bipolarwith mostrecent pulsebeingpositive (b) Bipolarwith mostrecent pulsebeingnegative (c) Pairselected temarybeginning in thenegative mode (d) B3ZSwith a +0+ substitution havingjust beenmade (e) 8625 with themostrecent pulsebeingpositive 4.3 Assume that two identicalcablesystems areusedfor digital transmission with equalpulseamplitudes. Onesystem uses conventional bipolarsignaling andthe otheruses PST.comparethecrosstalk levelsof thetwo $ystems. (Assume that l's and0's areequally probable.) 4.4 A digitaltransmission system operating at anerrorrateof 10-6is to haveits data rateincreased by 50Vo. Assuming thatthe same poweris to be used transmitted in the second system, whatis thenewerrorrate? 4.5 Whatis theaverage reframe time of a D3 channel bank(usingSFframing)from point?What is the maximumaverage a randomstarting reframetime of a D3 chalnelbank?(Assume I's and0's in theme$sage traffic areequallylikely.) 4.6 Repeat hoblem 4.5 for theprimaryTDM multiplexsignalspecified by CCITT. 4,7 A TDM systemoperating at 2 Mbps is to havea maximumaverage reframe time of 20 msec. What is themaximumpossible framelengthif framingis established with a bit-by-bitframesearch? (Assume that I's and0's in message channels areequallylikely.) 4.8 A Tl transmission system usinga Dl frameformatis to haveanaverage reframe time (from a randomstarting point) of l0 msec. How largea block of bit positionsmustbe examined in parallelto achieve thedesired result? 4.9 what is theexpected framingtimefor a Tl line (D3 frameformar)if theframing strategy is bit by bit andthedatasheam has60% I's and40Vo O's? 4.10 What is the average pulsedensityof 4B3T coding(Assume I's and0's are equallylikely.) 4.11 A TDM transmission link using4B3T codingcantransmit 32 64-kbps voice channels usingthe samesymbolrateas a Tl line (1544kbps).Assuming a fixed Gaussian noise environment, how much must the average transmit powerof the 4B3T system be increased to providethe equivalent errorrate of a bipolarcode? 4.12 Assume thatcrosstalk interference in a multipaircablesystem produces aneffect equivalent to Gaussian noiseat anequalpowerlevel.Usinganerrorrateof 10-6 asa design objective, determine theeffective degradation of thecrosstalk on binary$olar) NRZ codingunder each of thefollowingconditions. (Theeffective

PROBLEMS

2?3

power,in decibels, required astheincreased transmit is determined degradation rate.) the desired error to achieve signallevel,but thecrosstalk (a) Thecrosstalk level is I 6 dB belowthe average pairs$tayat a powerlevel (i.e., pair all other is to be overcome on only one for 10-6BER with no crosstalk). of signallevel,but theeffects (b) Thecrosstalk levelis 16dB belowtheaverage (Flfnt: Use signal-power-toon all pairs' the crosstalk are to be overcome noise-power ratios,not E/N^0.) 4.12for bipolarcoding. 4.13 Repeat Problem of a podegrade theerrorrateperformance 4-14 How muchdoes-1 8 dB of crosstalk areat (Assume transmitters that all Iar binaryNRZ signalfor a BER of l0-7? what per in frequency, 15dB decade If crosstalk increases equalpowerlevels.) data level of a four-levelNRZ codecarryingthe same is the relativecrosstalk compared penalty of thefour-level system rate? Whatis theoverallperformance to thetwo-levelsystem? from temarysymof length4 canbe constructed 4.15 How manydistinctcodewords containan equalnumberof positiveand codewords bols?How manyof these to ensure a minimumof one canbeused pulses? How manycodewords negative in eachcodeword? timing pulseoccurs binarydata to encode of length8 be constructed codewords 4.16 Cana setof ternary numbers of posicontaining equal per pulses 8-bit word and four usingexactly pulses? tive andnegative determine levels, +1, -3, +1, -1, +3, +3, -3 of signal 4.17 Giventheinput$equence encodof the following correlative of outputsignallevelsfor each thesequence ings. (a)l+Dencoder (b)1-Dencoder (c) I -.d encoder 4.18 Whatis theprobabilityof a CRCerrorin a DSI signalwith ESFframingif the BER is 10-7? random in an burstof errors lengthof a correctable 4.19 Whatis theminimumandmaximum RS(204, 188)codewhereeachsymbolis an 8-bitbyte? in a randomtheprobabilityof failureof anRS(7,2) codeoperating 4.20 Determine symbolis probability lQa. Assume each of with a bit error errorenvironment an 8-bitbyte. in a ran4.21 Determine the probabilityof failure of an RS(31,15) codeoperating symbol l0-3. Assume each probability of with abit error environment dom-error is an 8-bit byte. length the parity error patternthat resultsin a bit-by-bit constraint 4.22 Determine in (B) anddetected if two data bitsin a row arecomrpted decoder convolutional for bits arein error.Usethe following bit sequence errorbut no otherreceived databit andB 1and82 arein enor.POB0, where P0is thefirst received reference,
P181,P282, P383.

SWITCHING DIGITAL
'"' t' ''

*ltransmisrion network(terminals, in a communications Of thethree basicelements themost yet represent arethe mostinvisibleto theusers switches dia, andswitches), in Chapter As mentioned offerings. service in termsof available impoftantelements controlswitching in 1965whenstored-program wasestablished l, a majorr.nilestone control network.Stored-program into the U.S. publictelephone wasfirst introduced andfor greatly userservices manyinnovative provides for implementing the means andmaintenance. simplifyingswitchadminishation of a centraloffice led to to controlthe switchingfunctions The useof computers "electronic"switching the designation [e.g.,electronicswitchingsy$tem(ESS)or (EAX)]. However,the switchingmatricesof these exchange electronicautomatic Thefirst in nature. electromechanical areactually electronic switches first-generation whendigitalswitchin France in 1971, o.cqrned switchingmatrices useof electronic Ironically,thesefirst digital switches ing wasappliedto an endoffice envfriinment. werefirst inswitching matrices Digitalelectronic control. did notusestored-program into the U.S. public networkin 1976with AT&T's No. a EsS-digitaltoll troduced switch. in the UnitedStates, began to be installed In thelate 1970s digitalclass5 switches At thattime switches. for step-by-step asreplacements mo$tlyin smallerend,offices controlfrom had stored-program switchingofficesalready mostmajor_ mettoi_oJif4n Because the digitaltoll andendoffice switching No. I ESSor No. I EAX machines. environments, transmission analog in predominantly wereinitially installed machines The motivation no directbenefitto networkcustomers. their digitalmatrix provided lowermain-companies: costsfor the operating wa$reduced for the digitalmachines costs and lower manufabturing floor space, simplifiedexpansion, tenance, reduced
By the mid-1980s the interoffice hansmission environment had changedto be almost exclusively digital. Thus analog-to-digital conversion costs moved from being associatedwith digital transmission links to being associatedwith analog switches, thereby further sealing the fate of analog toll or tandem switching technology. At this swing to a digital entime frame, end office ffansmissionenvironmentsalso begantJqe vironment. Interoffice trunks were alreadydigital, digital loop barrier systemsbecame

tu.

226

DIGITALSWITCHING

cost effective in metropolitan applications, remotely conmolled switching modules with digital fiber interconnectbecamecommon for service to outlying communities, digital cross-connectsystem$(DCSs) were being deployed, and the feeder portion of the subscriberloop plant beganto use fiber. The cost penaltiesof interfacing to a digital transmissionenvironment and higher maintenancecosts led to the older electromechanicalclass 5 switches being replaced by digital machineswhen expansionor consolidationof an office occurued. The ability to offer ISDN services was a lessermotivation for changing to digital switches becauselow-cost fiber transmissionin conjunction with DCS sy$temsallows provisioning of these servicesfrom other offices. This chapterdescribesthe basic operation and implementation of digital tifiie division switching as applied to PBXs, end offices, toll switche$,and crossconnects.Be' fbre digital switching is discussed,certain basic switching conceptsand terminology are introduced.

5.1 SWITCHINGFUNCTIONS
Obviously, the basic function of any switch is to set up and releaseconnectionsbetween transmissionchannelson an "as-neededbasis," The structureand operation of a switch dependon particular applications.Three switching categoriesfor voice circuits are local (line-to-line) switching, transit (tandem) switching, and call distribution. The most common switching function involves direct connectionsbetween subscriber loops at an end office or between station loops at a pBX. These connections inherently require setting up a path through the switch fiom the originating loop to a specific terminating loop. Each loop must be accessible to every other loop. This level of switching is sometimesreferred to as line switching. Transit connectionsrequire sening up a path from a specific incoming (originating) line to an outgoing line or trunk group. Normally, more than one outgoing circuit is acceptable.For example, a connection to an interoffice trunk group can use any one of the channelsin the group. Hence transit switching sffucturescan be simplified becausealternatives exist as to which outgoing line is selected.Furthermore, it is not even neces$ary that every outgoing line be accessible from every incoming line. Transit switching functions are required by all switching machines in the telephone network. Some machines such as remote concentrators and toll or tandem switches serviceonly hansit traffic (e.g., do not provide local connections).Theseconceptsare illustratedin Figure 5. l. call distributors are often implemented with the samebasic equipment as pBXs. The mode of operation (software) is significantly different, however, in that incoming calls can be routed to any available attendant.Normally, the software of an automatic call distributor (ACD) is designedto evenly distribute the arriving calls among rhe artendants.Although it is not an inherent requirement that every incoming line (trunk) be connectableto every attendant,call distributors are normally designedto provide accessibility to all attendants.Furthermore, it is often desirablethat nonblocking op-

l\

SWITCHING 5.2 SPACFDIVISION

227

examples. Figure 5.1 Local andtransitftaffic switching erations be provided. (No matter what switch paths are in use, a new requestcan be servicedby any available attendant.)

SWITCHING 5.2 SPACE DIVISION as is a rectangular arrayof crosspoints, structure switching thesimplest Conceptually, of Ninlets any one to connect matrix can be used This switching in Figure5.2. shown only to two-wirecircuits, ateconnected If theinletsandoutlets to anyoneof M outlets. is required'* per connection onecrosspoint (transit) connecto provideintergroup EIIrays ale designed Rectangular crosspoint for this typeof group. Applications group an outlet an inlet to tionsonly,thatis, from in the following: occur an operation concentrators 1. Remote 2. Call distributors 3. Portionof a PBX or endoffice switch that provides transit switching switches in multiple-stage 4. Singlestages thattheinletsbe connectable it is not necessary applications, In mostof theforegoing in savings outlets, considerable groups of involving large to everyoutlet.In situations of outlimited number access only a if each inlet can be achieved can totalcrosspoints "limited availability"is saidto exist.By overlapoccurs, lets.Whensucha situation a technique called"grading" inlet groups, for various outletgroups pingtheavailable in Figure5.3.Notice matrixis shown switching An example of a graded is established.
*ln

fact, two (and sometimes thrce) switching contacts are associated with each ctosspoint of a two-wire switoh, Since these contacts are pa-rtof a single unit and opetate in unison, they are considered a single crosspoint.

228

DIGITALSWITCHING

,y Ourlerr Figure 5.2 Rectangular crosspoint alray. that if outlet connectionsare judiciously chosen,the adverseeffect of limited availability is minimized. For example, if inlets I and I in Figure 5.3 requesta connection to the outlet group, outlets I and 3 should be choseninsteadofoutlets I and 4 to avoid future blocking for inlet 2. Graded switching structure$were often used for accessto large trunk groups in electromechanicalswitches where crosspointrr were expensiveand individual switching modules were limited in size. Gradings were also used in individual switching stages of large multiple-stageswitcheswhere more than one path to any particular outlet exists. Becausevery large digital matrices can be implemented with full accessibility, graded switch structuresare no longer necessaly. Intragroup switching, as in line-to'line switching, requireseach line to be connectable to every other line. Thus full availability from all inlets ro all outlets of rhe switching matrix is required.Figure 5.4 showstwo matrix structuresthat can be usedto fully interconnect two-wire lines. The dashedlines indicate that coffesponding inlets and outlets of two-wire switching matricesare actually connectedtogetherto provide bidirectional transmissionon two-wire circuits. For purposesof describingswitching matrices, however, it is convenient to consider the inlets and ouflets of two-wire switching matrices as being distinct.

2 3

{
lnlCli _ E

6 I I

r
Figure 5.3

Outlctr Graded rectangular switching matrix.

SWITCHING 5.2 SPACEDIVISION

?,29

Inlrtil out|.t

(t)

ft)

(folded)' (b)triangular (a)square; swirching matrices: Figure5.4 Two-wire a by selecting to beestablished in Figure5.4allow anyconnection Both structures matrix, mahix,whichis alsocalledatwo-sided thesquare However, singlecrosspoint. if input in two ways'For example, to be established connection allowsanyparticular canbe at theintersection crosspoint to input linkj, the selected link i is to beconnected of inlet j andoutlet i. For simplicity these of inlet i andoutletj-or at the intersection (J, In a typicalimplementation, (f,i) respectively. and i), referred to as are crosspoints (j' i) is usedwhen service, andcrosspoint (i,7) is usedwheninputi requests crosspoint service. inputj reque$ts The crosspoints areeliminated. In the triangularmatrix of Figure5.4 theredundant Beforesetting however. doesnot comewithoutcomplications, crosspoint reduction switchinput i andswirchinputi, the switchcontrolelement between up a connection (i,i) is selected' If i is is larger: dorj. If i is larger,crosspoint which mustdetermine the swirching, computer*controlled (.7, With must be selected. i) smaller,crosspoint conholled electromechanically In the older, is trivial. comparison line number complexityof the swirchcontrolis moresignificant. the added switches, however,

Inlorr i

i
N

3
Outlrtt

'

Flgure 5.5 Four-wire switchingmatrix'

230

DIGITALSWITCHING

Switching machinesfor four-wire circuits require separateconnection$for the go and return branchesof a circuit. Thus two separateconnection$must be established for each service request.Figure 5.5 depicts a square-matrixstructureused to provide both connections.The structure is identical to the squarematrix shown in Figure 5.4 for two-wire switching. The difference,however, is that correspondinginlets and outlets are not connectedto a common two-wire input. All of the inlets of the four-wire switch are connectedto the wire pair carrying the incoming direction of transmission, and all of the outlets are connectedto the outgoing pairs. When setting up a connection betweenfour-wire circuits i andj, the matrix in Figure 5.5 must selectboth crosspoints (i, j) and (j, f). In actualoperationthesetwo crosspointsmay be selectedin unison and implemented as a common module.

5.2.1 Multlple.$tage Swltching In theswitching $tructures described to thispoint, aninletis connected directly to an
outlet through a single crosspoint. (Four-wire switches use two crosspointsper connection, but only one for an inlet-to-outlet corurection.)For this reason,theseswitching structuresare referred to as "single-stage" switches. Single-stageswitches have the property that each individual crosspointcan only be used to interconnectone particular inlet-outlet pair. since the number of inlet-outlet pairs is equal to N(N - lyz for a triangular array, and N(N - l) for a $quare array, the number of crosspoints required for a large switch is prohibitive. Furthermore,the large number of crosspoints on eachinlet and outlet line imply a large amount of capacitiveloading on the message paths. Another fundamental defrciency of $ingle-stageswitches is that one specific crosspoint is neededfor each specific connection. Ifthat crosspoint fails, the associated connection cannot be e$tablished.(An exception is the square,two-wire switch that has a redundant crosspoint for each potential connection. Before the redundant crosspointcould be usedas an alternatepath, however, the inlet-oriented selectionalgorithm would have to be modified to admit outlet-oriented selection.) Analysis of a large single-stageswitch revealsthat the crosspointsare very inefficiently utilized. Only one crosspointin eachrow or column of a squareswitch is ever in use, even if all lines are active. To increasethe utilization efficiency of the crosspoints, and thereby reduce the total number, it is necessarythat any par-ticularcrosspoint be usablefor more than one potential connection.If crosspointsare to be shared, however, it is also necessarythat more than one path be available for any potential connection so that blocking does not occur. The alternatepaths serve to eliminate or reduce blocking and also to provide protection againstfailures. The sharing ofcrosspoints for potential paths through the switch is accomplished by multiple-stage switching. A block diagram of one particular form of a multiple-stageswitch is shown in Figure 5.6. The switch of Figure 5.6 is a three-stage switch in which the inlets and outlets are partitioned into subgroupsofNinlets and Noutlets each.The inlets ofeach subgroup are serviced by a rectangular array of crosspoints.The inlet arrays (first stage) are n x ft arays, where each of the ft outputs is connectedto one of the ft cenrer*smge ar-

SWITCHING 5.2 SPACE DIVISION

231

M rt!il

maffix. switching Figure5.6 Three-stage of consists Thethird stage areoftencalledjunctors. connections rays.Theinterstage array to the from each center-stage provide corxrections artays that ft x n rectangular arrayswe N/n x N/n arraysthat provideconnecgroupsof n outlets,All center-stage any third-stagearray.Notice that if all affaysproalray to any first-stage tions from pathsthroughthe switchfor anyparticular possible are ft there vide full availability, centerof the ft pathsutilizesa separate Each inlets and outlets. between connection paths through the provides altemate structure Thus the multiple-stage stagearray. to link is connected each switching since Furthermore, failures. swit"6 to circumvent minimized' loading is capacitive crosspoints, of a limited number switch, as shownin requiredby a three-stage N1E The total numberof crosspoints Figure5.6,is

Nx=2Nft.-[#l
of inlets-outlets whereN = number n= sizeofeachinlet-outletgroup arrays ft = numberof center-stage

(s.1)

5.I can in Equation defined of crosspoints thenumber $hortly, As is demonstrated requiredfor single-stage be significantlylower than the number of crosspoints areneeded arrays how manycenter-stage we mustdetermine First.however. switches. service. to provide satisfactory

232

DIGITAL SWITCHING

Nonblocklng Switches Oneattractive feature of a single-stage switchis thatit is strictlynonblocking. If the calledpartyis idle, thedesired connection canalwaysbe established by selecting the particular crosspoint dedicated to the particular input*outputpair.Whencrosspoints are shared, however, the possibilityof blockingarises. In 1953charlesclos [2] of Bell Laboratories published an analysis of three-stage switchingnetworksshowing how manycenter-$tage arraysarerequiredto providea strictly nonblockingoperation. His resultdemonstrated thatif each individualarrayis nonblocking, andif thenumber of center stages ft is equalto 2n -I, theswitchis strictlynonblocking. Theconditionfor a nonblocking operation canbe derived by first observing thata connection throughthe three-stage switchrequireslocatinga center-stage arraywith ar idle link from the appropriate firsr $tageand an idle link ro the appropriate third stage. sincetheindividualarays themselves arenonblocking, thedesired pathcanbe rtetup any time a centerstage with the appropriate idle links canbe located. A key point in the derivation is to observe that sinceeachfirst-stage arrayhasn inlets,only n - I of these inletscanbebusywhentheinletcorresponding to thedesired connection is idle. If ft is geater thann - l, it follows that,at most,n - I links to cenrer-srage irrray$ canbe busy.Similarly,at mostn - I links to theappropriate third-stage array canbe busyif theoutletof the desired connection is idle. The worst-case situation for blockingoccurs(asshownin Figure5.7) it alln - r busylinksfrom thefirst-stage arrayleadto onesetofcenter-stage arays andifall n I busylinks to the desiredthfud-stage Errray comefrom a separate setof center-stage arrays. Thusthese two setsofcenter-stnge arrays areunavailable for thedesired connection. However, if onemorecenter-stage arrayexists, theappropriate inputandoutputlinksmustbeidle,andthatcenter stage canbeused to setup theconnection. Hence if k=(n * 1) + (n - l) + 1 =2n- 1,theswitchissrictlynonblocking. substituting

t l l r L--J
ArnlhblG pffh

Flgure 5.7 Nonblocking three-srage switching matrix.

DIVISION SWITCHING ?33 5.2 SPACE

this value of t into Equation 5.1 reveals that for a strictly nonblocking operation of a three-staseswitch

Nx=2N(2n-

t)+(2n-t,[rOI

(5.21

threein a nonblocking 5.2,the numberof crosspoints in Equation As expressed into subgroups partitioned are and outlets on how theinlets stage swiichis dependent to n andsettingtheresultingex5.? with respect Equation of iize n. Differentiating that (for largeM) the optimum reveal the minimum pression equalto 0 to determine an 5.2 thenprovides into Equation value of n this Substituting valueof n is (N/z)Ltz. three-stage of a nonblocking crosspoints for the minimum numberof expression switch:

N*(min)=4N({2N - l)

(s.3)

of inlets-outlets. whereN = total number threenonblocking of Nx(min) for various-sized Table5.1 providesa tabulation single-stage in a of crosspoints the number to thevalues switcheiandcompares stage a providefour-wirecapabilities, inherently *qu*" matrix.Both switchingstructure$ circuits. four-wire implies digitization voice because for digital switches requirement reswitchingmatrix providessignificant in Table5.l, a three-stage As indicated of crossnumber the However, for largeswitches. particularly in crosspoints, ductions typically Largeswitches is still quiteprohibitive. switches pointsfor largethree-stage For example, in crosspoints' reductions to providegreater o*" -o.* thanthreeStages lines' up to 65,000 matrixthatcanservice switching aneight-stage theNo. 1 ESSuses from much so not are achieved numbers in crosspoint reductions Themostsignificant probabilities low acceptably but by allowingthe switchto introduce siages additional of blocking. Swltches of Nonblocklng Requlrsments TABLE 5.1 Croeepoint
Number of Lines 128 51? 2,048 8,192 32,768 131,072 fot of Crosspoints Number Switch Three-Stage
7,680 63,488 516,096 4,2 million 33 million ?68 million

for Number of CrossPoints Switch Single*Stage

16,2s6 261,632 4.2 million 67 million 1 billion 17 billion

234

DIGITAL SWIT0HING

5.2.2 Blocklng Probablilties: Lee Graphs Strictly nonblocking switches arerarely needed in most voice telephone networks. Both the switchingsystems andthenumber of circuitsin interofficetrunkgroups are sizedto service mostrequests astheyoccur,but economics dictates thatnetworkimplementations havelimitedcapacities thatareoccasionally exceeded duringpeak-traffic situations. Equipment for the public telephone networkis designed to providea cerlainmaximum probabilityof blockingfor thebusiest hourof theday.Thevalueof this blockingprobabilityis oneaspect of the telephone gradeof service. company's (other aspects of grades of service areavailability, tran$mission quality,anddelayin 'tetting up a call.) A typical residential telephone is busy 5,l0va of rhe time duringthe busyhour. Business telephones areoftenbusyfor a largerpercentage of theirbusyhour (which may not coincidewith a residential busyhour).In eithercase, network-blocking occurrences on the orderof l7o*duringthebusyhour do not represent a significant reductionin the ability to communicate sincethe calledparty is muchmorelikely to havebeenbusy anyway.under thesecircumstances, end office switches and,to a lesser degree, PBXscanbe designed with significant reductions in crosspoints by allowing acceptable blockingprobabilities. Therearea varietyof techniques that canbe usedto evaluate the blockingprobability of a switchingmatrix.These techniques vary according to complexity-, accuracy,andapplicabilityto differentnetworkstructures. Oneof the mostversatile and conceptually straightforward approaches of calculatingblocking probabilitiesinvolvestheuseof probabilitygraphs asproposed by c. y. Lee [3]. Althoughthistechniquerequire$ several simpliffing approximations, it canprovidereasonably accurate results, particularly whencomparisons of altemate structures aremoreimportant than absolute numbers. The greatest valueof this approach lies in theease of formulation andthefactthattheformulas directlyrelate to theunderlying networkstructures. Thus theformulations helpprovideinsightinto thenetwork$tructures andhow these structuresmight be modified to change the performance. In thefollowing analyses we aredetermining theblockingprobabilities of various switchingrrtructure$ usingutilizationpercentages, or ,,loadings," of individuallinks. Thenotationpwill beused, in general, to represent thefractionof timethataparticular link is in use(i.e.,p is the probabilitythata link is busy).In additionro a utilizarion percentage or loading,p is also sometimes referredto as an occupancy. The probability thata link is idle is denotedby q = | - p. when any oneof n parallellinks canbe usedto complete a connection, the com* positeblockingprobabilityB is theprobabilityrhatall links arebusyt;
B=pn

(5.4)

'Transmission

and switching equipment in the public network is normally designedfor even lower blocking provide for growth in the traffrc volume. to .probabilities 'Equations 5.4 and 5.5 assumeeach link is busy or idle independently of other links.

swlrcHlNc 205 DlvlsloN s.z $PAoE theblockingprobto completea connection' of n links areall needed Whena series areall available: that they as I minustheprobability ability is mosteasilydetermined B=l-{

(5.s1

rein Figure5.8.This graph networkis shown A probabilitygraphof a three-stage pathsl with ft different can be established pafiiculaf connection latesthe fact that any link alray.Theprobabilitythat anypalticular interstage onetlrough eachcenter-stage can be network for a three-stage by p'. Theprobabilityof blocking is busyis denoted as determined ff = = = = probability that all pathsarebusy (probabilitythat an arbitrarypathis busy)e (probability that at leastonelink in a pathis busy)ft (l-qa)k

(5.6)

alrays whereft = numberof center-stage link is idle, - | - P'' q'= probabilitythat aninterstage If the probabilityp that an inlet is busy is known, the probabilityp' that an interas link is busycanbe determined stage

p,=fr tr<F)

(s.7)

of inlets(or outnumber thefactthatwhensome 5.7presents wherep = Mn.Equation (or third-stage inputs)arealso outputs numberof first-stage Iets)arebusy,the same areinlets or as there links = interstage as many Vn times busy.However,thereare F factorp' by the is reduced are busy links that of intersgge thepercentage Hence outlets. of the first stage that the implies The factor p is defined as thoughft > n, which links to a of input number (i.e.,switchingsome expansion switchis providing$pace the first that largernumberof outputlinks).Actually,p may be lessthan 1, implying

P ' i e

Figure 5.8

Probability graph of three-stage network'

236

DtctrAL swtrcHtNc

stage is concenffating theincomingtraffic.First-stage concentration hasbeenusedin endoffice or largePBX switches wheretheinletsarelightly loaded (S_l}vo).In tan_ demor toll offices,however, theincomingtrunksareheavilyutilized,andexpansion is usuallyneeded to provideadequately low-blocking probabilities. substituting Equation 5.7into Equation 5.6provides a complete expression for the blockingprobabilityof a three-stage switchin termsof the inlet utilizationp:

Table 5.2 tabulates numbers of crosspoints obtained from Equation5.g for the same switchsizes presented in Table5.1.Thenumberof center arrays waschosen in eachcase to providea blockingprobabilityon theorderof 0.002.Theinlet urilization in eachexample wasassumed to be 107o. Noticethatthedesigns with smallbut finite blockingprobabilities aresignificantly morecosteffective thannonblocking designs. Theswirchdesigns in Table5.2assume thattheinletsareonly l0zobusy,asmight be thecase for anendoffice switchor a PBX. Thedramatic savings in crosspoints for largeswitches is achieved by introducing significant concentration factors[yp; into the middle stage. when the inlet utilizationis higher(astypicallyoccursin tandem switches), high concentration factorsarenot acceptable, andthe crosspoint requirementstherefore increase. Table5.3 lists corresponding crosspoint requirements and implementation paraffreters for inlet loadingsof 'l\Vo. The results presented in Tables5.2 and5.3 indicatethat very largeswitches still require prohibitively largenumbers of crosspoints, evenwhenblockingis allowed. As mentioned previously, very largeswitches usemorethanthreestages to providefurtherreductions in crosspoints. Figure5.9shows ablockdiagram of a five-stage switch obtained by replacing everycenter-$tage arrayin Figure5.6 with a three-stage array. Thisparticular structure is notoptimumin terms of providinga givenlevelof performancewith the fewestcrosspoints, but it is a usefuldesignbecause of its modularity. (Furthermore, it is a lot easier to analyze thansomeotherfive-stage sfucrures.) If themiddletlree stages of a five-stage swirchasshownin Figure5.9 arestrictly nonblocking (kz= Znz- I ), thedesign provides a savings of 9704crosspoints in each TABLE 5.2 Three-Stage Switch Deslgns for Blocking Probabititlee of 0.002 andIntet
Utlllzation of 0.1

'= L'['-fii ]
I r

rz'1ft

(s.8)

Switch Size,N 't28 512 2,048 8,1S2 32,768 131,072

Number of Crosspoints I 16 32 64 128 256 5 7 10 15 24 41 0.625 0.438 0.313 0.234 0,188 0.160 2,560 14,336 81,920 491,520 3.1million 21.5 million

Number of Crosspoints in Nonblocking Design 7,680 63,488 516,0e6 4,2million 33 million 268million (k= 15) (k = 31) (k= 63) (k= 127) (,(= 255) (k = 511)

SWITCHING DIVISION 5.2 SPACE

237

of 0.002end lnlet Switch Deslgnsfor Blocking Probabllltles TABLEE.l Three-Stage of 0.7 UtllltationB
Switch Size N

n I 16 32 64 128 256

k 14 22 37 64 11 6 215

B 1.75 1.38 1.16 1.0 0.91 0.84

Number of Crosspoints 7,168 45,056 303,104 2.1million million 15.2 1 1 3m i l l i o n

in of CrossPoints Number Design Nonblocking 7,680 63,488 516,096 4.2million 33 million 268million ( k =1 5 ) ( k= 3 1 ) (k = 63) (k = 127) (k = 255) ( k= 5 1 1 )

128 512 2,048 8,192 32,768 131,072

earlier' presented switch designs three-stage array of the 32,7681ine, center-stage switch tandem in the 32,768-line saved are crosspoints I million Hencea littl* one, performthe blocking, not introduce stages do middle the of Table5.3. Since design design' of thethree-stage to theperformance switchis identical of thisfive-stage ance amounts smgll allowing by be obtained could design Naturally,a morecost-effective Theprobabilitygraphof thefive+tageswitchis shown in themiddlestages. of bloclcing asfollows: graph, the blockingprobabilityis determined Fromthis in Figure5-.10.

B = ll - (sr)z [t - (1- d)t']]r'

(s.e)

fl1 r 11

11 1il1

azx*z ;frx ffirr,,,

swirchingnetwork' Flgure 5.9 Five-stage

238

DIGITAL $WITCHING

rz=rrfir rfir

Ft

,-1/3-1i.15--\,^.

Pr

Flgure5.10 probability graph of five_stage network. where4r - | - h and, qr= I - Or. Even greatercrosspoint reductions can, of course,be achieved by using more stages to replacethe ratherlarge first- and third-stageaffays.For example,the total number of crosspoints in the 32,0001ine switchcanbereduced to lessthan3 million. The 130,000-line switchis not practicalwith electromechanical switchingmakices but is well within thecapabilities of a digiraltime divisionswitch. 5.2.3 Blocklng Probabiliiles: Jacobaeus Theformulations of blockingprobabilityobtained from probabilitygraphs enrailseveralsimplifyingassumptions. one of these assumptions involves expressing thecompositeblocking probability of the alternate pathsas the produci of the blocking probabilitiesof eachindividual path. This stepassumes that the individual probabilitiesare independent. In fact, the probabilities are not independent, particutarty whensignificant amounts of expansion arepresent. Consider a switching matrixwith k=Zn - 1.Equation 5.8produces a finite blockingprobability eventtrough theswitch is knownto be strictlynonblocking. Theinaccuracy results because when2n * z paths arebusy,theremaining pathis assumed to be busywith a probabilityof I - (qjr. In fact,theremaining pathis necessarily idle. In general, whenspace expansion exists, theassumption ofindependent individual probabilities leadsto an erroneously high valueof blocking.Ttrelnaccuracy results

DIVISION SWITCHING 5.2 SPACE

239

asmoreandmorepathsin a switcharefoundto be busy,the remainingpaths because links canever ofn ofthe interstage less and lesslikely to be in use(only a subset are at any one time). be busy waspreswitchingmatrices of multistage but not exactanalysis A moreaccurate stoaightforis conceptually the analysis Although 1950 by C. Jacobaeus sented in [4]. here. thatis notpresented of manipulation amount involvea considerable ward,it does as from reference is obtained switch [5] for a three-stage equation Theresulting

u=ffipk(2-il,*
where n = number of inlets (outlets) per f,trst-(third-) stagearray IIIrays 11= number of second-stage pinletutilization

(s.10)

In the interest of comparing the two methods, Equations 5'6 and 5.10 have been switches with varying amount$of spaceexpansion.The reevaluatedfor three-stage utilization of 0.7 and are presentedin Table 5'4' for inlet sults were obtained analyses are in close agreementfor near-unity expanthat the two Table 5.4 reveals produce identical results' As exp = two formulations if l, the sion factors. In fact, produces (Bquation overly pessimisticvalues for 5.8) graph analysis pected,the Lee p > 1. when the blocking probability Table 5.5 is included to demAs anothercomparisonbetweenthe two approaches, with significant amounts of for switches and 5.10 5.8 onstrate the use of Equations of 0.1. utilization low inlet a relatively possible by concenfrationmade (Equation underesti5.8) consistently graph analysis a Lee Table 5.5 reveals that Jacobaeus the Actually, exists. concentration probability when mates the blocking analysis presentedin Equation 5.10 also underestimatesthe blocking probability if large concenhation factors and high blocking probabilities are used.When necessary, more accuratetechniquescan be used for systemswith high concentrationand high of Blocking ProbabilityAnalyses(P= 0'7)" TABLES.4 Comparison Number of Center k Stages, 14 16 20 24 2B 31D Expansion, Space F 0,875 1.0 1.25 1.50 1.75 1.94 Lee 5.8 Equation 0.548 0.221 0.014 3 . 2x 1 0 + 3 . 7x 1 0 4 8.5x 104
Jacobaeu$ 5.10 Equation

0.598 0.221 0.007 2 . 7x 1 0 + 7.7x 104 0 , 1x 1 0 - 1 2

aswitchsize N = 512; inletgroup8izn = 16i inletulilization p = 0.7. Di,,lonblocking.

240

DIGITAL SWITCHING

TABLE5.5 Comparison of Blockingprobablllty (p= 0.1)" Anatyses Number of Center Stages, k Space Expansion,

F
0.375 0.5 0.625 0.75 0.875 1.0

Lee Equation 5.8

0,0097 2 . 8x 1 0 4 4.9 x 10+ 5 . 7x 1 0 4 4.0 x 10-10 2 . 9x 1 0 * 1 2

Jacobaeus Equation 5.10

0.Q27 8 . 6x 1 0 + 1 . 5x 1 0 + 1 . 4x 1 0 - 7 7 . 8x 1 f l o 2.9 x 10-12

10 12 14 16

aswitchsize N = 512; inletgroup p = 0.1 siz6 n = 16; Inlrutilization

blocking. However, switcheswith high blocking probabilities normally have no practical interest so they are not consideredhere. Usersof PBXs sometimesexperiencedhigh blocking probabilities, but blocking in thesecasesusually arisesfrom too few tie lines to other corporatelocations or too few trunk circuits to the public network. The subjectof blocking in trunk groups is heated in Chapter 12. up to this point, the blocking probability analyseshave assumedthat a specific inlet is to be connectedto a specific outlet. Also, it has been assumedthat the requests for service on the individual lines are independent.These assumptionsare generally valid for swirching one subscriberline to another in an end office switch or for connecting one station to another in a PBx. Neither of these assumptionsapply to connections to or from a fiunk group. when connectingto a trunk circuit, any circuit in a trunk group is acceptable. Thus the blocking probability to a specif,rc circuit is only as important as its significance in the overall blocking to the trunk group. The blocking probability to any particular circuit in a trunk group can be relatively large and still achievea low compositeblocking probability to the trunk group as a whole. If the blocking probabilities to the individual trunks are independent,the compositeblocking probability is the product of the individual probabilities. However, the paths to the individual trunk circuits normally involve {iome common links (e.g., the junctors from a first-stage array to all second-stage arrays). For this rea$on the individual blocking probabilities are normally dependent, which must be consideredin an accurateblocking probability analy-

sis.

As an extreme example, consider a casewhere all trunks in a trunk group are assigned to a single outlet array in a three-stageswitch. since the paths from any particular inlet to all trunks in the group are identical, the ability to selectany idle 61nk is useless.In practice, the individual circuits of a trunk group should be assignedto separate outlet arays. Another aspectof fiunk groups that must be consideredwhen designing a swirch or analyzing the blocking probabilities involves the interdependence of activity on the

DtvtstoN swlrcHlNc s.z sPAcE

241

individual circuits within a trunk group. In contrast to individual subscriberlines or PBX stations,individual circuits in a trunk group are not independentin terms of their probabilities of being busy or idle. lf some number of circuits in a trunk group are testedand found to be busy, the probability that the remaining circuits are busy is inis discussedmore fully in Chapter 12. At creased.The nature of these dependencies this point it is only necessaryto point out that these dependenciescause increased blocicingprobabilities if the individual ffunks are competing for common paths in the is minimized by assigningthe individswitch. ,l,gain, the effect of thesedependencies inlet-outlet arraysso that independentpathsareinvolved in conual trunks to separate nections to and from the trunk group. This process is sometimes referred to as decorrelatingthe trunk circuits. One last aspectof the blocking probability as a gradeof serviceparameterthat must be mentionedinvolves variations in the loading of the network by individual users.In the design examplesfor an end office presentedearlier, it was tacitly assumedthat all are subscribersarebusy l07o of the time during a busy hour' In fact, some subscribers l07o are active lessthan active much more than I 07oof the time, and other subscribers presentmore than 0.1 erlangs* of the time. In terms of haffic theory, some subscribers of traffic to the network, whereasothers presentless' When a switch is partitioned into subgroups(as all Iarge switchesmust be) and the haffic is concentratedby first-stage switching alrays, a few overactive subscribers in one subgroup can significantly degrade service for the other subscribers in the subgroup. It does not matter that the subscribers in some other subgroup may be explriencing lower than averageblocking. Their essentiallynonblocking service is no compensation for those subscribers experiencing a relatively poor grade of service. Operatingcompanieshave traditionally solved the problem of overactivesubscribinlet groups to separate ersby specifically assigningthe most active lines (businesses) to demeasurements making traffic procedure requires this Sometimes the switctr. of palts of the lines to different these reassigning most active and lines are which termine switch. These proceduresfall into the general category of line administration. If the subgroupsare large enough, or ifthe designsprovide adequatemargin for overactive ure.s, thir aspectof line administration can be minimized. One feature of a digital switch that can be utilized in this regard is the ability to design economical switches with very low nominal blocking probabilities so that wide variations in traffic intensities can be accommodated. Even a modern digital switch can experienceloading problems when confronted with extreme traffic conditions. An Internet service provider (ISP) in a metropolitan area may atffact an extremely large amount of traffic that all passesthrough a single class 5 switch. Although the connectionsto the ISP are lines, as far as the switch is concerned,they actually representa trunk group with very heavy haffic, so much so that $pecialline adminishation is required.

*An A circuit adevice isbusy' oftimethat theproporlion specifying oftraffic intensity is ameasure erlang l0olo of thetime. if it is busy 0.1erlang is said tocarry

242

DIGITAL SWITCHING

5.2.4 Folded Four-Wire Switchee Multiple-stage switches canbe used for eithertwo- or four-wireswitching operations. Figure5.ll depictsa four-wireconnection througha four-stage switch.Noticethat two paths mustbeestabli$hed for thecomplete connection. A two-wireconnection requiresonly onepathsinceeach outletis extemally connected to its corresponding inlet. Thetwo pathsshown in Figure5.1I demonshate a particularly usefulrelationship; Onepathis a mirror imageof the otherpath.If the switchdiagramis folded aboutthe verticalcenter line,thepaths coincide. Hence thismethod of setting up connections is sometimes referredto as a folded operation.When all connections in the switch are setup with a foldedrelationship, several benefits result. Firstofall, only onepathfinding operation is needed sincethereverse pathis automaticallyavailable asa mirror image of theforwardpath.In essence, everycrosspoint on onesideis pairedwith another crosspoint in a corresponding arrayon theopposite sideof theswitch.Whenever onecrosspoint of a pair is used in a connection, theother crosspoint in thepair is alsoused. For example, thethird inlet arrayin the first stage uses (6,4) to connect crosspoint its sixthinlet to its fourthoutlet(leading to thefourth artay of the secondstage).The corresponding crosspointin the third outlet array of thelaststage connects its fourth inlet (comingfrom thefourth arrayin thefour-th stage) to its sixth outlet.[n general, crosspoint f,7 in onearrayis pairedwith crosspointj,I in the conesponding arrayon the opposite sideof a switch.Sincethe availabilityof onecrosspoint in a pair ensures the availabilityofthe other,therever$e pathis automaticallyspecified andavailable. A secondadvantage of the folded four-wire operationresultsbecause the amount of information specifying thestatus of theswitchcanbe cut in half. Only thestatus of

grth Inldt of thlrd arEy

of rfiird rnv

a t
I

a I a

(7 llt
El6|rrfr of liftdnfi inlit my

Eldudnfior|tl|t
of flftrnfi ffr.y

Figure 5.11 Four-wireconnection through four-stage switch.

DIVISION SWITCHING 5.2 SPACE

245

each pair of crosspoints or associatedjunctor is needed to find an available path through the switch. A third benefit of the folded structure occurs becausethe blocking probability is one-half of the probability of finding two pathsindependently.It might seemthat pairing the crosspointsin the describedmannerwould reshict the pathsavailablefor a particular connection. On the contrary, the crosspoint pairings merely guaranteethat a reverse path is automatically available for any selected path in the forward direction' The folded operation in the preceding paragraphs referred to a switch with an even the conceptis easinumber of switching stages.An even number was chosenbecause approach can be expresent. The basic stage is when no center est to demonstrate number an even stage contains stages if the center of switching tendedto odd numbers manner, In this of the stage. line at the center a horizontal of anays and is folded about alray is paired with crosspointj, i in the bottom crosspoint i,7 in the top center-stage array, and so on. center-$tage

5.2.5 Pathfinding sincethenecswitchis virtuallyautomatic a paththrougha single-stage Determining In conby theinlet-outletpairto beconnected. is uniquelyspecified crosspoint essary thepath switchcomplicates of morethanonepathin a multiple-stage trast,availability of theswitchmustkeeptrackof whichpotential process. Thecatlprocessor selection pathsfor a particularconnectionare availablein a statestore.A pathfindingroutine path.Whenever a newconanavailable to select processes storeinformation thestate with theapprothestate storeis updated or anold onereleased, is established nection priateinformation. Pathtlndlng Times requirethe useof commonequipmentand must thereforebe Pathfindingbperations Thetime canbe processed. requests therateat whichconnect analyzed to determine on how manypotentialpaths requiredto find an availablepath is directly dependent in parof paths cantesta number system$ beforeanidle oneis found.Some aretested number of potential time.Sincetheexpected theprocessing shorten allel andthereby to find anidle pathis a functionof link utilization,pathfindpathsthatmustbe tested is busiest. controlequipment whenthe cornmon increase ing timesunfortunately beingbusyis depaththrough theswirch of a complete thattheprobability Assume theswitchhasanequalandindependent paths through of k possible noted by p. If each before Nothatmustbe tested number of paths probabilityof beingbusy,theexpected A as follows: in Appendix path found is determined idle is an

N,:H

( s.l r)

to tested paths thatmust.be of potential number Example5.1. Whatis theexpected in Table5.2? 8192Jineswitchdefined find anidle pathin thethree-stage,

244

DretTAL swtrcHtNc

solution. As indicated in the table,a $pace expansion factor of 0.234is usedto providea blockingprobabilityof 0.002.Hencetheutilizationof eachinterstage link =0.427. The blockingprobability is 0.1/0.234 of eachpaththroughthe switchis merelythe probabilitythat oneof two links in series is busy.Hencetheprobability = 0.672,andtheexpected p = | * (I - O.427)z number of paths to be resred is
I - (0.672)15

Np=

| -0.672

=3.04
Example 5. I demonstrates that, on average,only 3 of the 15 potential paths need to be testedbefore an idle path is found. However, when the switch is experiencing greaterthan normal ffaffic loads,the averagenumber of paths testedincreases. For example, if the input line utilization increasesfrom 10 to l|Vo, the blocking probability increasesfrom 0.002 to 0.126, and the expectednumber of paths to be testedin the pathfinding operation increasesfrom 3 to 4.g. Although this simple pathfinding example is, by itself, not particularly important, it demonstrates a very important aspect of the loading of common equipment in a switching system(or a network as a whole): Linear increases in ttre offered traffic produce geometric increases in the utilization of the network resources. If a systemis designed and analyzedunder nominal traffic conditions and the results are extrapolated to determinetotal capacity,greatly optimistic estimatesoften occur. In the pathfinding example the processingrequirementsincreasejust when the call processor(storedprogram conhol) is already loaded with greaterthan averagetraffic volumes. For further discussionof the effects of traffic loads on the common equipmentof a switching sy$temseeSchwartz [6].

5.2.6 SwitchMatrixControl
When an available path through a cofilmon control switching network is determined, the control element of the switch transfers the necessaryinformation to the network to selectthe appropriatecrosspoints.Crosspoint selection within a matrix is accomplished in one of two ways. The control may be associatedwith the output lines and thereforespeciff which inputs areto be connectedto the associated outputsor the control information may be associated with eachinput and subsequentlyspeciff to which outputs the respectiveinputs are to be connected.The first approachis referred to as output-associatedcontrol while the secondis called input-associatedcontrol. These two control implementationsare presentedin Figure 5.12. Input-associatedcontrol was inherently required in step-by-stepswitches where the information (dial pulses) an-ivedon the input link and was used to directly select the output links to each successivestage.[n common control system$,however, the addressinformation of both the originating line and the terminating line is simultaneously available. Hence the connection can be establishedby beginning at the desired

SWITCHING 5.2 SPACEDIVISION

245

(b) inputassociated. Figure 5.12 Switchmatrixconffol:(a) outputassociated; outlet and proceeding backward through the switch while selecting inputs to each stage. The implementation of both types of digital crosspointarraysusing standardcomcontrol uses a conventional data ponents is shown in Figure 5.13. Output-associated selector/multiplexer for each matrix output. The number of bits required to control eachdata selectoris log2 N, where N is the number of inlets' Thus the total number of bits required to completely specify a connection configuration is M log2 N. control can be implemented using conventional line decoders/deInput-associated "wired-or" logic function. Thus the multiplexers. The outputs are conmoned using a output gatesof each decodercircuit must be open-collectoror histate devices if transistor-transistor-logic (TTL) is used. The total number of bits required to specify a connection configuration in this caseis N log2 M. control arisesfrom the need to disable A significant drawback of input-associated unused inputs to prevent cross connectswhen another input selectsthe sameoutput.

Dfir rclictot/mu ltiPloxor

Linr dccoder/demultiplexer

loga N

log?rY

ft) Figure 5.13 Standard component implementation of digital crosspoint aray: (a) outputassociatedcontrol; (b) input-associatedcontrol.

246

DIGITALSWITCHING

with output-associatedconffol, unused output$ can remain connected to an input without preventing that input from being selectedby another output. For this reason and for generally greaterspeeds of operation,digital switching networks typically use output-associatedcontrol. Notice, however, that the total amount of information neededto specify a connectionconfiguration with input-associated control is lessthan that with output control if the number of inputs N is much smaller than the number of outputsM (N log2 M < M log2Il). Furthermore,input-associated conffol is more flexible in terms of wired-or (e.g., bus) expansion.

5.3 TIMEDIVISION SWITCHING Asevidenced by multiple-stage switching, sharing of individual crosspoints for more
than one potential connectionprovides significant savingsin implementation costs of spacedivision switches.In the casesdemonstrated, the crosspointsof multistagespace switchesare sharedfrom one connectionto the next, but a crosspointassignedto a particular connection is dedicated to that connection for its duration. Time division switching involves the sharing of crosspointsfor shofier periods of time so that individual crosspointsand their associatedinterstagelinks are continually reassignedto existing connections.When the crosspointsare sharedin this manner, much greater savings in crosspointscan be achieved.rn essence, the savings are accomplishedby time division multiplexing the crosspointsand interstagelinks in the samemannerthat transmissionlinks are time division muttiplexed to shareinteroffice wire pairs. Time division switching is equally applicableto either analog or digital signals.Ar one time, analog time division switching was attractive when interfacing to analog transmissionfacilities, since the signals are only sampled and not digitally encoded. However, large analog time division switches had the samelimitations as do analog time division ffansmission links: the pAM samples are particularly vulnerable to noise, distortion, and crosstalk.Thus, large electronic switching matriceshave always incorporatedthe cost of digitizing PAM samplesro maintain end-to-end signal quality. The low cost of codecsand the prevalenceof digital trunk interconnectionsimply that analog switching is now usedin only the smallestof switching system$(e.g.,electronic key systems).

5.3.1 AnalogTimeDlvlsion Swltching

Although analog time division swirching has become obsolete,it is a good starting point to establishthe basic principle of time division switching. Figure 5.14 depicts a padicularly simple analog time division switching structure.A single switching bus supportsa multiple number of connectionsby interleaving pAM samplesfrom receive line interfacesto ffansmit line interfaces.The operation is depicted as though the receive interfacesare separate from the respectivetransmit interfaces.When connecting two-wire analog lines, the two interface$are necessarilyimplemented in a common

DrvrsroN swtrcHtNc 247 s.s TIME

[-l r r i - iI |-l
t - l l
a

-tlr
t-l -1 i-1

f\H
i

I r_r, I

F\ t-l
Lin6 inGrfe6

L-l/ I
-$,vltchlng i bur Tlme _ I Cvclls I divirion I qqqqql I controt

timedivision swirching' Figure5.14 Analog weresimultaneanalogsamples in somePAM-PBX systems, module.Furthermore, the interfaces between in bothdirections [7]. ouslytransferred controls Thefirst controlstore Included in Figure5.14aretwo cycliccontrolstores. control storeoperates gatingof inputsonto the bus one sampleat a time. The second output line for eachinput with the first and selectsthe apPropriate in synchronism to asa input line, is referred each active pulses, onefrom setof sample. A complete systems the line. For voice rateof each frame.Theframerateis equalto the sample sometimes were rate$ rateranges ftom 8 to 12 kHz. The highersampling sampling filtersin theline interfaces. filter andreconstructive usedto simplifythebandlimiting 5.3.2 DlgltalTimeDlvlsion Swltchlng a space section is essentially in thepreceding matrixdescribed The analogswitching for shortperiods changing theconnections divisionswitchingmatrix.By continually divisionswitchis replicated of thespace theconflguration of time in a cyclicmanner, is refened to as time multiplexed of operation slot. This mode for each time once bothanalog quite anddigital useful for can be this modeof operation swirching. While between require switching signals usually signals, digital time divisionmultiplexed slots represents between time physicallines.Switching time slotsaswell asbetween andis refenedto astime switching. dimension of switching a second unle$s of digitaltime divisionswitchingit is assumed, In thefollowing discussion directlyto digitaltime divinetworkis interfaced thattheswitching otherwise stated,

248

DIGITALSWITCHING

sionmultiplexlinks.This assumption justified$ince, is generally evenwhenoperating in ananalog environment, themostcost-effective switchdesigns multiplexgroups of digital signalsinto TDM formatsbeforeany switchingoperations takeplace.Thus mostof thefollowing discussion is concerned with the intemalstructures of time divisionswitchingnetworks andpossiblynot with the structure of an entireswitching complex. The basicrequirement of a time division switchingnetworkis shownin Figure 5.15.As anexample connection, channel 3 of thefirst TDM link is connected to channel l7 of thelastTDM link. Theindicated connection impliesthatinformation arriving in time slot 3 of thefirst input link is transferred to time slot l7 of thelasroutput link. Sincethevoicedigitization process inherently impliesa four-wireoperation, the returnconnection is required andrealized by transferring information from time slot 17 of the lastinput link to time slot 3 of the first ouFut link. Thuseachconnection requires two transfers of information, eachinvolving translations in both time and space. A varietyof switching sffuctures arepossible to accomplish thetransfers indicated in Figure5.15.All of thesestructures inherently requireat lea$ttwo stages: a space divisionswitching stage anda timedivisionswitching stage. As discussed later,larger switches usemultiplestages of bothfypes. Beforediscussing switching in bothdimensions, however, we discuss thecharacteristics andcapabilities of timeswitching alone. A Digital lllemory Swltch Primarilyowing to the low cosrof digital memory,time swirching implemenrarions providedigitalswitching functions moreeconomically thanspace divisionimplementations. Basically, a time switchoperates by writing datainto andreading dataout of a singlememory. In theprocess, theinformation in selected time slotsis interchanged, asshownin Figure5.16.when digital signals canbe multiplexed inro a singleTDM format, very economical switches can be implemented with time switchingalone. practical However, limitationsof memoryspeed limit thesizeof a time switchsothat someamountof space divisionswitchingis necessary in largeswitches. As demonstrated in later sections, the mosteconomical multistage designs usuallyperformas muchswitchingaspossible in thetime stages. Thebasicfunctional operation of a memoryswitchis shownin Figure5.17.Individualdigital message circuitsaremultiplexed anddemultiplexed in a fixed manner
I FNAffiH

I
I t

Figure 5.15 Time andspace divisionswirching.

SWITCHING 249 5.3 TIMEDIVISION

operation. Figure5.16 Timeslotinterchange to establish a singleTDM link for eachdirectionof travel.The multiplexinganddeaspartof the swirchitself, or they may be multiplexingfunctions canbe considered form In eithercase, terminals. a byte-interleaved in remote implemented transmission transmission The asynchronous hierarchy(DSz, DS3, of multiplexingis required. and demultiplexing requires back-to-back DS4) usesbit interleaving and therefore In contrast,the multiplexing operations before switching curbe accomplished. spebyteinterleaving in Chapter 8 canprovide SONETnansmission formatdescribed to a digital switchingsystem. cifically soit canbe moredirectlyinterfaced by two differenttime slotsis accomplished between Theexchange of information (TSI) circuit.In theTSI of Figure5.17datawordsin incoming a time slotinterchange Datawords locations of thedatastorememory. time slotsarewritteninto sequential from a control obtained for outgoingtime slots,however,arereadfrom addresses between store.As indicated in the associated controlstore,a full-duplexconnectron i is readduringoutTDM channeli andTDM channelj impliesthat datastoreaddress twiceduringeach goingtime slotj andvice versa. Thedatastorememory is accessed the time slot number link time slot.First, somecontrolcircuitry (not shown)selects

MUX

T I M E S L O TI N T E H C H A N G E

Figure 5.17 MIDVTSI/DEMLIXmemoryswitch.

250

DIGITAL SWITCHING

as a write address.Second,the content of the conffol store for that particular time slot is selectedas a read address. since a write and a read are required for each channel entering (and leaving) the TSI memory, the maximum number of channelsc that can be supportedby the simple memory switch is

r25 c:4

(5. r?)

where I ?5 is the frame time in microsecondsfor 8 kHz sampled voice and f" is the memory cycle time in microseconds. As a specific example, consider the use of a t 5.2 nsec of memory. Equation 5. 12 indicates that the memory switch can support 4096 channels(2048 full duplex connections) in a strictly nonblocking mode of operation. The complexity of the switch (assumingdigitization occurselsewhere)is quite modest:The TSI memory storesone frame of data organizedas 4096 words by 8 bits each.The control store also requires 4096 words, but eachword has a length equal to log2(c) (which is 12 in the example). Thus the memory functions can be supplied by a096 x 8 and 4096 x lz bit randomaccessmemories (RAMs). The addition of a time slot counter and some gating logic to selectaddresses and enablenew information to be written into the conffol $torecan be accomplishedwith a handful of conventional integratedcircuits (ICs). This switch should be conrrastedto a spacedivision design (Equation 5.3) that requires more than 1.5 million crosspoints for a nonblocking three-stageswitch. Although modern IC technology might be capable of placing rhar many digiral crosspointsin a few ICs, they could never be reachedbecauseof pin limitations. As mentionedin Chapter 2, one of the main advantages of digital signals is the easewith which they can be time division multiplexed. This advantagearisesfor communication between integratedcircuits as well as for communication between switchine offices.

Time Stagesin General

Time switching stagesinherently require some form of delay element to provide the desiredtime slot interchanges. Delays are most easily implemented using RAMs that are written into as data arrive and read from when data are to be transferredout. Ifone memory location is allocated for each time slot in the TDM frame format, the information from each TDM channel can be stored for up to one full frame time without being overwritten. There are two basic ways in which the time stagememoriescan be controlled; written sequentiallyand read randomly or written randomly and read sequentially.Figure 5.18 depicts both modesof operation and indicateshow the memories are accessed to translateinformation from time slot 3 to time slot 17. Notice that both modes of operation use a cyclic control store that is accessed in synchronism with the time slot counter.

s.4 TWo-DTMENS|oNAL swrrcHrNc 251

DEtd Stors

'ims glot Countdr

(rl

{bl

Figure 5.18 Time switch modules: (a) sequential writes/random reads; (b) random writes/ sequentialreads.

in Figure5.l8 impliesthat specificmemorylocations The first modeof operation TDM link. Datafor eachincomto respective of theincoming channels arededicated a locations within the memoryby incrementing ing time slot arestored in sequential duringtime slot thedatareceived modulo-c counter with everytimeslot.As indicated, On output,infor3 areautomatically in thethird locationwithin the memory. stored for is to be accessed which address mationretrieved from the controlstorespecifies word of thecontrolstorecontime slot.As indicated, the seventeenth thatparticular to 3 is transferred of datastoreaddress tainsthenumber3, implyingthatthecontents theoutputlink duringoutgoing time slot 17. of the theopposite modeof operation in Figure5-18is exactly depicted Thesecond asspecified locations by theconfrrstone.ftrcoming dataarewritteninto thememory undercontrolof an outgoing sequentially trol store,but outgoingdataareretrieved duringtime slot information in theexample, received As indicated time slotcounter. retrieved it is automatically dur17,where 3 is writtendirectlyinto datastoreaddress opof time $tage number17.Noticethat the two modes ing outgoingTDM channel control and ration depicted in Figure 5.18 are forms of output-associated presented designexample control,respectively. In a multiple-stage input-associated and the other in one time stage to u$eone modeof operation later,it is convenient in another time stage. modeof operation

SWITCHING 5.4 TWO.DIMENSIONAL in botha space anda dimension operations requireswitching Largerdigital switches used that of network can be a large variety configurations dimension. There are time strucrequirements. To beginwith, consider thesimpleswitching to accomplish these T fola time stage of only two $tages: tureshownin Figure5.19.This switchconsists (TS) switch. is refered to a time-space Iowedby a space stage S. Thusthis $tructure in arrivingtime slots is to delayinformation Thebasicfunctionof the time stage is transinformation At that time the slot occurs. delayed outputtime until thedesired

252

DIGITALSWITCHING

(TS)swirching f,'lgure5.19 Time-space matrix. ferred through the space stage to the appropriate output link. In the example shown the information in incoming time slot 3 of link I is delayed until outgoing time slot l7 occurs. The return path requiresttrat information arriving in time slot 17 of link N be delayed for time slot 3 of the next outgoing frame. Notice that a time $tagemay have to provide delays ranging from one time slot to a full frame. Associated with the $pacestage is a control store that contains the information needed to speciff the space stage configuration for each individual time slot of a frame. This conhol information is accessed cyclically in the samemanner as the control information in the analogtime division switch. For example,during eachoutgoing time slot 3, control information is accessed that specifresinterstagelink number 1 is connectedto output linkN. During other time slots,the spaceswitch is completely reconfigured to support other connections. As indicated, a convenient meansof representinga conffol store is a parallel endaround-shift register. The width of the shift register is equal to the number of bits required to specify the entire spaceswitch configuration during a single time slot. The length of the shift register conforms to the number of time slots in a frame. Naturally, $omemeansof changingthe information in the conhol storeis neededso that new connections can be established. In actualpractice, the control store$may be implemented as RAMs with counters used to generateaddresses in a cyclic fashion (as in the time stagecontrol storesshown previously).

lmplementationComplexltyof Time Dlvlslon Switchee In previous sections, alternative space division switching structures were compared in
terms of the total number of crosspointsrequired to provide a given grade of service. In the caseof solid-stateelectronic switching matrices, in general,and time division switching, in particular, the number of crosspointsalone is a lessmeaningful measure of implementation cost. Switching structures that utilize ICs with relatively large numbersof internal crosspointsare generally more cost effective than other $uuctures

5.4 TWO.DIMENSIONAL SWITCHING 253

paHence a morerelevant design but morepackages. thatmayhavefewercrosspoints packages. If alternate total number switches wouldbethe of IC rameter for solid-state may from a comlnonset of ICs, the numberof packages designs are implemented closelyreflectthenumberof crosspoints. a digitaltime diIn additionto thenumber in space divisionstages, of crosspoints in ane$timate visionswitchuses of memory thatmustbeincluded significant amounts memory arrays andthe thetime stage countincludes of theoverallcost.-Thememory the the space stages. for boththetime stages In largeswitches, numcontrolstores and expense canbe reduced ofincreasing theamount at the stage crosspoints berof space implementationcomplexityrequires of required. Thus,athoroughanalysis of memory relativeto thecostof a bit of memory.Beknowingthe relativecostof a crosspoint it costssignifiis closelyassociated cause a crosspoint with an extemalconnection, integration medium-scale ICs Theuseof standard cantlymorethana bit of memory. Useof customas I fi) bits of memory.t costing aboutthesame leads to onscrosspoint thisfactor,particularly memory canchange ICswith integrated or application-specific perpin. For provideaccess to manymorecrosspoints IC packages because large-scale thefollowinganalyses purposes design of implemenof illustrating trade-offs, various coststo be lfi) timesthe costof a to consider tationcomplexitycontinue crosspoint this factormay not be accumemorybit. Depending approach, on theimplementation in exexcept rate,but minimizingthecostof a matrixis no longermuchof a concern, (e.g., 100,000 voicechannels). in switches exceeding systems tremelylargeswitching asfollows: complexity Theimplementation is expressed

=N**ffi ComPlexitY
where

No

(s. l3)

Nx = number of spacestagecrosspoints NB = number of bits of memory

in of theTS switchshown complexity theimplementation Example5.2. Determine = input N line of 80. Assume each TDM input lines where the number Figure5.19 matrix assume a one-stage Furthermore, contains a singleDSl signal(24 channels). space stage. is usedfor the as stage of crosspoints is determined in the space Solutinn. Thenumber Nx = 8d: 6400

*lt

is worth noting that digital memories are inherently implemented with at least two crosspoints per bit. In this case the crosspoiflts are gates used to provide write and read accessto the bits. These crosspoiflts, howcver, are much less expensive than messagecrosspointsthat are accessedfrom extemal circuits, TSeethe first or second edition of this book.

254

DIGITALSWITCHING

(Thecrosspoints on themaindiagonal areincluded sincetwo channels within a single TDM input may haveto be connected to eachother.)Thetotal numberof memorybits for the space stage controlstoreis determined as Nnx = (number of linksXnumber of controlwords)(number of bits per control word) = (80x24X7) = 13.440 Thenumber of memorybitsin thetime stage is determined asthesumof thetime slot interchange andthecontrolstorebitsl Nsr = (number of links)(number of channels)(number of bitsper channel) + (numberof links)(number of control words)(number of bits per controlword) = (80X24X8) + (80)(24)(s) = 24,96O Thustheimplementation complexity is determined as = Nx * Complexity : 6114equivalent crosspoints

The implementation complexitydetermined in Example5.2 is obviouslydominated by thenumber of crosspoints in thespace stage. A significantly lowercomplexity (andgenerally lower cost)canbe achieved if groupsof input links arecombined into higherlevel multiplexsignals beforebeingswitched. The costof the front-end multiplexers is relativelysmallif the individualDSI signals havealready beensynchronized for switching. In thismanner, thecomplexity of thespace stage is decreased appreciably whiletheoverallcomplexity of thetimestage increases only slightly.(See the problemsat the end of this chapter.)The implementation costsare reducedproportionately, up to the point that higherspeeds dictatethe useof a moreexpensive technology. A significant limitationof theTS structure of Figure5.19occurs whena connection hasto bemade to a specific channel of anoutletasopposed to anychannel of anoutlet. A connection to a specificchannel is blockedwhenever the desired time slot of the inlet TSM is already in use.For example, if time slot 17of thefirst inlet is in usefor someconnection from the first inlet to somelink otherthanlink N, the connection from channel 3 of inlet I to channel 17of inletNcannotbemade. Because of thislimitation,theTS structure is usefulonly if theoutletsrepresent trunk groups, which implies any channel of an outletis suitable.* Applications that requireconnections to specific channels require additional stages for adequate performblockingprobability ance.
'A full-duplex connection requires the reverse connection to be established, which adds restrictions to which outlet channels can lre used. See the problems at the end of the chapter.

5.4 TWO-DIMENSIoNAL SWITCHING 255

Multlple*Stage Time and SpaceSwitching

means As discussed section, aneffective of reducing in thepreceding thecostof a time together divisionswitchis to multiplexasmanychannels aspractical andperformas Time stage less muchswitchingin thetime stages aspossible. switchingis generally digital memoryis much than spacestage$witching-primarily because expensive (AND gates). To repeat, themselves cheaper thandigital crosspoints the crosspoints pins it is thecostof accessing andselecting arenot soexpensive, themfrom external thatmakes their userelativelycostly. canbe multiplexed Naturally,therearepracticallimits asto how manychannels into a commonTDM link for time stageswitching. Whenthesepracticallimits are furtherreductions canbeachieved complexity only by reached, in theimplementation resultwhena singlespace stage somecostsavings Obviously, usingmultiplestages. by multiplestages. matrixof a TS or ST switchcanbe replaced thespace moreeffective involvesseparating stages by a time A generally approach stage. separating by a space Thenext two secstage, or, conversely, two time stages of a time stage consisting these two basicstructures. Thefirst structure, tionsdescribe (STS)switch.Thesectwo space is referred to asa space-time-space stages, between (TST) switch. is referred ond structure to asa time-space-time

5.4.1 $TS Swltching

A functionalblock diagramof an STS switchis shownin Figure5.20.Eachspace (nonblocking) switchis assumed switch.For verylargeswitches, to be a single-stage with multiplestages. Establishing it maybe desirable thespace to implement switches finding a time switchanay with an available a paththroughan STSswitchrequires readaccess duringtheincomingtime slotandanavailable duringthedewrite access (S,T, S) is nonblocking, theopindividualstage time slot.Wheneach siredoutgoing space equivalent of a three-stage switch.Hence eration is functionally to theoperation graph graphin Figure5.2I of anSTSswitchis identical to theprobability a probability the blocking probConespondingly, of Figure5.8 for three-stage spaceswitches. abilitv of an STSswitchis

(STS)switchingstructure. Figure 5.20 Space-time-space

256

DIGITALSWITCHING

2
a a I

Figure 5.21 Probabilitygmph of STSswitch wirh nonblockingstages.

B=(1 -q'?)k where4'=l - p'=l - pl\ (F= fr/llt ft = number of center-stage time switch arrays

(5.14)

Assuming the spaceswitchesare single-stageEuray$ and that eachTDM link has c messagechannels, we may determine the implementation complexity of an STS switch as*

= numtter Complexity of space slage crosspoints * (number of space stage controlbits + number of time stage memorybits + numberof time stage controlbits)/100

=2H,{ +

2/cc log, N + tc(8) + ftclog, c 100

(5.15)

Example5.3. Determine the implementation complexityof a 2048-channel srs switchimplemented for 16 TDM links with 128channels on eachlink. The desired maximumblockingprobabilityis 0.002for channel occupancies of 0.1. solution. The minimum number of center-stage time switches to provide the gradeof service desired canbe determined from Equation 5.14as fr = 7. Using this valueof ft, thenumberof crosspoints is determined as(2X7Xl6) = 224.Thenumber of bitsof memory canbe determined = as(2X7X128)(4) + (7X128X8) + (7)(lZB)(7)
*This derivation assumesoutput-associated control is used in the first stageand input-associatedcontol is third stage, A slightly different result occurs if the space stages are controlled in different ffiar3l"

swtrcHrNc 257 s.4 rwo-DrMENsroNAL 20,608. Hence the composite implementationcomplexity is 430 equivalent crosspoints. in Example complexity 5.3 should Thevalueof implementation obtained be compared for anequivalent-sized switch ofcrosspoints obtained three-stage to thenumber listedin Table5.2.Thespace whiletheSTS requires 8l ,920crosspoints switchdesign comes only 430equivalent Thedramatic aboutas crosspoints. savings design requires (for having already and multiplexed result of the voice been digitized transsignals a first inserted purposes). switches into an analog mission were environWhendigital in theline interface. Digital interface ment,thedominant costof the switchoccurred particularly costs, basis. interface on a per-channel costsaremuchlower thananalog 5.4.2 TST Swltchlng form of multiple-stage switchis shownin Figure5.22- the time-space The second of anincominglink is delayed in arrivingin a TDM channel TST switch.Information paththroughthe space is available. At until an appropriate $tage the inlet time $tage outstageto theappropriate that time the informationis transferred throughthe space whereit is held until the desired outgoingtime slot occurs, Assuming let time stage providefull availability(i.e.,all incomingchannels canbe connected the time stages a connecany space to establish to all outgoing channels), stage time slotcanbe used stage for every intemal In a functional is replicated once timeslot. sense the space tion. probability graph by the TST of Figure 5.23. This concept is reinforced

(TST) switching sfiucfure. Figure 5.22 Time-space-time

258

DIGITAL SWITCHING

2
I a a

Figure 5.23 Probability graphof TST swirchwith nonblocking stages. An important feature to notice about a TST switch is that the spacestageoperate$ in a time-divided fashion, independentlyof the external TDM links. In fact, the number of spacestagetime slots I does not have to coincide with the number of external TDM time slots c. If the spacestageis nonblocking, blocking in a TST switch occurs only if there is no intemal $pacestagetime slot during which the link from the inlet time stageand the link to the outlet time stageare both idle. obviously, the blocking probabiliry is minimized if the number of spacestagetime slots I is made to be large. In fact, as a direct analogy of three-stage $paceswitches,the TST switch is strictly nonblocking if I = 2c -1. The generalexpressionof blocking probability for a TST swirch wirh nonblocking individual stages(T, S, T) is

B =lr _ q?lt =l l - p r = l * p l a where4 = (//c) cr, rimeexpansion I = number of space stage time slots Theimplementation complexity of a TST switchcanbe derivedas N/ log, N + 2Nc(8)+ 2Nl log, c

(s.16)

Complexity =N2 +

100

(s.17)

Example5.4. Determine the implementation complexityof a 2048-channel TST switchwith 16TDM links and 128channels per link. Assume the desired maximum blockingprobabilityis 0.002for incomingchannel occupancies of 0.1 Solution' UsingEquation 5.16,we candetermine thenumber of internaltime slots required grade for thedesired of service as25.Hence timeconcentration of 1/g = 5.I ? is possible because of the light loadingon the input channels. The implementation complexity cannow be determined from Equation 5.17as656.

25S 5.4 TWO-DIMENSIONAL SWITCHING is Theresults 5.3 and5.4 indicate thattheTST architecture obtained in Examples that the TST than the Notice, however, switch opermorecomplex STSarchitecture. the STSswitchoperates with space concentraateswith time concentration whereas increase, is tion. As the utilization of the input links less and less concentration in the TST acceptable. loadingis high enough, time expansion If the input channel expansion low blocking switchandspace in the STSswitcharerequired to maintain probabilities. at lesscostthanspace expansion, canbe achieved Sincetimeexpansion utilia TST swirchbecomes morecosteffectivethanan STSswitchfor high channel of these two system$ in Figure zation. Theimplementation complexities arecompared 5.24asa functionof theinput utilization. in Figure5.24,TST switches havea distinctimplementation advanAs canbeseen large amounts For smallswitches, of traffic arepresent. tageoverSTSswitches when complexities the implementation favor STSarchitectures. The choiceof a particular testability, architecture on otherfactorssuchasmodularity, may be moredependent favorsanSTSstructure is its relathatgenerally Oneconsideration andexpandability. with heavytraffic tively simplercontrolrequirements [8]. For very largeswitches of a TST switchis dominant. Evidence of this loads,the implementation advantage in 1976to service by the No. 4 ESS,a TST structure introduced an fact is provided voicechannels. excess of 100.000

SlSrsotprmlonf .i

STEcomFhxlty .2

g
{

lm

,.,f

d
."d"' rsrtlil.rDililofid

$
E

I
.B A

6m

ztr

,z
Udllrdoft ot lnFut drnndr p

Figure 5.24 Complexity comparisonof STS and TST switching structuresfor a blocking probabilityof 0.002.

260

DrerrAL swtrcHtNc
lnlct tifte rtrgtc $pece stEaE

Spacr BtNg

OuttGt tlm6 rtage

Figure 5.?5 Time*space-space-space-time (TSSST) switching sfllrcture.

TSSSTSwltches
Whenthe space stage of a TST switchis largeenoughto justiff additional control complexity,multiple space strages can be usedto reduce the total crosspoint count. Figure5.25depicts a TST architecture with a three-stage space switch.Because the threemiddle stages are all spacestages, thi$ structureis sometimes referredto as a TSSSTswitch.TheEWSD switchof Siemens [9] usesa TSSSTstructure. Theimplementation complexity of a TSSSTswitchcanbe determined as* = Nx * Complexity Nu* *Nu, *Nrrc (5.18)

100

= ZNft+ k (Nln)z whereNyg= number of crosspoints, = Nsx number of space stage controlstorebits, = 2k(Nln)llog2(n) + k(Nln)l log2(N/n) = 2Nc (8) NBr = number of bits in time stages, ffnrc = number of time stage controlstorebits,= 21Vl logz(c) Theprobabilitygraphof a TSSSTswitchis shownin Figure5.26.Noticethatthis diagram is functionally identicalto theprobabilitygraphof a five-stage space switch shownin Figure5.10.Usingtheprobabilitygraphof Figure5.26,we candetermine theblockingprobabilityof a TSSSTswitchas

B = { 1 _ (qr)tlr_ 0 _ d)ollt

(s.l9)

The assumed connol orientations by stages areoutput,output,output,input, andinput,

s.4 rwo-DrMENsroNAL swtrcHrNc 261

P, = Pla pr=pllodl c= Uo

u-*''

graph of TSSST switch. Figure5.26 hobability where4r*I-pt=l-pla Qz=r-Pz=I-plu9

complexity of a 131,072-channel Example5.5. Determinethe implementation TSSSTswitchdesigned to providea maximumblockingprobabilityof 0.002under channel the switchservices 1024TDM input links with occupancies of 0.7.Assume is used link. Also assume thatunity timeexpansion on thespace 128channels on each stages. on how in a varietyof waysdepending Solution. The space switchcanbe designed (and stages. A valueof manylinks areassigned to eacharrayin thefirst third) space 32 is chosen binarynumbernearthe theoretical optimumpresented as a convenient (N/2)12. 5.19is thenumber With thisvaluefor n, theonly unknown earlier in Equation to be 27 for a blockingprobabilityof of center-stage arraysft, which is determined from Equation 0.0015. is determined 5.l8 as Thecomplexity + (27)QDz=82,944 Nx = (2X1024)(27) = 1,65 I 28X5)+ (27)(32)(r28X5) 8,880 Nnx = 2(27X32X

=2,097,152 Nsr= 2(10?4X128X8) = 1,835,008 * 2(1024X128)(7) Nnrc = 138,854 82,944 + 5,591,040/100 equivalent crosspoints

DIGITALSWITCHING

5.4.3 No.4 ESS Toll Swltch

As shown in Fi gtxe5.27 of a No.4 ESSmaFixis time-space-time , thebasicstructure with four stages in thespace switch(i.e.,a TSSSST) tl0, I ll. Theinputsto thematrix arel20-channel TDM links formedby multiplexing five DSI signals together. Before theseinputsareinterfaced to the matrix, they arepassed througha decorrelator to distributethe channels of incomingTDM funk groupsacross multipleTDM links into thematrix.Decoruelation is usedbecause theNo. 4 ESSis a toll switchin which the incomingTDM links represent trunk groups from otherswitchingmachines. In contrastto TDM links of an endoffice switchformedby multiplexingindependent subscriberchannels, the channels of a TDM trunk grouparenot independently busy.In fact,theactofconcentrating multiple,independent sources ontoa fiunk groupcauses highlevelsof correlation between theactivityon theindividualchannels. If thechannels of a trunk group were not decorrelated, they would experience much higher blockingprobabilities because theywouldall be vying for thesame paths throughthe matrix. Decorrelation shufflesthetrunk groupssothealternate pathsavailablefor any particular connection aremorelikely to be statistically independent. Noticethat,besidesshufflingchannels, provides the decorrelator (7 to 8) andtime space expansion (l?0 to I28). expansion Themaximum sizeof theNo.4 ESSuses128deconelators with seven 12O-channel inputseach.Thusthe maximumchannel = 107,520 capacity is (128X7X120) channels.Thespace stage is a 1024x 1024matrixwith four possible paths provided during eachof the 128space stage time slots.Theprobabiliry graphof theNo. 4 ESSswirch is shownin Figure5.28,from which thefollowingblockingprobabilityis derived: B = [l - (l -p,Xt -pzXl *pr)]rz8

(5.20)

p is theextemal where channel utilization, p1= Q l8)(1201128)p, andp2is theblocking probability of thefour-stage space switchderived in AppendixA as

pz=zplql+rlplfi + s0p1q1+ szplfi+zlp\q\,+Bfrqr+ p!

(5.21)

Example5.6. Determine theblockingprobabilityandnumber of paths rhathaveto be searched in a No. 4 ESSwith inlet channel occupancies of 0.7 and0.9. Solution. The occupancies of the interstage linls (pzr)aredetermined to be 0.574 and 0.738,respectively. Using Equation5.21, the corresponding valuesofp2 are determined as 0.737 and 0.934.Equation5.20 can now be usedto determine the blocking probabilitiesas 0.fi)2 and 0.56 for inlet occupancies of 0.7 and 0.9, respectively. The probability that all four spacepathsare busy in a parriculartime slot is I to 0.952forp = 0.7 and erezh (he baseterm in Equation5.20),which evaluates

R p - 9
ura oO

!1

(}
I (t D( +

g.
l A x{
d L

r A iA o |J.{ *
:'-(

i5
A

.i E

z
F FI

vi P
EO tl

o
F E E

iE

5 U

I r

263

7
264
DIGITAL SWITCHING

pt

Figure 5.28 Probability graphof No. 4 ESSmatrix.

0.9955forp - 0.9. Equation 5.11now determines the average numberof time slots (four paths pertime slot)thatmustbe tested to find anidle pathas2l and9g,respectively. Example5.6 demonstrates that low blockingprobabilities can be achieved even whenindividualpathsarehighly utilizedif thereareenough alternatives-a feature thatis mostpractical with timedivisionswitching. Thisexample alsodemonstrates the sensitivity of the call procs$sing time asa functionof loadin thatpathsearch times morethanquadruple whenthenodebecomes overloaded with traffic. Reference [l l] reportsthat the pathsearch time is only 72vo of the total processing load at p = 0.7, but thisexample impliesthatit wouldbecome morethan50zoof theloadatp = 0.9 if otheraspects of call processing werelinearfunctions of thetraffic volume(a risky assumption). 5.4.4 Sy$rem 75 Dtgitat PBX As originallyreleased, pBX that can the system75 PBx of AT&T wasa midrange suppofr 400 stations, 200datainstruments, and200trunks[12].Theswitching matrix consists of two bytewide TDM buses a$shownin Figure5.29.Because thebuses operate at 2.048MHz, thereare256time slotsperbusperframe.Thusthetotalnumber of timeslotsonthebuses is 5 12,whichsupport 256full-duptex connections.* All ports of theswitchhaveaccess to all time slotson bothbuses. Thedual-bus architecture allows theuseof slowerelectronics andprovides redundancy in thecase of failure. As long asthereis an idle time slot on eitherbus,any source canbe connected to anydestination. Thustheblockingprobability is zerofrom rhestandpoint of matching
*Be"uursome of the time slots are used for overhead and continuous distribution of various tones, the maximum traffic capacity is 7200 CCS [12], which relates to 200 connections.

SYSTEMS 265 5.5 DIGITAL CROSS-CoNNECT

Switch BUBA $Yvitch Bu$ B

architecture. 75matrix Figure5.29 System are ifmore Connections ofcongeStiOn: asa reSUlt occur,hOwever, lOss. BlockingCAn of this of time slots.Blockinganalyses by thenumber requested thancanbe supported theory.As prereferredto ascongestion type requirea different form of mathematics trafthattheoffered with theprobability theorydeals 12,congestion sented in Chapter with somevalue.Matchingloss,on the otherhand,is concerned fic load exceeds traffic volumes. or busy-hour average are in Chapter12 showthat if 800 stations analyses congestion As an example, 400 staservice probability station requests when that a the on average, 37.5Vobwy, for voiceapis virtuallynonblocking busyis lO-s.Thusthe system tionsarealready full-period the blocking are connections, plications. Because dataconnections often involvin applications moresignificant maybecome probability for voiceconnections 12 for some problem in Chapter set Seethe dataswitching. voiceband ing intensive examples.

5.5 DIGITAL CROS$.CONNECTSYSTEMS for setting interface a digital switching matrixwith an operations A DCS is basicatly Instead chamels. signals or input and output between up relativelystaticconnections pertaining to call-byinformation response to signaling in connections of establishing to networkconin response areestablished DCSconnections requests, call connection patch act as an electronic The mostbasicfunctionof a DCS is to figurationneeds. frameswere facility. Manualcros$-connect panelin lieu of a manualcross-connect points fatransmission between officesasdemarcation in switching typicallyinstalled points between cilities and switching machinesand in wire centersas demarcation themajorpurpose of thecrossfacilities.In bothcases, cables anddistribution feeder for testcircuitsandaccess of transmission framewasto allowrearrangement connect ing thecircuitsin bothdirecfions. while Figure5.31 environment cro$ri-connect Figure5.30showsa typicalmanual areimpleconnects with a DCS.Manualcross functionimplemented shows thesame within theDCS connections wires.Cross with bridgingclipsandpunch-down mented (eitherlocally or reconsole by enteringcommands at themanagement areestablished

266

DIGITAL SWITCHING
Menutl (voicefrequencyl Cros-Connect Freme MGIEllic Fociliti$

\ / \ / -\ rr

ltr.r\
I I

Alr iul

Local Switching System

Figure5.30 Manual cross-connecr sysrcm. motely).As indicated in the two figures,a majorfeature of a DCS is its elimination of back-to-back multiplexingfunctionswhen crossconnecting individualchannels within TDM transmission links.Additionaladvantages of a DCS system with respect to manual cross-connect $vstems are: r. Automatic Record Keeping.Because the crossconnects are under'processor control,circuit connection reportsarereadilyavailable throughthemanagement interface. In contrast, records in manualsystems wereinherentlyerrorproneand oftenout of date.

Clnnnrl Benk Frcilitiet

Conlole

'*l
IDLC DCS lllol

Channl Switchcd Treff ic Ti6 linrs Fortign Exchange

M13

::

Local (DigitBll Swltching Syrtem

Circuit SwitchedTraff ic

Flgure 5.31 Elecnonic digitalcross-connect system.

SYSTEMS 267 CROSS-CONNECT 5.5 DIGITAL 2. Remoteand Rapid Provisioning. Provisioning is the basic procertsof providing (or discontinuing) service to a particular customer. The basic operations involved are outside-plant cross connections, inside-plant cross connections, configuration changes in switching system data base, and customer record were Obviously, the more theseprocesses updatesin business(billing) $ystems. automated, the faster and more accurately they could be performed. frame Testing analogcircuits at a manualcross-connect 3. AutomatedTest Access. involves physically breaking the connection (by removing bridging clips) and attaching the test equipment to the side of the circuit to be tested.All manual operationsare eliminated with an electronic patch panel by entering commands at the management console to connect the desired test tone$ and (DSP) channelsto the circuit under test. measurement Figure 5.31 depicts two type$ of network traffic: circuit-switched traffic and channel-switched trffic. Circuit-switched traffic representslocally switched fraffic (DSO circuits typically) and channel switched-traffic refers to leased line equivalents of digital channels.Channel-switchedhaffic might terminate at another public network switching office as in a foreign exchange(FX) circuit or at a distant cu$tomerpremise as a tie line of a private network. In the latter case,more than one DSOchannel might be concatenatedtogether to form a single higher rate channel referred to as a fractional TI circuit or M x 64-kbps channel. Channel-switchedservicestypically account for over one-half of the ffansmissionbandwidth betweenU.S. metropolitan offices [13]' The processof separatingchannel-switchedservicesfrom circuit-switched servicesis "grooming." Figure 5.30 also showsthat universaldigital loop caroften referred to as rier (UDLC) becomesintegrated digital loop carrier (IDLC) in a digital environment in more detail.) (Figure 5.31). (Chapter I I describesDLC $y$tems

and Segregation 5.5.1 Consolidation

Two basically different DCS grooming functions are depicted in Figures 5.32 and 5.33: consolidation and segregation.When multiple-accesslines carrying traffic destined to a coillmon distant node are partially filled, the per-channelco$tsof transpon to the remote node can be reducedby consolidating the traffic. Conversely,when different types oftraffic originate at a single location, it is desirableto allow a single faFrrthlly Filled Locsl Acc$6r Totally FillGd Nstvvork

50t6

mt\*l-l
30e6--{

rm*

*E;

o"'F-

30!_.+{_l

t0096

Figure5.32 Consolidation.

268

DIGITALSWITCHING DDS Nttrvork Tio Llnal Fortign Exchenga Losil Swltching

Figure5.33 Distribution. cility (e.g.,a T1 line)to carryall types of traffic andsegregate it at theDCS.Examples of suchtraffic arecircuit-switched channels, DDS channels, tie lines,multidropdata circuits,FX circuits,or otherspecial services ttratmight be available only at another office. 5.5.2 DG$ Hierarchy The cross-connect system depicted in Figure5.31terminates DSI signals andinterchanges DSOsignals, which leadsto the designation DCS l/0. similarly, a digital cross-connect system thatterminates DS3 signals andrearranges DSl signals within theDS3sis referred to asa DCS3/1.If a DCS,sucha$a DCS3/0,provides rearrangementof lowerlevelsignals, rruch asDSOs, it does notnecessarily mean thatit alsoprovides cross-connect servicesfor intermediate-level signals,such as Dsls. cross connection of DSls requires transparent mapping of theentirel.5zt4Mbps,whichincludes theframingchannel-a capability thatmaynorbeprovided when64-kbps DSO channels arethe primaryfocus.when a DCS provides multiplelevelsof crossconnects, theintermediate levelsaresometimes designated-asin DCS 3/l/0 for terminatingDS3sand rearranging DSls and DS0s.In most cases, it is not necessarJ to providecross-connect services at all levelsofthe digitalsignalhierarchy for all ofthe terminations. Figure5.34 depictsa DCS hierarchythat providesrearrangement of lowerlevelsignals on only subsets of higherlevelsignals. Thehigherlevel(e.g., Ds3) signals thatarenot cross connected to a lowerlevelDCSmaybeunchannelized high(44.736-Mbps) speed signals or transitDS3sthatterminate on a DCS 3/l or 3/0 at a

Figure 5.34 DCS hierarchy.

SYSTEMS 269 5.5 DIGITAL CROSS-CONNECT

restoration of theDCS3/3is to providenetwork location. Theprimarypurpose distant rearandto possiblyprovidetime-of-day or protection switchingof the DS3 signals in Chaplinks described SONBTtransmission rangement of trunkgroupassignments. producing DCS layers. at muchhigherrates additional connected ter 8 arecross 5"5.3 IntegratedCrose-ConnectEquipment and two distinctand colocated Figure5.31 depictsdistinctmultiplexingequipment swirchingsystems: the DCS and the local digital switch.AlthoughDCS functions priequipment, with separate within thepublic networkaretraditionallyimplemented multiplexingandcrossthatprovidesintegrated vatenetworksoftenutilize equipment Tl multiplexers has evolvedfrom CPE-based connectfunctions.This equipment additionsto Tl multiplexinghardTSI circuitsare insignificanthardware because multiplexers refenedto asintelligent ware.Suchequipment arevariously [14],nodal also incolpofunctions are processors, networking Cross-connect Tl multiplexers. or of is vidually the TSI function again, the cost ratedinto newer systems because, DLC nil. (suchas with higherleveldigitalsignals functions of cross-connect Integration level signalsare the mannerin which the higher a DS3) hasnot occurredbecause for direct terminationon a in Chapter7) is not amenable multiplexed(described by multiplexing,as specified switchingsystem. The newerform of (synchronous) in Chapter8, allows integrationof higher level the SONET standarddescribed for both public andprivateequipsystems digital multiplexerswith cross-connect ment. functionsare basicallynothingmore than "pegged"or Althoughcross-connect "nailed-up"circuit-switched the two functionsaretraditionallyimpleconnections, requirein the application of the following differences because mentedseparately ments: at the DSOlevel,which is generally to be strictly nonblocking l. A DCS needs in largepublicnetworkswitches. uneconomical of the transport signalrequires of a 1.544-Mbps cross-connection 2. Transparent because DSI in typicaldigital circuit switches framingbit that is not possible framing in with arechannelized the DSI signals interface equipment a$sumes the 193rd bit. of signalingbits so fully 3. DCS functionality does not involve processing to asinterfaces costs whenu$ed haveexcess functional circuitswitchinterfaces systems. cross*connect (fractional Tl channels) DSO channels multiple,concatenated 4. Cross connecting datastream.Althoughthe order requiresmaintainingorderin the concatenated by careful mappingof the individual 64-kbps can always be maintained it i$ a function that is typically not provided in DSO circuit connections, switching software.Figure 5.35 shows how the order of bytes in the 64-kbps connections' by ill-chosen canbe transposed datastream concatenated

27O
lffimlng Oflr

DIGITAL SwITcHING

Ditr Outgolng

Ch{nnel ConnGtloni Ero At to 8t , Az to Bil As to Bl

Figure 5.35 Transposition of data in concatenatedtime slots.

5.6 DIGITAL SWITCHING IN AN ANALOG ENVIRONMENT whendigitalendofficeswitches (or PBXs) areinstalled in ananalog environment,
theanalog interfaces arenecessarily unchanged. Althoughthedigital switchmay interfacewith digital subscriber canier or digital fiber feedersystem$, thesesysrems merelyextendthe analoginterface point closerto the subscriber. This sectiondescribes thebasicconsiderations ofusing digital switchingin suchan analog environment.Chapterl l describes digiralendoffice switchingwith digital subscriber loops in relationto the integrated services digital network. 5.6.1 Zero-LossSwitchlng As alreadymentioned, a well-designed digital transmission and switchingsystem addsno appreciable degradation to the end-to-end quality ofdigitized voice.In particular,thederived analog signalcomingout of a decoder canbe adjusted to thesame levelasthatpresented to theencoder at thefar end.Curiously, zero-loss transmission presents some problems significant whendigitalswitching is used in theanalog fiansmissionenvironment of a class5 centraloffice. Analogendofficeswitches aretwo-wireswitches designed to interconnectbidirectionaltwo-wirecustomer loops.The voicedigitizationprocess, however, inherently requires separation of the go andreturnsignalpathsinvolvedin a connection. Thus, a class5 digital endoffice or digitalPBx mustbe a four-wireswitch.when inserted into a two-wireanalogenvironment, hybridsarerequired to separate the two directionsof transmission. As shown in Figure5.36,hybridsateach endof ttreinternal dig! produce tal subnetwork a four-wirecircuit with thepotential for echoes andsinging. (Amplifiersareshown in conjunction with theencoders to offsetforwardpathlossinherent in thehybrids.) Instabilityarises asa resultof impedance mismatches at thehybridscausing unwanted couplingfrom the receive portionto the transmitportionof the four-wireconnection. Impedance mismatches occurbecause of the variabilityin the lengths andwire sizes ofthe subscriber loops.In pafticular, loaded andunloaded wire pairshavemarkedlydifferentimpedance characteristics. Theinstabilityproblems arecompounded by certain amounts of artificialdelaythat are requiredin a digital time division switch.Althoughthe delaythrougha digital switch(several hundred microseconds, typically)is basically unnoticeable to a user,

ENVIRONMENT 271 INANANALOG SWITCHING 5,6 DIGITAL

I
I \

underirNbh \
trEnfhybrid coulllns I /

interfaces. analog switch withtwo-wire digital Flgure5.36 Four-wire

delay of asmuchas30 to 40 milesof wire.This increased theequivalent it represents be outside might otherwise frequencies that oscillation hasthe effectof loweringthe filters' by encoder/decoder be removed andeffectively thevoiceband to the used at the interface l, hybridsweretraditionally in Chapter As mentioned these instances, four-wire. In is basically medium toll networkwherethetransmission amount a prescribed by designing theinstabilityof thefour-wirecircuitwascontrolled pathof shofier toll network (by wayof netloss)into thetransmission of netaftenuation by echosuppresareeliminated theechoes andsinging On thelongercircuits, circuits. instabilityin the same couldprevent Class5 digital switches $orsor echocancelers. process' manner: a certainamountof lossinto the encoding/decoding by designing path (approximately in each 2-3 dB amount attenuation of signal While thenecessary to some toll added connections loss the on localconnections, [5]) couldbe tolerated wouldbe unacceptably large. attenuation thatthe useof selectable it canbe seen Fromtheforegoing discussion into thetalklossis insefied Thenecessary to theinstabilityproblems. is onesolution have calls,whichalready on long-distance but not u$ed ing pathfor localconnections atthehytheimpedance involves matching solution into them.A second lossdesigned of the unelimination of DSPnearlycomplete bridsmoreclosely.Beforethe advent of the isolation However, prohibitively expensive. adequate was wantedcoupling just networks: matching two paths different couldbe accomplished with transmission hasbeen matching loops[61. Impedance loopsandonefor unloaded onefor loaded (DSP) that containtrainable electronics interface simplifiedby the useof advanced matching circuitsessencircuitry.Theimpedance matching impedance andautomatic echocancelers short-delay tially represent [17]. avoidsinstability Notice that an all-digital network(with four-wiretelephones) problems because thereareno two-wireanaloglines.Voice is digitizedat the telepathfrom the receivesignalall the way to the destination phoneandusesa separate echoes and four-wire circuit completelyeliminates Thus an endrto-end telephone. basis' on a zero*loss to operate singing, allowingall connections

272

DIGITALSWITCHING

5.6.2 BORSCHT
In Chapter I thebasicfunctional requirements ofthe subscriber loop interface aredescribed.Theserequirements arerepeated herewith two additionalrequirements for a digital switch interface: codingand hybrid. The complete list of interface requirements is unaffectionately knownasBORSCHT[18]: B : Batteryfeed o: Overvoltage protection R: Ringing S : Supervision C; Coding H: Hybrid T: Test As mentioned in chapter l, thehigh-voltage, low-resistance, andcurrentrequirements of manyof these functions areparticularly burdensome to integrated circuitimplementations. First-generation digital end office switches reduced the termination costsby usinganalogswitching(concentrators) to commoncodecs. The DMS-100 Telecom andtheNo. 5 ESSof AT&T [20] useanalog [19] of Northern concentration at the periphery. Integrated circuit manufacturers haveworkeddiligentlyto implement the BORSCHTfunctionsin what is calleda subscriber loop interface circuit (sl-rc). Perline sLICs allow implemenration of perJine BORSCHT functions. sLICs can be usedin PBx applications with a minimumof otherextemalcomponents.In cenffaloffice applications, wherelightningprotection and test access are moredemanding, sLICs typicallyneedothercomponents for a complete interface. 5.6.3 Conferencing In ananalog networkconference callsareestablished by merelyadding individualsignalstogether usinga conference bridge.Iftwo people talk at once,theirspeech is superposed. Furthermore, an active talker can hearif anotherconfereebeginstalking. Naturally, thesame technique canbeused in a digitalswitchif thesignals arefirst convertedto analog, added, andthenconverted backto digital. As described in chapter3,1t?55 andtheA-law (ITU) codeweredesigned with the specificpropertyof beingeasilydigitally linearizable (EDL). with this property, the addition functioncanbeperformed digitallyby first converting all codes to linearformats,addingthem,andthenconverting backto compre$sed formats. To theuser,the operation is identical to thecustomary analog summation. For a conference involving N conferees, N separate summations must be performed,one for eachconfereeand containing all signals but his own.For a description ofthe conferencing algorithmin the system75 PBX of AT&T, seereference descriptions of [12]. For moregeneral conferencing implementations in digital switches, seereference [21].

273 REFERENCES Another conferencing technique involves monitoring the activity of all conferees and switching the digital signal of the loudest talker to all others. Although this technique is functionally different from a customaryanalog conferencebridge, it is advantageous for large conferencesbecausethe idle channel noise of the inactive talkers does not get addedinto the output of the conferencebridge. High-quality conference circuits also include echo cancelersso higher signal powers can be provided.

REFERENCES
I M. R. Aaron, "Digital Communications-The Silent (R)evolution?" IEEE pp. l6-26. Magazine, Jan.1979, Communications
"A Study of Non-Blocking Switching Networks," Bell SystemTechnical C. Clos, Joumal, Mar. 1953, pp.4O6-424. "Analysis of Switching Networks," Bell SystemTechnical Journal, Nov. C. Y. Lee,

pp.1287-1315. 1955,
"A Studyof Congestion No. 48, Erics sonTechniques, in Link Systems," C. Iacobaeus, pp. 1-70. Stockholm, 1950, A TimeFor Innovation,Merle Telecommunications, A. A. CollinsandR. D. Pedersen, TX, 1973. Dallas. CollinsFoundation. Protacols, Modeling and Analysis' Netvvork M, Schwartz, Telecommunications MA, 1987. Reading Addison-Wesley, Units andR. K. York, "New Time DivisionSwitching T. E. Browne,D. J. Wadsworth, pp.443-476, Joumal,Feb.1969, Aell SystemTechnical for No. l0l ESS," "Telephones pp.51-60. 1979, Spectrurn,Oct. Go Digital,"IEEE S. G. Pitroda,

"EWSD;WhereIt Is," 'lieruen's Telecom Repon,Vol. 12,No. 2-3' 1989' 9 N. Skaperda, pp.56-59. M. F' Slana,and F' H' W. R. Schleicher, l 0 J. H. Huttenhoff.J. Janik.G. D. Johnson, "No. Technical Journal,Sept.1977' Bell System Systems," 4 ESS: Peripheral Tendick, pp. 1029-1042. "No. 4 ESS:System andOrganization," Objectives u A, E. RitchieandL. S.Tuomenoksa, pp. 1017-1027. Journal, 1977, BeIlSystemTechnital and F' E' Wyatt' t2 L. A. Baxter,P. R. Berkowitz,C. A. Buzzard,J. J. Horenkamp, "system 75: Communications AT&T TethnicalJoumal, and Control Architecture," pp. 153-173. Jan.1985, "hoviding and Managing l 3 R. K. Berman,R, W. Lawrence,and P. C. Whitehead, IEEE Clobecom, in an IntelligentISDN Environment," ChannelSwitchedServices pp.4.6.1-4.6.5. 1987, in Hybrid t4 J. L, MelsaandH. R. Scull,"The Applicationof lntelligentT1 Multiplexers pp. 15.3.1-15'3'6. 1989, IEEEGlobecom, andISDNNetworks," Digital Network," for anEvolvingLocalSwitched Planning 1 5 J. L. Neigh,"Transmission pp' 1019-1024. July 1979, on Communications, IEEETransactions "Tnro in Digital Class5 loss Considerations l 6 R. Bunker,F. Scida,and R. McCabe, pp' 1013-1018. July 1979, on Communications, Office,"IEEE Transactions

274

DIGITAL SWITCHING

l 7 D, L. Duttweiler, "A Twelve Channel Echo Cancellor,', IEEE Transactions on

Communications,May 1978, pp. 647-653. 1 8 F. D. Reese,"Memo to Management-You Must Appraise How New Technology Fits Customers," TelephoneEngineering and Management, Oct. I, 1975, pp. I 16-121. l 9 J. B. Terry, D. R. Younge, and R. T. Matsunaga, "A SubscriberLine Interface for the DMs-l00Digitalswitch," IEEENationalrelecommunicationsconference,lgTg,pp. 28.3.1-28.3.6. 20 D. L. Camey, J. I. Cochrane, L. J. Gitten, E. M. Pretl" and R. Staehler. ..The 5 ESS Switching System: Architectural Overview," AZ& T Technical Jorrrual, Aug. 19g5. 2 l R. J. D'Ortenzio, "Conferencing Fundamentalsfor Digital PABX Equipments,',IEEE International Conferenceon Communications, 1979, pp. 2.5-2g-2.5-36.

PROBLEMS 5.1 How manyfour-wirevoice circuit connections can be providedby a bidirectionalPAM switching busif theminimumachievable pulsewidth is 250nsec? 5.2 TheTS switchof Figure5.19usesDSI signals on eachrDM rink. what is the implementation complexityif groupsof five DSI inputsarefirst multiplexedto form 16input links with 120channels on eachlink? 5.3 Determine theLeegraphandJacobaeus blockingprobabilities of thefirst switch in Table5.5 (ft = 6) if two inletsout of 16 become connected to l-erlangsub(Possibly scribers. these linescouldbe dial-upporrsto a compurer.) (Hint:Two inletsarepermanently busybut the remaining inletscontinue to be O.l-erlang porrs.) 5.4 Repeat Problem 5.3but instead of two inletsbeingbusyassume thattwo of the outputlinks of thefirsr-stage modulehavefailed. 5.5 How manycrosspoints areneeded in a l024line, three-stage space swirchif the inputloadingis six common-channel per line andthemaximum signals acceptableblockingprobability(usinga Leegraphanalysis) is 0.005? (a) If n = 16,N/n = 64 (b)If n =32,N/n=32 (c) tf n = 64,N/n = 16 5.6 what is the(Leegraph) blockingprobability of theTS switchin Figure5.l9 for channel loadingof 0.2erlang? (a) Assume eachTDM inputis a 24-channel interoffice trunk group. (b) Assume theTDM inputsarederived from24-channel banks with each analog interface connected to a dedicated 0.2-erlang line. 5.7 Design ansTS switchfor 128primaryTDM signals of theccITT hierarchy (30 perinput).Blockingshould voicechannels belessthan0.002andtheloadingis 0.2 erlangper channel. How manytime slot interchange modules areneeded? Whatis thecomplexiry of the switch? 5.8 Repeat Problem 5.7 for a TST design.

PROBLEMS 275

Nx and the total numberof memorybits 5.9 Determinethe numberof crosspoints asfollows;numberof linesis 32, singleNs required for a TST switchdefined is per ftameis 30, andtime expansion space switch,numberof channels $tage 2. load5.9if thechannel of theswitchin Problem 5.10 Whatis theblockingprobability ing is 0.9 erlangperchannel? circuit for a 60in a time slot interchange 5.ll How manybits of memoryareneeded signalwith 9 bitsper time slot? channel controlin the first stageand input-associated 5.12 DeriveEquation5.15 assuming controlin thethird stage. output-associated all controlorientations areoutputassociated. 5.18assuming 5.13 DeriveEquation

MODUL,ATION DIGITAL SYSTEMS ANDRADIO

digital informationfor transmission of encoding variousmeans 4 discusses Chapter the dataencontextof this chapter links. (or In the fiber) transmission overwireline the same To impress coding. to as baseband 4 is referred in Chapter codingdescribed used signalis commonly a baseband ontoa carrierfor radiotratrsmisSiOn, information sigabaseband of specfum the dc-centered shifts carrier. modulate Modulation the to binary transemphasizes 4, which to Chapter In contrast frequency. nal to thecarrier high data to achieve multileveldigital modulation emphasizes mission,this chapter data voiceband analog channel or of a radio defined bandwidth rateswirhin therigidly can techniques modulation most multilevel chapter, later in this circuit.As described baseband multilevel one of the with a carrier modulating by directly be implemented 4. in Chapter signals described cover in this chapter described techniques for the digitalmodulation Applications modems. voiceband systems, and cellular digital point-to-point sy$tems, microwave are no longerusedalongheavyffaffic microwavesystems Atthoughpoint-to-point in applications utilizedin thin-route are still public they network, routesof ttreU.S. prohibitive' Furis right-of-way of a fiber where cost the world the U.S. andaround in privatenetworks used is still commonly microwave digitalpoint-to-point thermore, such a$digitalvideo applications in special (alongwith some and systems) old analog basestation. digital cellular from a transportfrom a studioto a transmitteror to and modulation uses mobile units stations and base between Digital cellulartransmission point-to-point sysdigital original that areidenticalto that usedin some techniques
TEInS.

theFCCestablished radioswerefirst beingdeveloped, Whendigitalpoint-to-point to enin the UnitedStates by these radios certaindatarates[1] thatmustbe achieved Basically, spectrum. surea minimum utilizationefficiencyof the radio frequency of number thesame in Table6.1)specifyapproximately minimumrates(shown these time in use at the radios FM in theanalog voicecircuits(at 64 kbps)aswereavailable in a FDM signaloccupy4 kHz of band(19?4).Althoughindividualvoicechannels by a factorof the signalbandwidth typically expands modulation width, frequency 277

278

DIGITAL MoDUI.ATIoN AND RADIo SYSTEMS

TABLE6.1 InformatlonDensltleg Fequiredby Fcc for common-carrlerMicrowsve Channele Using64 kbps per VolceCircuit
Band (GHz)

Channel BW(MHz) 3.5 20 30 30 40

BitRate(Mbps) 6.144 73.7 73.7 73.7 73.7

(bps/Hz) Density 1,8 3.7 2.5 2.5 1.8

2.1 10-2.130 3.700-4.200 5.9?5-6.425 6.52ffi.87s 1Q.7-11.7

about4, depending on the amountof FM deviation applied. Thusthedigital systems wererequiredto compete with an equivalent voicechannel bandwidthof about 16 kHz' If the digitalradioswereforcedto compete with analogsingle-sideband radios in theearly 1980s, [2, 3] introduced theycouldnot havedonesowithoutusinglower bit ratevoiceencoding. over andabove theminimumbit rates established by theFCC,competition among digital microwavemanufacturers and the economicsof manimizing the numberof voicecircuitsper radio stimulated the development of moreadvanced digitalmodulationtechniques to achieve greater even transmission rates. As an example of signal processing advances, the6G150 MB digitalradioof NEC carries a 155-Mbps payload in 30 MHz of bandwidth-an information density ofjust over5 bps/Hz. Thefirst part of this chapter describes basicmodulation techniques andthe transmission efficienciestheyprovide.The lattersections describe radiosystem design considerations for point-to-point microwave relaysystem$. lnformation Density A usefulparameter for characterizing thebandwidth efficiency of a digitalmodulation system is theinformation density, definedas

s-#
where R = data rate in bits per second BW = bandwidth of digital signal in hertz

(6.1)

The units of information density are sometimesreferred to loosely as bits perhertz. However, as defined in Equation 6.1, the units shourdbe bits per secondper hertz or simply bits per cycle. Since bits per secondper hertz conveysthe natureof information density more completely, it is the preferred unit. The bandwidth factor in Equation 6.1 can be defined in a variety of ways. In theoretical studiesthe bandwidth of a signal is usually determinedas the width of the ideal filter used to strictly bandlimit the signal (i.e., the Nyquist bandwidth). hr practical systems,where the spectrumcan never be strictly bandlimited, the bandwidth is more

279 MODULATION 6.1 DIGITAL miniwith a certain is usuallyspecified a channel difficult to define.In radiosystems is easily density the information In this case, edges. at the band attenuation mumsignal dividedby the allotasthe bit rateof a signalmeetingtheserequirements determined ted bandwidth. thebandwidth however, areprovided, specifications Whenno particulalemission manner' arbitrary more or less in another requiredby a digital signalmustbe defined may drop spectrum the signal since is usuallyinappropriate using a 3-dBbandwidth into adjaspill over of energy to amounts allow.significant ratherslowly andthereby would be level to definethe bandedges attenuation Using a greater cent channels. arbitrary.A generallymorerelevantcriterion but is still somewhat more appropriate required of a signalasthechamelspacing defines thebandwidth systems for practical channels. adjacent into identical interference level of maximum a specified to achieve commonlyusedin Europe,is the 997opower definitionof bandwidth, Yet another bandwidth. is 2 bps/tlz for densityfor binarysignaling information maximum The theoretical If a foursignal' double-sideband a two-levelline codeor 1 bps/flz for a modulated information thetheoretical 2 bits per signalinterval, levelline codeis usedto achieve carriersignal. densityis 4 bps4lz for theline code,or ZbpslHzfor a double-sideband by usingsinglecanbe doubled signals densifl of amplitude-modulated Theinformation the sameefficiencyas the line codes to effectivelyachieve sideband transmission (baseband signals). line telephone datarateon a dial-upanalog practical a representative example, As a rate). signaling 2400-Hz and a per signal interval (usually l2 bits with bps is 28,800 3 kHz, a typical is approximately channel of a telephone bandwidth Sincetheusable informationdensityof a dial-upline is 9.6 bps/H2.. theminimum radios,Table6.1 includes point for digital microwave As a starting bands in common*carrier required informationdensities bit ratesandcorresponding led to with the digital hierarchy andcompatibility Competition of the UnitedStates. efficiencies. transmission of evengreater realizations

6.1 DIGITALMODULATION in two imporon a radiolink differsfrom wirelinetransmission Digital transmission to manner in some a carrier must modulate information First,the digital tantregards. proce$s can modulation (RF) the In many cases signal. produce the radio frequency (NRZ) by a nonreturn-to-zero modulation form of amplitude be viewedasa special moduthat amplitude signal a baseband Thustheline coderepre$ents line codesignal. the receiver. in by demodulation latesthe carrierin the transmitterandis reproduced that the RF the modulationprocessin this mannerhas the advantage Representing to the spectra theline code(baseband) by merelytranslating spectra canbe determined frequencY. carrier $elected
*Slightly higher rates are sometimes achieved with V.34 modems. Rates approaching 64 kbps are also possible in special (V.90) applications described in Chapter 1I .

280

DtctrALMoDULATtoN ANDRADIo sysrEMS

second,a radio link differs from wireline tansmissiondue to the necessity of strictly bandlimiting the transmitted signals to preventinterference into otherchannels.Althoughwirelinetransmission links automatically filter theline signalto some extent,explicit filter requirements sometime$ occuronly in the receivers to rejectas muchnoiseaspossible.* Since radiolinks arebandlimitedin thehansmitter andzpise theend-to-end filter functionmustbe partitioned filtered in thereceiver, between the two ends.Figure6.I showsa block diagramof a radio link showingrepresentative baseband and RF waveforms along with corresponding frequencyspectrums. For modulation, Figure6.I shows multiplication of thecarrierby thebaseband waveform. Modulationin a digitalradiomustultimatelybe designed in conjunction with the firlterfunctions. For ease of description, however, modulation techniques areconsideredfirst. Later on, the filtering requirements of eachtype of modulationare discussed. Figure6.1alsoshows thebaseband encoding proce$s to beindependent ofthe process. modulation For mostof themodulation techniques described in this chapter thisview is appropriate. In thecase of trellis-coded modulation (TCM) andcarrierless amplitude (cAP) modulation, andphase described later,encoding is incorporated into themodulation process. 6.1.1 AmplitudeModulailon Historically,the simplestform of modulationto generate and detectis amplitude (AM). A conceptual modulation illustration of amplitude modulation is shown in Figure 6.2.Themathematical definitionis x(t)=[l +am,(r)]cosro"t wherea = modulation index(0 < a S l) mn$)=n-level, symmetric NRZ baseband signalnormalized to maximum amplitude of I 0[ = is the radiancarrierfrequency, = 21;1 Amplitudemodulation is an example of a classof special modulation techniques referredto as"linear modulation."Linearmodulationimpliesthat the spectrum of the modulated signalis obtained by ffanslating thebaseband spe{trum to theselected carrier frequency band.As shownin Figure6.2, amplitude modulation by a two-level digitalbaseband signalessentially translates thesin(x/x baseband specrrum up to the carier frequencyf,.other linearmodulation techniques aredouble-sideband modulation,single-sideband modulation, andvestigial-sideband modulation. Inspection of Equation 6.2or Figure6.2indicates tharif lfi)7o modulation is used (a = I ), no carier is produced for a logic0. Forobvious reasons, thisform of amplitude modulation is oftenreferred to ason-off keying,oramplitude (ASK). As shifi keyrng
'Adherence to EMI compatibility specifications defined by the FCC (Paxt 15) often requires some amount of transmit filtering in on-premiseswireline transmission systems.

(6.2)

!
j j
f
ct

c CI -g

tE
t
B ,6
E

,f

?i
6

E!

{)

f
o

bI)
6

E
,t4

j
4
rE

o
E
F F

EE
E

(h

\a P HO

FB

281

282

DIGITALMODULATION AND RADIOSYSTEMS

*kl = [t *an,(rll coro.r

] -.t

Figure 6.2 Digital binaryamplitude modulation. shown in Figure 6.3, on-off keying can be obtainedby direct multiplication of a carrier with the two-level (unipolar) line code describedin Chapter 4. Amplitude-modulated signalsare usuarly demodulatedwith a simple envelopedetector. The cost effectivenessof this detectoris the basic reasonthat commercial analog broadcastingusesamplitude modulation. unfortunately, the eruorperformanceof digital amplitude modulation in general,and envelopedetection in particular, is inferior to other forms of digital modulation and detection. For this reason, amplitude modulation is used only where the cost of the receiver is a significant consideration. Digital microwave links and digital cellular systemsuse other forms of modulation and demodulation to minimize the enor rate for a given signal-to-noise ratio. Conventional amplitude modulation provides suboptimum error performance for two basic reasons.First, if a < r, a discrete (informationless) spectral line occurs at the carrier ftequency. Although the existenceof this spectralline simplifies canier recovery' it increasesthe transmitter power without aiding discrimination between information signals. with 1007omodulation (on-off keying) no line specfraare produced, but the system is still inefficient in its use of transmifted power. As discussedin chapter 4 for two-level line coding, the maximum use of transmittedpower is achievedwhen one signal is the negativeof the other. Thus, a seconddeficiency of amplitude modulation arisesbecausea 0 signal is not the exact negative ofa I signal. To achieve optimum performance,a symmetric twolevel basebandsignal should directly modulate (multiply) the carier. As shown in Figure 6.4, this form of modulation producestwo iden-

MoDULATIoN283 6.1 DtctrAL

frF+

#t+t# #'q#q# +Sffiffiffi

Figure 6.4 Phase-reversal keying.

reis sometimes this modulation Hence reversal. for a 180"phase except tical signals keying phase shift keying(PRK),or moreoften,two-level reversal ferredto asphase a PRK Instead, detection' by envelope be detected (2-PSK),f-Iotice that PRK cannot carier reference. by comparingit to a coherent signalmustbe detected the incomingsignalto a local carriersyninvolvescomparing detection Coherent amplitudemoduWith conventional to that usedat thetransmitter. chronizedin phase all of the however, With PRK signaling, in the phase. lation thereis no information for PRK signalsallows The useof a coherentreference informationis in the phase. defininga PRK signalis Thebasicequation elror rateperformance. optimum(antipodat) oct x(t1= r77r111cos (6'3)

signallm2$)= +1 for a I andm2(t)= -l for is thebinarydigitalbaseband wherern2(t) is equation a 01.Thedemodulation y(t) =.r(t)[2cosoct] = lmr(t) cosoctl [2 cosro"tl * m?(t)+ m2(t)cos2ro.t (6.4)

term is removedwith a low-passfilter' wherethe double-frequency proce$$ demodulation in Figure6.4 andEquation6.4, the coherent As indicated the datadetect processed further to be produces -Since a symmetrictwo-level signalthat can it must code, to a line equivalent essence, signalis, in baseband thedemodulated 4. [n particular,theremustbe in Chapter asdiscussed includetiming considerations to allow recoveryof a sample signal enoughsignal transitionsin the baseband preclude dc wandersincedc levels signalneednot clock. However,the baseband

284

DIGITAL MoDULATIoN ANDHADIoSYSTEMS o r r 0 0 t 0 t t 0 0 l o t t 0 0 l

trffi#hirfut\ddill Eq#
Phsre dctoclol Low pssg fllur

Modulator

Denrodulstol

Figure6.5 Binary frequency shiftkeying. aretranslated to thecarrierfrequency andpassed adequately by thedouble-sideband system.6.1.2 Frequency $hift Keytng In additionto an inefficientuseof signalpower,conventional amplitude-modulated (not PRK) haveoneotherundesirable signals characteristic. By definition,an amplitude-modulated signaluses multiplesignallevels,which impliesAM is quitevulnerable to si8nal saturation that narrowsthe distance betweenamplitudelevels and produces spectrum spreading. A common source of saturation in a radiosyslem occurs in the outputpoweramplifierof the transmitter. In mostcases outputamplifiersare operated at lessthanmaximum powerto eliminate saturation andothernonlinearities, sotheycanaccommodate amplitude-modulated signals [4]. systems FM or pM u.leconstant-amplitude signals not adversely _ _Angle-modulated affectedby signalsaturation. HenceFM and pM canbe transmitteaat higherpowei levelsthanAM systems. The ability to usesaturating poweramplifiersis oneof the rea$ons why FM wasoriginallychosen for analog microwave radios. This section discusses digitalfrequency modulation, commonly referred to asfrequency shift keying (FSK).Thenext section discusses digitalphase modulation, commonly refenedto as phase shiftkeying(PSK).Both systems providea consrant-amplitude signal. systems usingconstant-amplitude carriers arealsoreferred to asconstant-envelJpe sysrems. Thegeneral expression for ann-aryFSK signalis

.(,):*,[[*..9J']
'A

(6.5)

single-sideband system does not pass dc energy. Thus if single-sideband modulation rs used, the basebandsignal must exclude.dc energy from its spectrum. Some double-sidebandsystems might also require the elimination of baseband dc energy so that a carrier tone can be inserted intl the center of tlre passband without affecting the signal.

MODULATION 285 6,1 DIGITAL

wherero"= radiancenterfrequency signal ln, = n-levelNRZ digitalbaseband signals = between frequency radian difference Aro A typicalbinaryFSK signalis shownin Figure6.5 alongwith a simple(but lowThemodulator themodulatoranddemodulator. of implementing performance) means frequency produce the center (VCO) is biased to that oscillator is a voltage-controlled baseband two-level symmetric a of the Theamplitude is applied. whenno modulation -L{dy? 0. a for a I and +Arr/2 for of deviation a frequency signalproduces detector, loop:a VCO, a phase asa phase-locked is implemented Thedemodulator theFSK phase between in thedifference measures detector anda loop filter. Thephase receive signal produced the when signalandthe VCO output.A positivevoltageis to filtered being After otherwise. voltageis produced leadsthe VCO, anda negative a way in such the VCO outputdrives detector thephase of noise, minimizetheeffects Ideally,theinput controlvoltageof thedemodulator difference. thephase asto reduce VCO' The loop filter, however, VCO will be identicalto the input of the modulator of noise. to minimizethe effects response slowsthe demodulator necessarily thanPSK,parpoorer errorperformance provides shiftkeyinggenerally Frequency moOlder asynchronous bandwidth. in a confined ticularly for multilevelsignaling FSK modulation' networkused telephone overtheanalog demsfor datatransmission to betcompared the simplerimplementation do not useFSK because Newersystems is no longersignificant. techniques ter performing

Mlnimum Shift KeYing attention considerable shift keyingthathasreceived form offrequency Oneparticular FSK is binary MSK (MSK) Basically, is minimumshift keying [51. in raaio systems phase in 180o difference exactly so that selected frequencies with the two signaling MSK in one signalinterval'In this manner the two frequencies shift existsbetween difa minimum using of an interval phase attheend differential a maximum produces continuous maintains MSK signal an Furthermore, frequencies. i"r"n"e in signaling of FSK signals to a class MSK belongs For thisreason transitions. phase at signaling a 6'6 depicts (CPFSK). Figure shiftkeying frequency iefenedto ascontinuous-phase difference cycle one-half Noticethatthereis exactly MSK waveform. representative a I signalanda 0 signal(? cyclesversus1'5 cycles). between 6.5, canbe derivedfrom Equation for MSK signaling expression A mathematical = for The result n/7. wherenn(t) = mz(t)is a symmetricbinary NRZ signal and ACO signalintervalis anyparticular

fo- 1,6tT

h*2lt

rrtr t/r- shnrllno

Figure 6.6 Minimum shift keYing.

286

DIGITAL MoDULATtoN ANDRADto sysTEMS

f ( T *E*u q o ) ) (logic1) lcosl'cr x(r)={ \

l ( T E t . \

(6.6)

f'o'[*'- a+qo)

(logic 0)

where1/7is thesignaling rateandS6is thephase atthebegiruring of thesignal interval (+n in Figure6.6). Themainattraction of MSK is its comparatively compact spectrum. Furthermore, with anappropriate means of detection, MSK canprovideoptimumerrorperformance in termsof the energy-per-bit-to-noise-density ratio (E/No). The expression for the powerspectral densityof theMSK signaldefinedin Equation 6.6 is

s(rrr):t6rt7[4"==f -Ot')
[n,

(6.7)

wheres = l(D- to.lr. The frequency spectrum of an MSK signalis plottedin Figure 6'7, whereit is compared to the frequency specrrum of pRlt(2-psx; signating wittr the same datarate.Noticethat the MSK spectrum is morecompact andhasits first spectral null at 3/4Iinsteadof l/Ifor pRK.* Minimum shift keyingis actually just oneexample of a general classof continuous-phase (cPM) techniques modulation thatmaintain a constant amplitude, narrow power spectrum, andgoodenor performance. For a goodoverviewandbibliography of this classof modulation schemes seereference havenot been t6l. cpM schemes usedin point-to-point microwave applications because they do not providehigh informationdensities. Many versions of CPM havebeenusedin sat"llit" applications wherenonlinear transponder amplifierspreclude the useof modulation iechniques with multipleamplitude levels[7]. Gausslan MSK Like MSK, Gaussian minimumshift keying(GMSK) produces a constant-amplitude and continuous-phase RF signal.GMSK differs from MSK throughthe use of a Gaussian baseband pulseshape in prace of a square pulseshape for MSK. Because the pulserisesanddecays Gaussian asymptotically with respect to a zeroresponse level, it hasa muchmoreconstrained bandwidth. Althoughit is conceivable that a GMSK signalcouldbe generated by filteringthemodulated signal,a rypicalimplementation [8] utilizesbaseband filtering,asshownin Figure6.8,whereit is contrasted to unfilteredMSK' TheMSK signalis generated by directFSK modulation of a carrierwith a baseband signalthatis scaled in amplitude to produce a modulation indexor 0.5.A modulation indexof this valueproduces the difference of l80o of phase shift for the two datavalues. one complication of the bandwidthJimiting filter of GMSK is the
*MSK i. achrally more closely related to 4-PSK and therefore rs compaxed to it in a later section of this chapter.

MODULATION 287 6.1 DIGITAL

Sigmlingr.to = D|ta rute= l/T

E
a

,f,ol out*o{-hnd ponnr IMSKI

fttctioh

of outd+and

Pdvir

I
I

&

(Hrl Fruqrrency

Figure 6.7 Power spectraof unfiltered MSK and 2-PSK signals'

MSKWaveform Unfiltered
NRZ Baseband Waveform Index * 0.5 Modulation (a)

Filter PulseResPonse Gaussian

A
= 0.5 Index Modulation
(b) MSK and(b) GMSK' of (a) directmodulation Figure 6.8 Comparison

288

DtctrAL MoDULATtoN AND RADto sysrEMS

creationof intersymbolinterference similar to partial-response sy$tems discussed laterin this chapter. In essence, GMSK trades a smallamount of adjacent channel interference for a smallamount of intersymbol interference. GMSK modulation is utilg andin cellulardigitalpacket izedin GSM digital cellular[9] discussed in Chapter data(CDPD)applications. 6.1.3 Phase $hift Keying The second category of angle-modulated, constant-envelope signals is referred to as phase shift keying(PSK).Actually,oneform ofpsK hasalready beendiscussed as phase reversal keying(PRK),morecorlmonly referred to as2-psK, indicatingthat eachsignalintervaluses oneoftwo phases thatare lg0" apartto encode binarydata. Multiple-phase shiftkeyingis alsopossible. Four-psK(alsocalledepsK) andg-psK pSK. arethemostcommon examples of multiple-phase Phase shift keying (which includes 4-eAM described next) is the mosrpopular modulation technique for intermediate information density high-performance applications.The popularityis primarily dueto its constant envelope,lnsensitivity to level variations, andgooderrorperformance. Both z-pSK and4-psK providetheoretical optimumerrorperformance in termsof a signal-to-noise ratio (E/ d. A general expression for n-aryphase shiftkeyingis provided in Equation 6.g.This expression assumes lfi)7a modulation is employed. That is, thephase shift from one intervalto the nextcanrange anywhere from -190" to +1g0..It is po$sible to devise PSKsystems with lowermodulation indices thatallow only transitions to neighboring phases:

"tt=cosfco'.O9O)

(6.8)

where Af =Znln is theseparation between a-djacent signalphases and mn$)is a symmetricn-levelNRZ baseband signalwith levels+1, t3, . . . . Examples of typical 2-PSKand4-psK waveforms are shownin Figure6.g. Ttre signaling ratefor the4-PSKsystem is shown to be exactlyone-half thez-psr signal_ ing ratesothatequaldatarates areprovided. Thesame figurealsoshows corresponding phasor diagrams of the signaling phases of a cosinewaveasdefined in Equation 6'8. other phase orientations arepossible. Theparticurar phases $hown, however, are convenient for laterdiscussions relating 4-psK systems to othertypesof digitalmodulation.

Quadrature Signal Bepresentailone Despite the somewhat exoticsounding name, quadrature signalrepresentations area very convenient psK signals andpowerfulmeans of describing andmanyotherdigitally modulated signals. signalrepresentations Quadrature involveexpressing an arbitraryphase sinusoidal waveform asa linearcombination of a cosine waveanda sine

MODULATION 289 6.1 DIGITAL

Ph$e disgrim h)

Timrwrwform

dirgrem Fharn ft)

Timewwgform

Figure 6.9 Phaseshift keying; (a) 2-PSK (b) 4-PSK.

is providedby of this representation The derivation phases. wavewith zerostarting the trigonometricidentity: + 0) = cosQcosro./- sin $ sin ro"t cos(to"t

(6.e)

over a signalinginterval andhencerepreNotice that cosQandsin Qareconstants cos of thesignals + $) asa linearcombination cos(ro"t for expressing sentcoefficients to each phase respect with O"t and sin co.f.Sincecos rrr"tand sin or./ are90" out of "in quadraother, they are ofihogonalin a phasordiagramand henceare saidto be
ture.tt representbasis vectors in a two-dimensional phasor co$ Oct and sin tDcf In essence, diagram. The cosine signal is usually referred to as the in-phase or l signal, and the sine signal is referredto asthe out-of-phaseor B signal' Table 6.2 provides an example

lor 4'PSK Modulatlon SlgnalCoefllclente TABLE6.2 Quadrature Coefficients Quadrature DataValues 01 00 10 11

cos ocf sin ool CompositeSignal

0.7Q7 -0.707 4.707 0.707

4,707 -0.707 0.707 0.707

cos(ot f+ n/4) + 3r/4) cos(ru"f 3r/4) cos(<o"tco$(0)cl- ty'4)

290

DGIALMoDULATtoN AND HADto sysrEMs

TABLE6.3 Ouadrature SignalCoefficiente for g-pSKModutatlon Quadrature Coefficients DataValues 011 010 000 001 101 100 110 111
cos ocf sin o.f CompositeSignal

0.924 0.383 -0.383 -{.924 -0.924 -{.383 0.383 0.924

-{,383 4.924 -{.924 -o,383 0.383 0.924 0.924 0.383

cos(cu"f + dB) cos(ro"f + 3r/8) cos(o"t+ 5nl8) cos(ro"f + 7rl8) * 7rrle) cos(ohf cos(ocf- 5nl8) cos(ro.f-3nl8) - dB) cos(ro.f

of quadrature signalrepresentations for the4-psK signals presented in Figure6.9.Table 6.3 providesa corresponding specification for an g-psK systemusing signal phases asprovided in thephasor diagram ofFigure6.10.Thephasor diagram assumes counterclockwise rotation, andhence thesinefunctionlagsthecosine functionby 90o. Most of the rest of this chapterrelies heavily on quadrature signalrepresentations to describe various modulation concepts, analyses, andimplementationr. Modulator Implementatlone A varietyof techniques psK modulators. arepossible for implementing As mentioned whendiscussing PRK modulation, a 2-psK modulator canbeimplemented by merely invertingthecarier (multiplyingby -l) for a logic 0 andby nof invertingfor a logic l. someof the basictechniques psK signals usedfor generating multiple-phase are thefollowins;

dn 0r.t

Figure 6.10 Phasor diagram of B-pSKsignal.

MODULATION 291 6.1 DIGITAL

at suitably usingdigital signalprocessing waveforms of the desired L synthesis modems). (as low carrierfrequencies in voiceband thephases between of a singlecarrierandselecting multiplephases 2. Generating on the datavalues. depending to provide througha switchingarrangement delaysselected 3. Using controlled signals the separate to generate phase shifts.Delaysareoften used the desired 2. in method signals. of quadrature asa linearcombination thePSK signals & Generating of multiphase a directimplementation represent techniques Noneof theforegoing directly,a de6.8 Equation To implement 6.8. in Equation asdefined PSKmodulation proportion to the levelsin phase in direct shifts carrier that produces vice is needed can a multiplier where of Z-PSK case for thespecial Except signalmn(t). thebaseband +180o do not exist' phase shifts,suchdevices be usedto produce PSK signalsif a quadrature canproduce signals by baseband Direct modulation is used,as indicatedin method4' Actually, two multilevel signalimplementation (I) signalandonefor the onefor thein-phase to be established: signals need baseband for to asr4(t) andtt?q(t) are referred (0) signals baseband These out-of-phase signal. corsignals two baseband p for levels the chosen The respectively. the1 and signals, a PSK signalasa linearcombination needed to repre$ent to the coefficients respond defined how an 8-PSKsignal, Figure6.11 shows For example, of the/ andQ signals. quadrature signals. two amplitude-modulated by adding in Table6.3,canbegenerated 6. I in Figure 2. This is provided implementation of thecorresponding A blockdiagram for actual not so much asa recommendation particularform of modulatoris chosen, importantmodulationconceptsand is it demonstrates but because implementation, of PSK signaling' requirements the spectrum usefulin analyzing Demod uI ator Irr p le m e ntati o n with the aid of a mustbe detected all PSK systems envelope,* Owing to the constant oneof thetwo with is coherent ideal reference the For Z-PSKsystems, localreference. signal, a (mixed) in-phase with an is multiplied phases. Whenthis reference possible phase, a maxithe opposite Whenmultipliedby positive outputis obtained. maximum In this manner,2-PSKprovidesantipodalperformoutputis obtained. mum negative process for The demodulation is established. reference ancewhena local coherent in Figure6.4 andEquation6.4, wherethe mixing and filtering 2-PSKis presented signalruz(t). thebaseband recovers process effectively filter shownin Figure6.4 is generally a low-pass mixer and of a combination The mathematipropertyis represented phase detection phase The detector. referredto asa cally as
*Discussions to this point have not considered the effects of filtering on constant-envelopesignals. A heavily filtered PSK signal does not have a constant envelope. However, as long as filtering occurs after channel nonlinearities (e,g., power amplifiers), the most harmful effect of a nonlinearity, spectrum sprcading,is avoided.

29?

DIGITAL MODULATION ANDRADIOSY$TEMS

tr(ll ' frr . cB @.r

rq {rl = ng ' rin o.r

t k l = r f ( r l + r Oi r l

ilt=fiQl ilO r ln9t

0r = FhrF ol Jrh Intflil

Figure 6.11 Generationof 8-pSK signals by superposition of quadrature-amplitudemodulated signals.

+ 0) (2)cos ocr} #r; = 1o*Ouss{cos(ro"r = lowpass{cos - sin2qrl 2ro"t S + cos Qcos

=COs0

(6.10)

wherelowpass{.}is a low-pass filter functiondesigned to removetwice carrier terms. Whendetecting 2-PSKmodulation, a single-phase detector indicates whether the received phase is closerto 0oor to 180".Thedesired information is directlyavailable asthepolarityof thephase detector outputcosQ.In multiphase systems, however, the information providedby a single-phase detector is inadequate for two reasons. First,

Ampliturlc moduhtid Id{ml

Oonnrmerryrlopr PSK$nd

$n adc t

Amplltudt modrlrted 0SCul

Figure 6.12 Generalized PSK modulatorstructure.

MODULATION 293 6.1 DIGITAL

Secasto whether no information of cos$ provides a measure Qis positiveor negative' as well as amplitude to the proportional signal is detector ond,theoutputof thephase refunless is meaningless phase output detector of the themagnitude to cos$. Hence erenced to the signalamplitude. problemsare overcomeif a secondmixer and filter Both of the aforementioned thebestperformAs expected, reference. to a different with respect thephase measure first. Ify{r) is theoutto the is orthogonal reference whenthesecond is obtained ance phase detector then the second 6. I 0, in defined Equation put ofthe first phase detector becomes outputyQ(r) + 0) (2) sin rrl.rl lB$) = lowpass{cos(o"r = _sin 0

(6.11)

phase ambiguity thepositive/negative phase not only resolves detector Thesecond canbe All decisions reference. an amplitude the needto establish but alsoeliminates As a first outputandnot on the magnitude. detector on thepolarityof a phase based in Table6.2'Noticethatthe defined of the4-PSKsignals detection consider example, angleis positive(tt/4 or 3nl4) anda 1 othfirst databit in a pair is a 0 whenthephase by thepolarityof sin Q:theoutspecified Hence thefirst databit is completely erwise. databit is a I whenthe yA(f).Similarly,the second phase put of the second detector all informationnecessary phase is it/4, indicatingthat the polarityofyr(fl provides of a 4-PSK (QPSK)demodulabit. The basicimplementation to detectthe second to emphasize is shownin Figure6.13.AIso shownis a 4-PSKmodulator tor/detector is preA 4-PSK system the modulatorand demodulator. between the relationships it is a usefulfoundation andbecause it is a popularsystem because specifically $ented techniques' othermodulation for describing shownin Figure6.13is that concept to noticein *re 4-PSKsystem An important The modulatordividesthe incoming datastreams. two separate thereare,in e$$ence, modulatorl andthe out-ofbit streamso that bits are sentaltematelyto the in-phase phase deof the respective the output appear at bits phase These same modulator O. In backinto a serialbit $tream. wherethey areinterleaved tectorsin the demodulator, using areestablished binary PSK channels independent two essentially this manner to asthe areusuallyreferred andsin ocf. Thechannels cosr.rlct carriers theorthogonal within an two channels of establishing This technique respectively. I andSchannels, referredto asquadraturemultiplexing' existingbandwidthis sometimes are in the demodulator As long asthe carriersin the modulatorandthe references the1and in thereceiver), (coherence for bothchannels is maintained truly orthogonal in theseredo not interferewith eachother.Any amountof misalignment B channels Crosstalkalso channels. betweenthe two quadrature cros$talk lationshipscauses channel. in thetransmission phase distortion if thereis unequalized arises the capacity multiplexingincreases thatquadrature At first thoughtit might seem that thebinary however, be remembered, 2. It must a factor of given by bandwidth of a thebandHence signal. is a double-sideband quadrature channel each signal on PSK in comutilized is only 507o quadrature multiplexing, without of the channel, width

?,94

DIGITAL MODULATIoN AND RADIo SYSTEMS

parison to a single-sidebandsy$tem. when quadraturechannels are used, a singlesideband operation is no longer possible since the sideband separationprocess deshoys the orthogonality of the two signals.In essence, quadraturemultiplexing only recoversthe loss of capacity incurred by the double-sidebandspecfrum.In fact, $ome single-sidebandmodulators [10] possessa remarkable resemblanceto the epsK modulator shown in Figure 6.13. Demodulation and detection of higher level psK systemsare complicated by the fact that the use of only two referencesdoes not provide a simple meansof detecting all databits. There are two basic ways in which simple decisions(positive versusnega* tive) can be establishedto detect all data. One method is to establishmore references in the receiver and measurethe phaseof the received signal with respectto the aclditional references.The secondmethod is to use only two referencesand related phase detectorsand generateall additional measurements aslinear combinationsof the first two.

D|tr Input t 0 1 0 1 0

Frtqudrcy HrcG

4-PSK $lgnrl

lflf
Q Chrnnd

4-PISK Signal

Dt$ iltput

r 0
0 t

1
0

Q Glunml (h)

Figure 6.13 Four-PSK modulator-demodulator structure: (a) modulator; (D) demodulatordetector.

MODULATION 295 6.1 DIGITAL

for 8-PSK detection. references Figure6.14 Receiver

in Table6.3 defined the8-PSKsystem consider of thefirst method, As anexample if two obtained canbe for this system andshownin Figure6.10.Optimumdetection at +ru/4and to references detectoroutputsareprovidedwith respect additionalphase -tc/4.Thetwo newreferences A andB asshownin Figure6.14' aredesignated aredeterto the four references corresponding detectors The ouputs of four phase minedasfollows;

+ 0Xz) sin to"f } = -sin S )0 = lowpass{cos(ro"r + OXz)sin(rrl"r + i r) } yu = lowpass { cos(co"t =O.707 sin$ cos0 - 0.707 + 0X2) cosoct} = cosS yr = lowpass{cos(rrr.r + 0X2)cos(co"t * i n)} yA= lowpass{cos(ro"t = 0;707 cos$ + 0.707sinQ

(6.12)

As an aid in determining the appropriatedecision logic, theseequationshave been evaluatedfor each of the eight possible signal phasesand listed in Table 6.4. Examination of Table 6.4 indicatesthat the fust data bit is I whenever yg is positive. Similarly, the seconddatabit is 1 whenevery1is positive. The third databit is a I whenever bit is )a,lr, and y6 are all positive or when they are all negative.Hence the third data In summary, phase of outputs' detector a logical combination determinedas

D r =Q

Dz=I

Dt=AIB+AIB

(6.13)

positive representing whereDi is the lth databit and0, /, A, andB arelogic variables from yg, /r, )4, andyr' respectively. outputs

296

DtcrrAL MoDULATtoN AND HADto sysrEMs

TABLE6.4 Elght-P$KPhaeeDetactorOutpurs
Data

Phase
nl8 3rll8 5nl8 7r18 -hil8 -5nl8 -3?r/8 4tlB

Yn

YB

Yt

YA

011 010 000 001 101 100 110 111

-0.383 4.924 -0.924 4,383 0.383 0.924 0.9?4 0.383

0.383 4.383 {.924 -0.924 -0.383 0,383 0.924 0.924

0.924 0.383 -0.383 -0.924 -0.924 {.383 0,383 0.924

0.924 0.924 0.383 4.383 -0.924 4.924 4.383 0,383

Another method of detecting 8-PSKsignals, whichavoids two extrareferences and phase detectors, is revealed in thephase detector Equation 6.12.The exhamea$urementsyd andy6 canbe determined as h= 0.70'lyr O.707yn + 0.707y, t6= 0.7O7y, (6.14)

Hencethe Ja and)r measurements can be obtainedas linear combinations of the quadrature channelphasemeasurements y7andJg, andno additionalphase detectors arerequired. Theresulting 8-PSKdemodulator/detector is shown in Figure6.15.Notice that implementation of the linearcombinations in Equation 6.14canignorethe magnitude of the0.707multiplierssinceonly the signof theresultis needed. The linear combinations in Equation6.14 essentially represent a rotationof the quadrature channel basis vectors throughanangleofr/4 radians. By changing theangle of rotation, thelinearcombinations needed for otherphase measuremen6 areeas-

Figure 6.15 Eight-PSK demodulator-detector usingonly two references,

297 MODULATION 6.1 DIGITAL demodulators can be implemented ily determined. Hence all phase-detector-based as needed.The general linear combinations with two phase detectors and as many produced rotation of a radiansis by a equation for the linear combinations v"=v^coscL-y,slng
y. = v^ $rn fl, + V, cOSg,

(6.1s)

Beference and Clock Recovery paragraphs all require a local,phase-coin thepreceding di$cussed Thedemodulators systems re* multiple-pha$e herent,carrierreference for their operation.Furthermore, with the first one. Recoveryof any quire at leastone more reference in quadrature -rapshift keyingis a double-sideband is complicated reference by thefact thatphase line at spectral In otherwords,there is no discrete pressed system. carier modulation the carrierfrequencyasthereis with someothertypesof modulation.In fact, theFCC signal.The linesareallowedin thefransmitted thatno spectral hasruledspecifically by usingoneof several is overcome absence line at thecarrierfrequency of a spectral a reference is established, processing techniques nonlinear [1]. After one coherent quadrature is obtainedby delayingor differentiatingthe flust. reference is accomplished in several is obtained ways.Oncecarrierrecovery Clockrecovery in the onto transitions by can locking occurs, be obtained the clock anddemodulation never been signal has as though recovery the Baseband occurs clock signal. baseband recovered dibe clock can In contrast, sometimes the modulated and demodulated. is rectly from the modulated signal.If a PSK signalis heavilyfiltered,the envelope frequency. at the signaling modulation amplitude in not constant fact, contains and, by envelope of signaldemodulation, independently Hence theclockcanberecovered, filtered PSK signal a heavily detecting [2]. halfby purposelyshifting thecarrierreference Clock transitionsareoften assured the references for example, Using 4-PSK, interval. pointsin every signal waybetween sigby 45o.Duringanyoneintervaltherearestill only four possible wouldbe shifted aligned between states being alternate thesignal nal states by 90o.However, separated a phase in Figure6'9' Because at45', asshown with thel andQ axes andbeingaligned (filtered) andthe carier envelope the interval, both with everysymbol shiftis ensured reference shifts, Without the transitions. amplitude recovered signalhave baseband in as of described minimum data transitions properclockrecovery density requires a 4. Chapter D itfere ntial Detectl o n merelycompafe somesystems reference, a Coherent tOrecovering AS an alternative interval.The signalrein the previous intervalto the phase in the present the phase for onesignalintervalandis usedasa refintervalis delayed ceivedin theprevious Assuming thatthedatahavebeen erence thesignalin thenextinterval. to demodulate phase positions, the datacanbe of absolute shift, instead encoded in termsof phase referredto as"differential dete{tion," inherproperly.Hencethis technique, decoded ently requiresdifferential encoding.

298

DIGITALMODULATION AND RADIOSYSTEMS

In general, PSKsystems require differential encoding sincethereceivers normally haveno means of determining whether a recovered reference is a sinereference or a cosine reference.Furthermore, thepolarityof therecovered reference is ambiguous. Thuserrorprobabilities for PSKsystems aredoubled automatically because of thedifferentialencoding process. Differentialdetection, on the otherhand,impliesan even greater lossof performance sincea noisyreference is usedin thedemodulation process. Typically,differential detection imposes a penaltyof I to 2 dB in signal-to-noise ratio[10]. PSK Specta By far theeasiest wayto determine thespectrum of a PSKsignal is to analyze thebasebandwaveforms applied to thequadrature channels. Owingto theorthogonality of the two channels, the signals areuncorrelated, andthecomposite spectrum is merelythe sumofthe individual(identical) spectra. In either?-PSKor 4-PSK systems the baseband signalis a symmetric two-level NRZ waveform. Thecorresponding spectrum is thecommon sin(x)/x spectrum shown in Figure4.2. High-levelsysrems (8-PSKor greater) usesymmetric multilevelNRZ pSK baseband baseband signals similarto thatshownin Figure4.16.Themultiphase signalis somewhat differentsinceunevenly spaced levelsasdef,rned in Table6.3 are used. As mentioned in chapter4, a multilevelNRZ signalhasthe samespectrum asa two-levelsignal.Henceall conventional PSK systems produce a spectrum that follows the sin(x)/xresponse definedin Equation 4.1 but translated to the carrierfrequency.tFigure 6.16 showsthe PSK spectrum for two-, four-, and eight-phase systems designed to providethesame datarate.Hence thehigherlevelsystems signal at lower ratesandhaveproportionately narTower spectra. PSK Error Pertormance The errorperformatrce of any digital modulation system is fundamentally relatedto thedistance pointsin a signalspace between diagram. For example, a z-psK sy$tem, asrepresented in the phase diagramof Figure6.9, is capable of optimumerrorperformance sincethe two signalpointshavemaximumseparation for a given power level (radiusof thecircle).In otherwords,one2*psK signalis the exactnegative of the other'Hence2-PSKmodulation provides antipodal errorperformance asdefined in Chapter 4. Theerrorperformance of a multiphase PSK system is easilycompared to a 2-psK system by determining therelativedecrease in theerrordistance (voltage outputof a properlyreferenced phase detector). In additionto the error distance, however,the relativevalues of thenoisebandwidths (Recallthatthenoise mustalsobeconsidered. bandwidth effectivelydetermines thevariance of the noisesamples.)
*Absolute phase can be determined if a particular pattern in the data sream such as a framing pattern is related to some particular phase of the caxrier. ,unambiguously 'The baseband levels must be unconelated to each other to produce a sin(.r)/.rspectrum,If phasetransitions from one interval to the next are restricted in some manner, the baseband levels are correlated. and a different spectrum results.

MODULATION ?99 6.1 DIGITAL

6 3
F

E s
E

E
T

\ "o*\

I
l - I 3T 2t ? 3r
t T

.l 3T

3 2T

_E3T

PSK signals of unfiltered carryingequaldatarates. Figure 6.16 Spectrum The general expression for the distance between adjacent points in a multiphase PSK systemis

d= 2 ,i"

(6.r6)

[_N) whereN is the number of phases. A generalexpression of the bit error probability (or bit error rate) of an N-phase is derivedin AppendixC as PSKsystem

=*fu erf (z) Pu

where

(6.17)

,=,*F)u"*rt"'["+J
the same 4-PSKprovides errorper6.17reveals to EblNg, Equation that,with respect provide optimum both systems earlier, formance asdoes2-PSK.Thus,asmentioned hasan The 4-PSKsystem performance, but 4-PSKutilizeshalf asmuchbandwidth. of Z-PSK.However,the error distance that is 3 dB smallerthan the error distance (indicating in thenoisebandwidth is offsetby a 3-dB decrease shorter errordistance For the 4-PSKsystem to havethe in noisepowerat the detector). a 3-dB reduction noise a 3-dB greater it would haveto experience samenoisepowerat the detector ratios(SNRs)can density. Hence signal-power-to-noise-power spectral conventional Howevet,as parameters digital modulationsystem$. be misleading for comparing performances desired when of SNRs in terms are mentioned in Chapter4, error rate

300

DtctrAL MoDuLAloN AND RADto sysrEMS

E
o

t =
t

0 r 1 1 2 t s 1 4 1 8 t 8 Enrqy-prrdt-E-noh-dindty mio A/Vo {dBl

Figure 6.17 Errorratesof PSKmodulation systems.

MoDULATToN 301 6.1 DtcrrAL or when specifyingerror rate$with respectto determiningthe effectsof interference of 2-, 4-,8-, 16-, quantities. measurable Figure6.17displays the errorperformance needed for Appendix therelationships C provides and32-PSKasa functionof E6lNs. rates in terms of SNR. enor 6.1.4 QuadratureAmplitude Modulation phase previously, shift keyingwith means of representing As described a convenient signals. of 4-PSK,the In thecase involvestheuseof quadrature four or morephases quadrature by virtue of the independence of two separate signals represent channels In higherlevel PSK systems, the signals for eachquadrature channel. the baseband level of thebaseband is not independent level of a baseband signalfor the1 channel (see havebeen signals for theQ channel Table6.3or Figure6.I I ). After thebaseband processes channel anddemodulation however, thequadrature modulation established, for all PSK systems. areindependent (QAM) canbeviewedasanextension of multimodulation amplitude Quadrature independently phase aregenerated signals PSKmodulation wherein thetwo baseband (quadrature) independent channels Thustwo completely areestablished ofeachother. processes. oftwo levIn thespecial case includingthebaseband codinganddetection (fl) 4-PSK referred to as is and is often els the system identicalto on eachchannel, however, aredistincflydifferentfrom the higher such.Higher level QAM systems, obof a I6-QAM system Figure6.18shows a signalconstellation levelPSK $ystems. sigquadrature channel. Thedotsrepresent composite tainedfrom four levelson each amplitudelevels in each nal points while the hatchmarks on the axesrepresent quadrature Figure 6.19 showsa basic QAM modulatorand demodulator channel. waveform for l6-QAM. structure alongwith,arepresentative theQAM signalshownin Figure6.I 8 does Noticethat,in contrast to PSK signals, with PSKmodulation is maintained nothavea constant A constant envelope. envelope quadrature channels. on the A QAM system by restricting of levels the combination indeareselected doesnot restrictthe combinations sincethe levelson eachchannel amplifiers. pendenfly. be usedwith saturating cannot ThusQAM modulation

Figure 6.18 Signalconstellation of I6-QAM modulation.

30?

DIGITAL MoDULATIoN ANDHADIo SYSTEMS

Modulrtor

Oetnodulrtor

Ftgure6.19 QAMmodulator-demodulator. Thespectrum of a QAM system is determined by thespectrum of thebaseband signalsapplied to thequadrature channels. Sincethese signals havethesame basicstructure as the baseband PSK signals,QAM spectrumshapes are identicalto psK spectrum shapes with equalnumbers of signalpoints.Specifically,l6-eAM hasa spectrum shape thatis identicalto I6-PSK,and64-QAM hasa $pectrum shape identical to tr-PSK. Eventhoughthe spechumshapes areidentical,the error performances of the two system$ arequitedifferent. with largenumbers points, of signal systems always eAM outperform PSK systems. Thebasicreason is thatthe distance between signalpoints in a PSK $y$tem is smallerthanthe distance between pointsin a comparable QAM system. Figure6.20compares the signalpoinrsof a I6-QAM sysrem with the signal setof a 16-PSK system usingthesame peakpower.

r6-oi.u

r6-P$K

Figure 6.20 Comparison of I6-QAM and I6-PSK signalsets.

6,1 DIGITAL MODULATION 303 The general expressionfor the distance between adjacent signal points in a unit peak-amplitudeQAM systemwith /, levels on each axis is

d= {2 L-l

(6. r 8)

overan hasan advantage Equations 6.16and6.18revealthatan n-aryQAM system powerlevels, peakpowerlevel.In termsof average with the same n-aryPSK system advantage. the QAM system hasan evengreater The following equation, derivedin for the peak-to-average ratio of a QAM expression a general AppendixC, provides svstem:
Peakpower L(L - I)2

(6.re)

power zZ!!l 1zi- t1? Average

relativeto a of a I6-PSK system the enor performance Example6.1. Determine I6-QAM systemwith the samepeak power level. Also determinethe relative powers. performance with respect to identicalaverage provideidenticalnumbers of signalpoints,they Solution. Sincethe two systems bandwidthfor a given datarate.Thusthe signalat the samerateandrequirethe same between is completelydetermined by therelativedistances relativeerrorperformance signal points. (When different signalratesare used,the effect of different noise Equations 6.16and in thereceiver$ Evaluating bandwidths mu$talsobe considered.) for a givenpeak over 16-PSK advantage 6.18indicate$ that 16-QAMhasa 1.64-dB powerratio of power.Equation6.19indicates that I6-QAM hasa peak-to-average ratios,the advantage of a haveunity peak-to-average 2.55 dB. SincePSK $ystems powers. 16-QAMsystem is 4.19dB for equal average overa 16-PSK bettermodulation of Example Theresults 6.I showthat I 6-QAM is a significantly like voiceband modelsthathaveno technology for applications formatthan 16-PSK of I6-QAM is advantage the performance limits.- In digital microwave applications but, nevertheless, it is at 16 signal diminishedby availableamplifier technology, reasons. points that PSK modulationdefersto QAM modulationfor performance digital radiosused8-PSKmodulation Somefirst-generation [13] and someused
'Voiceband

modems are not resticted by technology but by signal power limits to prevent intetference with other signals in the network. It is ironic that these rcstrictions arise primarily from old FDM analog radio systems in which a high-powered signal in one channel could create inter{erence (crosstalk) into other channels. In a predominantly digital network the main signal limitation would be the saturation point of PCM encoders(and possibly crosstalk in subscriberpairs). It is also ironic that increasing the signal power ofa voiceband modem (V.34 and earlier) to falljust short ofthe PCM saturation point would not improve performance in a mostly digital network. Performance of high-speed modems in this case is primarily determined by multiplicative noise crcated by PCM companders[18].

304

DIGITAL MoDULATIoN ANDHADIo SYSTEMS :21.96d8

Figure 6.21 256QAM andstepped square 256QAM.

I6-QAM [a] with comparable performance. Second-generation radiosuse64-eAM followed by third-generation radios with 256-QAM [16, t7]. [5] Reliable operation of high-density modulation formars like 256-eAM requires extremelylinearamplifiersto toleratethewide rangeof signalamplitudes andextremely accurate adaptive equalizers to removesmallpercentages of intersymbolinterference that arisewhen a high-amplitude pulse is kansmittedadjacent to a low-amplitude pulse.Amplifier andequalizer performance requirements arebasically a functionof thedynamic rangeof thesignalamplitudes*;

Dynamic roilg =

lorog,ot"Tl

(6.20)

The dynamicrangeof a square QAM modulationformat canbe improvedby modifying thesignalsetto eliminate pointsthatproduce corner highpeakpowers. one such technique referredto as 256-stepped (256-sseAM) square is shown in QAM tlgl Figure6.21,whereit canbe compared with the signalsetof conventional 256-eAM. Example6.2. Determine the dynamicrangeof both the conventional 256-eAM signalsetandthe 256-SSQAM signalsetshownin Figure6.21. Solution. Usingintegral quadrature unitsalong each axisof l, 3,5,7,9,1 l, 13,and 15for 256-QAM,thedynamic range(DR) is
/ t q 2 - r -t s2\ ^" | 'I DR(256-QAM):lOlosr ol 12+12 | \ , / = 23.52 dB
'Ifthe quadrature carriers are perfectly recovered, intersymbol interference would only be a functio n ofthe dynamic range along each axis. To make an allowance for quadrature carrier phase enor, which causes interfercnce between I and p channels, the composite signal power is used.

. 6,1 DIGITAL MODULATION 305

Thehighestamplitude is the (5,17)point.Thusthe dysignalpoint of 256-SSQAM of the256-SSQAM namicrange signalis

= lolog,o DR(256-ssQAM) l'Hl

\:21.96 dB

is 1.56dB The resultof Example6.2 showsthatthe peakpowerof 256-SSQAM 256-QAMfor the same signalpoint sepalowerthanthepeakpowerof conventional 256-SSQAM with 1.56 ration.Thusin a peak-power limited application, canoperate 256-QAM.Whenother,lesssignifithancanconventional dB moresignalseparation radio thata 140-Mbps 256-SSQAM cantfactors reference areconsidered, [20]reports advantage. at6 GHzhasa 2-dB performance The theoretical derivedin AppendixC, enor rateequation for QAM modulation, number of levbaseband enorrateequation with thesame to themultilevel is identical produce 256-QAM equation effor for 4-, 16-, 64-, is usedto ratecurves and els.This in Figure6.??.Table6.5 compares the most coillmonforms of digital modulation microwave radiosystems. modulation usedin point-to-point Offeet Keylng signals of the interdependence of the baseband in highJevelPSK modulaBecause However, coincide. channels tion, the signaltransitions on thequadrature necessarily they are not channels, independently modulate the quadrature sinceQAM systems Whenthesignalintervals to alignthesignalintervals on thetwo channels. consffained (Figure6.23),themodeof operation to asoffset is referred otherby 507o overlap each (more 4-QAM commonly used systems reon keying.Offsetkeying is commonly of offsetkeyingliesin the Themainadvantage ferredto as4-PSKor QPSKsystems). to theincoming recovery synchronized circuitryto become carabilityof thereference (aligned) rier at lower signal-to-noise ratiosthanconventional QAM andQPSKsystems[21,22], QAM Representation of Mlnimum Shlft Keying haveassumed signals theuseof baseband discussions Thepreceding of QAM sy$tems pulseshapes A moregeneral view of QAM allowsarbitrary with NRZ levelencoding. pulseshape is a halfin generating signals. Oneparticularly interesting thebaseband pulse; sinusoid

zl A(t):cosff FIr </< "+

\ ) where? is the duration of a sienalinterval.

(6.21)

306

DGtrAL MoDUt-ATtoN AND RADto sysrEMs

10-l

\ \
t0-?

\ \

\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
zEE-I evel

\
l0-3

e
E o

1o-4

= 5

to
d

10-6

\ \

to4

l(r7

\l
\ \
2{t 2l

0l

+
l0- 9 10 lt

t6-i

32-lcvil

\
12 13 t4 t5 t8 r7 18 rg Avrage rnergy-per-bit-to - mis - dsrrlty rutio Eb /,Vo (dBl Error rates of QAM modulation systems.

Figure 6.22

6.1 DIGITAL 307 MODULATION ol VarlousDigitalModulatlon Basedon Equal TABLE6.5 Comparison Technlquss Data Rstes Signal-to-Noise^Ratios forBER= 10* (dB) System Designation 2-PSK 4.PSK,4-QAM QPR 8-PSK 16.QAM 16-QPR 16.PSK 32.QAM 64.QAM Information (bp#Hz) Density 1 2
Zb
q

EblNo on the Channel 10,6 10.6 1?,6 14.0 14.5 16.5 18,3 17.4 18.8

SNHat Decision Peak-to-Average Hatio(dB)e Circuit 13.6 13,6 17.6 't8.8 20.5 24.5 24.3 24.4 26,6 0.0 0.0 2.0 0.0 2.55 4.55 0.0 2.3 3.68

4 4b 4 5 6

aRetio powerto averag signalpowerwith random data.MBasured of maximum Bignal on a steady-state liltorpartitloning. channel withsquare-rool Dlna strictBns, of a panial-response th6 signalbandwidth systmis no narrower than the th6orBtical (Nyquist) As a practical however, the partialbandwidth fulFresponse mannr, of a conesponding sybtem. re8pons systems lsssbandwidth require about17ol, [21].

pulseshaping of duration on bothchannels 7 is used of an offset If half-sinusoidal p(r) andq(r) canbe expressed as thequadrature signals keyedQAM system, channel follows;

= ai*,[r$J""p(t) +r f +t=,=+t)
= aq'-[ff)-i" *"t ( 0 < r < I ) Q(t)
(6.22)

tr(rl=Dr(,|'cE

"l .l'l^l l ^^ l l ^ l , l . l ' l".llo

rln(dJl

Figure 6.23 Offsetkeyed4-PSKsignaling.

308

DGITAL MoDULATtoN AND RADto sysrEMS

wherea; andc, aredatavalues (tl) for the/ and0 channels, respectively, cos(ntlLT) is shaping on the.lchannel, andsin(nrl?T) (Thesinefuncis shaping on thep channel. tion is usedto account for offsetkeying.)Addingthetwo quadrature signals together andapplyingsome fundamental produces trigonometric identities theresult

x(t): p(t)+ q(t) = a i c o l' s [ + r +nr) 7J (a,=no) ( m \ = 4i cos rrj [*t

(a,+au)

(6.23)

Equation 6.23 is essentiallyidentical to Equation 6.6 defining minimum shift keying. Hence, except for a logicJevel transformation of data values, offset QAM with sinusoidalpulse shapingis identical to MSK 15,241.The relationship is further demonstrated in Figure 6.24, which shows how an MSK signal is generatedby offset keyed quadraturechannel modulation with sinusoidalpulse shaping.

I-Channel brrohnd: Dr(rl

,5rltl = Df(tl ' cor (o.rl

Q-Chennelbftsbrnd: Dg lrl

(tl = Dq (rl . rin (<o.rl .$a

(rl $(tl = sr{tl +.So

l It ^ lr,^
w, =2tf,

l^lo l r l r . l r " l r " l ^l l^ o

lo * 2'l5lt

fi =a.isrt

Figure 6.24 MSK signaling produced by offsetkeyedQAM with sinusoidal pulseshapes.

MoDULATToN 309 6.1 DterrAL

6 3
F

T
E t

f,

Frnumcrr {Hzl

Figure 6.25 Powerspectra of MSK and4-PSKsignals.

4These to offset-keyed foregoing resultsshowthatMSK is very closelyrelated pulseshapes for baseband PSK. The only difference is in the useof half-sinusoidal pulseshapes of this closerelationship, it is inMSK andsquare for 4-PSK.Because in Figure of the two systems 6.25.As interesting spectra to compare theamplitude than higherfrequency null at a 507o dicated, hasits first spectral theMSK spectrum is morecompact thanthe4-PSK 4-PSK'sfirst null. Otherthanthis,theMSK spectrum themainlobe lower in amplitude outside andis significantly at frequencies spectrum where conof thespectrum. MSK is anattractive modulation technique Forthigreason is on digital andlittle or no filteringaredesired. Onesuchapplication stantenvelopes requiring transsatellite divisionsubchannels links with frequency [7]. In applications mitter filters, MSK hasno particularadvantage a over 4-PSK and usuallyrequires modulator. morecomplicated 6.1.5 CarrlerlessAmplitude and Phase Modulatlon form of amplitudeand phase(CAP) modulation[25] is a specialized Carrierless (or in modulation carriers) ocFigure 6.26, no of a carrier explicit QAM. As indicated generated filter two separate signals aredirectly with DSP curs.Instead, modulated Thein-phase functions: channel channel. onefor anin-phase andonefor a quadrature wavewhile thequadf channel filter convefts datadirectlyinto a filteredDSPcosine the raturefilter converts datainto a filteredDSPsinewave.In this manner 0 channel (Typiinto thefilter algorithm. symbolrateis lockedto animpliedcarrierembedded carier frequency is equalto thebaudratesothereis onecycleof cally,theembedded signals a "carrier"in eachsymbolinterval.)After fhein-phase andquadrature-phase

310

DIGITAL MoDULATIoN ANDHADIo SYSTEMS

Figure6.26 CAPmodulator blockdiagram. areadded,the result is convertedto an analogsignaland f,rltered to smooththe DSp sampling frequency. CAP modulationis used in one versionof asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) [26] and for a 51.84-Mbps unshielded twisted-pair ATM srandard [27]. ADSL applications aredescribed in Chapter11. 6.1.6 Partlal-ResponseQAM Another popular modulationtechniqueis quadrature partial-response signaling (QPRS). As commonly implemented is nothingmorethana [28], a QPRSmodularor filter that "over filters" the quadraQAM modulatorfollowed by a narrow-bandpass ture signalsand producescontrolledintersymbolinterference in eachchannel.The mostcommon application of QPRS involvestwo levelson each channel beforefiltering andthreelevelsafterward (see Chapter 4). This systemis essentially a 4-PSK systemwith partial-response filtering to increase theinformation density. As shown in Figure6.27,theeffectof partial-re$ponse fiIteringis to produce ninesignalpointsfrom theoriginalfour. In a similarmanner, a 16-QAMpartial-response system, with four levelson eachchannel beforefiltering, hasseven levelsafterward and49 signalpointsin all t291.

Edtor" filtfiing

Afti. tlltfiing

Figure 6.27 QPRSsignalconstellations.

\-

MODULATION 31 1 6.1 DIGITAL

Heiredcodne chonncl

Truncetion loll = OdB (dueto prkingf Cdinc chrnnol

NBw= 1/r

Sigr|nl sspsr|tiod

=,/Ve

-i

Truncrtlon lon = 2dB

= Z/tT NBW (2dBbolort l/n

Signrl rGpdratlon

=t/Iatz

rates. withequal systems data of QPSK and Figure6.2E Comparison QPRS

canbeconventional system Althoughthemodulators of a QPRS QAM modulators, must be modified to accountfor the extra levels in the the demodulator/detectors processes for eachchannel the detection After the signalis demodulated, waveform. in PRSdetectionprocedures described areindependent andidenticalto the baseband 4. Chapter in termsof equal a QPRSsystem to a QPSK(4-PSK)system Figure6.28compares transmitpowersaredifferent,howpeakpowerout of the modulator. The average the transsystem overfiltersthe signalto reduce the partial-respon$e ever,because 177o by about practice, is increased density the information mitted bandwidth.In

t231.
sigbetween filteringcutsthedistance 4, partial-response in Chapter As discussed performance. the in error However, reduction nal pointsin half, indicatinga 6-dB of bandwidth the corthan filter the noise is lower noisebandwidth of a PRSreceive is redegradation system full-response so that someof theenor distance responding performance loss of a 6.28 the net For the filter systems shownin Figure covered. power channel the respect on the to thatwith is 4 dB. Notice,however, QPRSsystem performance lossis only 2 dB. 6.1.7 Trellls-Coded Modulation in the previoussectionasof PRS mentioned The 2-dB pedormance disadvantage onebit at a time.As described by makingharddecisions sumes thatdataaredetected If two bit intervals. thatoverlaps in Chapter a PRSsignalhasredundancy 4, however, the signalspanning two intervalsbeforemakinghard circuitry processes the detection signalin penalty a redundant Processing theperformance canbe recovered. decisions

312

DrcrTAL MoDULATtoN AND RADto sysrEMS

this way is an example of a maximumlikelihoodor viterbi decoding algorithm[30] for redundant signals. If theredundancy is extended to morelevelsandmoreintervals andoptimallyprocessed, evengreater codinggainsarepossible. As typicallyimplemented, these extensions useextrasignalpointswith reskicted (transitionrr sequences points).Whenthe allowedsequences between are represented with stateffansition diagrams, theyform a trellis.Hence thetermtrellis-coded (TcM) t3l, 3zl. modulation As mentioned in chapter4,TCM is very similartoconvolutional coding.Themajor differenceis that convolutional coding addsredundant symbols(increases the bandwidth) but TCM addsredundant signallevels(increases the signalspace). Both $ystems aredetected in similar fashions usingtrellis diagrams. The decoding algorithmsof both$ystems essentially determine themostlikely sequence of states of the tran$mitted codes, Thetransitions between states thendetermine thedata. As a TCM example, consider theexpansion of a 4-PSKsignalsetto an B-psK signal setas shownin Figure6.29.Althoughthereareeightsignalpointsin the g-psK constellation, only four pointscanbe freelychosen in any oneinterval.which four pointscanbe chosen is dependent ofthe signalpointschosen in previous intervals. A TCM demodulator/decoder thendetermines which of the allowedsignalsequences mostcloselymatches a received $equence beforemakingharddatadecisions. Figure6.29 showsthat if datadecisions aremadeoneintervalat a time. without processing the redundancy, the errorperformance of ttreexpanded signalsetis 5.33 dB worsethantheoriginalsignalset(a consequence powermarginof adof thenoise jacentsignalpointsbeingreduced from 0.5 to 0.146).Also shownin Figure6.29are thenoisemargins of morewidely separated signalpoints.TCM recovers the5.33-dB penalty, andmore,by ensuring all allowedsequences includesomeof thelargerdistances. Furthermore, noisein only oneintervalis notlikely to produce a decision error. when four-state coded 8-PSKuses thetransition rellis shown in Figure6.30,theperformance approaches a 3-dB improvement with respect to uncoded 4-psK t3ll. To understand Figure6.30,it is important to realizethatit represent$ state transitionsin theencoding process, not signalwaveforms. Theuseof thestates in thisman-

4 (157.5)

= 0.146 or2= sinlae.s")

5 (202.5)

d3=sint+s")=0.S
dsz=sintoz.b") = 0.854
doz=sintggo)=1.0
Figure 6.29 EighrPSK signalpointsanderrordisrances.

MODULATION 313 6,1 DIGITAL

Figure 6.30 Four-state trellis for 8-PSKmodulation.

pasthistory.(All pasthistories areenof representing means ner is just a convenient with arelabeled to another from onestate Transitions capsulated intojust four states.) Noticethatonly four of the 2 bits of data. for encoding the8-PSKsignalpointchosen pointshavethe sarne $eparaandthat these 8-PSKsignalpointscanbe freelychosen proces$ aresuflrmaaspects of the decoding tion asuncoded 4-PSK.The significant rizedasfollows; 1 . An allowed transition between two statescan occur with either of two signals,
information does not help discriminate between those which implies sequence two particular signals.However, the two signals in question are chosento have maximal separation(noise margin 1) so redundancyis unnecessary.

2. Transitions that originate in different statesand terminate in any particular state

are encodedwith signalshaving noise power margins of 0.5. that begin and end in common statesare at least three intervals 3 . All sequences long with minimum noise power margins of 0.5, 0.146, and 0.5. Thus the total is 1.146. noise margin betweenany two minimum-length sequences

that arelongerthanthreebut to discriminatebetweenseguencerl It may be necessary with noisepowermarginsof 0.5' Thus in all cases the endpoints involvetransitions thanthenoisemargin than l, whichis 3 dB greater thenoisemarginis alwaysgreater is much 4-PSK.Determination of the exacterrorrateof a TCM system of uncoded is Reference detection used. moreinvolvedthanwheninterval-by-interval [31] shows

314

DGTTAL MoDULATIoN AND HADto sysrEMS

that the bit error rate of coded 8-PSK asymptotically approaches3*dB improvement with respectto 4-PSK as the noise margin would indicate. Example 6.3. A receiver for a trellis-coded modulation system as shown in Figure 6.30 detects a phase sequenceof 20o, 220", and 10o. Determine the allowabre $equenceof three signals with the closest distance to the given received sequence. Assume the starting stateis stateB. solution. To begin with we can determine the closest encoder signal phasesas 22.5",202.5o,22.5",whichcorrespondtosignalpoints l,5, l.ExaminationofFigure 6.30 indicates that this is a disallowed sequence becausea 5 signal cannot follow a I signal. If data were decidedon a symbol-by-symbol basis,an error would certainly be made. By tracing the trellis from state A, a list of allowable state sequences can be determinedas provided in Table 6.6. For eachtransition, the most likely signal of each pair of signals that can produce a particular transition is indicated. The symbol errors (in degrees) for eachof thesesignalsis then determinedfollowed by the total sequence error. As indicated, the most likely statesequence is cAA (signal sequence:1,6,0). Although the result of Example 6.3 indicatesone particular sequence is more likely than any other, there are two other allowable sequences (l4l and 162) that are fairly close to the most likely signal sequence.Notice that these two sequences have end states(C and B) that are different than end stateA ofthe selectedsequence. Thus, there is more information to come as to which is the most likely sequence. Becausestates A and B have no coillmon allowed signals, the next symbol will provide additional discrimination between 160 and 162. The very next signal will not help discriminate between 160 and 141 but the signal following that will. A thorough determinationof the most likely transmitted signal sequence needsto consider other possible starting phasesand, consequently,previous signal values. (This is an exerciseleft to the student.) Coded 8-PSK TCM hasbeenusedin satellitecircuits [33] where nonlinearitiesdictate the use of a constant-envelope signal. TCM with higher density eAM signal sets

TABLE6.6 Sequence and Error Detrmlnatlon for Example6.3 States

Signals 141 351 160 370 143 353 16? 372

Symbol Enors ?,5,62.5, 12.5 9?.5,17.5, 12.5 2.5,27.5,32.5 92.5,72.5,32.5 2.5,62.5, 102.5 92.5, 17.5, 102.5 2.5,27.5,57.5 92.5,72.5,57.5

TotalEnor 77.5 122.5 62.5 197.5 167.5 212.5 87.5 222.5

cBc
DDD CAA DCB CBD DDC CAB DCA

6.1 DIGITAL MODULATI0N 315

V.33 [3a] and voiceband suchasthe 14.4-kbps is usedin high-speed QAM modems with MSK modulation V.34 [35]. TCM can alsobe usedin conjunction 28.8-kbps microwave radiossuchasthe 155-Mbps utilizedin point-to-point TCM hasbeen t361. formatis 128-QAM.NEC refersto TCM 6G150MB radioof NEC.The modulation (MLCM). asmultilevelcodedmodulation 6.1.8 MulticarrlerModulation formats to thispointit hasbeenimplicitly assumed described In all of themodulation opcarriers on two quadrature on a singlecarrier, or possibly occurs thatmodulation (MCM) involvesdividingthe Multicarriermodulation frequency. eratingat the same in parallelon multithat aretransmitted datastreaminto multiple, lower ratesffeams applications special ple carrierfrequencies. AlthoughMCM hasbeenutilizedin some implethat allows economic of DSPtechnology in the past[37],It is theemergence The for commercial applications. anddemodulators mentation of multiplemodulators (FFTs), means of implementing MCM utilizesfastFouriertransforms mostcommon for into separate datastreams dataaredemultiplexed asshownin Figure6.31.Source into arethenindependently encoded The datafor eachsubchannel eachsubchannel. channel of quadrature the amplitudes representing complexnumbers discrete-level into a timecomponents complex $pectrum transforms the An inverse FFI carriers. andtransmitted. to analog that is converted domainwaveform timewhere theincoming in thereceiver arereversed of theprocess Thebasicsteps domain waveformis sampledand fed to an FFT that recoversa complexspectrum' asindividualQAM (or possiblyPSK) components The spectrum arethenprocessed data backinto a composite the data,which arethen multiplexed signalsto decode andclock of equalization Not includedin Figure6.31areancillaryfunctions stream. is dedicated component asa pilot signalthatcarrecovery. Normally,onefrequency involvesmerely equalization fbr Amplitude ries clock information all subchannels. Amplitude equalizaat theoutputof theFFT. amplitudes scaling theFFT component is utilized because, eventhough tion may not evenbe requiredif PSK modulation the within eachnarrowsubchannel theremaybe amplitude distortionin thechannel,

Encode

InvstEe FFT

Figure 6.31 Multicarrier modulationutilizing fast Fourier transforms.

316

DtctrAL MoDULAIoN AND RADto sysrEMS

distortion is essentiallyflat, which implies that PSK data can be recoveredby merely determining the phaseof each complex frequency term. Multicarrier modulation with an FFT implementation is commonly referred to as discrete multi-tone (DMT) in North America and as orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) in Europe. (The term "orthogonal" occurs becausethe frequency components of an inverse FFT are harmonically related and therefore have zero-valuedcross-correlationproducts.)The terms DMT and OFDM are interchangeable with the exception that in some OFDM applicationsit is understoodthat all subchannels utilize the $ame form of modulation with the same number of bits per channel. In DMT systemsthe modulation of the subchannels is more general so that different dataratescan be carried on different subchannels dependingon the transmission quality of the respectivesubchannels. A principal application of DMT is ADSL by ANSI committee TlEl.4. OFDM is specifiedby EuropeanTele[38] standardized communications standards Institute (ETSD as the modulation format for Digital Video Broadcasting(DVB) t391. One of the most attractive featuresof DMT is the inherent ability to match an information signal spectrum to a channel response.An example of such a system is shown in Figure 6,32 that is representative of an ADSL application on subscriberwire pairs. A significant impairment of using existing wire pairs for high-bandwidth clata is the possiblepresenceof bridged taps.ISDN basic rate installationsrequire removal of bridged taps. In an ADSL implementation bridged rap$are accommodatedby detecting their presenceduring channel characterizationand then transmitting only as much information in the affected subchannel(s)as can be reliably supported.Notice that a conventional wideband data signal would experiencesignificant distoftion if ffansmitted on the channel of Figure 6.32. Thus, a significant amount of amplitude (and probably phase)equalizationwould be required.

Bridgedtap notch Narrowband interference

Channel response

Information per density subchannel Frequency Figure 6.32 Use of DMT modulationto matchsubchannel datacapacityto transmission channel.

PARTITIONING 317 6.2 FILTER

to individual densities assigns information Figure6.32showsthata DMT system ratios during channel determined signal-to-noise basedon respective subchannels that ofnanowbandinterference Included is detection in theprocess characterization. wideband Noticethata conventional altogether. to be eliminated a subchannel causes For moredetails on mightbetotallydisabled by thenarowbandinterference.* system in ChapterI l. seetheADSL discussion DMT implementations

6.2 FILTERPARTITIONING typicallycontains of a digitalradiosystem equipment andreceiving Thetransmitting or another. Sincethe endto somedegree severalfilters that limit the signalspectrum pulserebaseband response mustconformto certain to-endfrequency of thechannel the among filter functionmustbepartitioned objectives, composite thedesired sponse to providetheir individualfilters.Normally,a numberof the filters canbe designed pulseresponse. For impacting the channel functions withoutsignificantly respective input frequencies. process of the produces sum and a difference a a mixing example, when is wanted whenmixing upward,or only the difference Only the sumis wanted filter that does by can be a eliminated Usuallytheundesired terms mixing downward. following discussignal. The of theunderlying affectthepulseshape not significantly pul$e response; thebaseband influence thatonly two filters significantly sionassumes onein the transmitterandone in the receiver. 6.2.1 Adlacent-Channel Interference One basic pil?o$e of the radio channelreceivefilter is to minimize the amountof purpose of this filter is to rejectenergyin adA second noisepresent at the detector. is jacentradio channels. that doesnot get rejected Energyfrom an adjacent channel that the we assume In this discussion, interference. referredto as adjacent-channel This situspectra. channels to thedesired in theadjacent areidentical spectrum shapes number of frequency-division-multi depicts a is shown 6.33, which in Figure ation plexeddigitalchannels. occurs interference asa resultoftwo As indicated in Figure6.33,adjacent-channel power the adjacent passes P1 because phenomena. unwanted First, the receivefilter Thesecprevent into channel. overlap thedesired to signalis notcompletely truncated provide inf,tfilter doesnot because thereceive P2,occurs ofinterference, ond source Unwanted channel. of power properly belongingin the adjacent nite attenuation by narfilter, while P2is minimized thetransmit powerP1is minimized by narrowing
*Totally avoiding the effects of high-energy narrowband interference in a DMT sylttem is not as simple as it might seem, If the interference is present at the input to the A,/D converter in the recei ver, the interference may causeA/D saturation(orincreased quantizationnoise ifa compandedconverter is utilized). Thus, total avoidance of narrowband interference requires front-end norching of the signal. A front-end notch could also be used in a conventional wideband system followed by decision feedback equalization to accommodate the inserted distonion [401.

318

D|GITAL MoDULATIoN AND RADIo SYSTEMS

rowing the receive filter. Since channel pulse responseconsiderationsconstrain the compositefilter function to someminimum width, one componentof the interference cannotbe reducedwithout increasingthe other. Hence the total filter function must be partitioned in some marlner to minimize the sum of Pr and p".

6.2.2 Optlmum Partitionlng The optimumfilter design for anyparticular application may depend on a number of factorsincludinglegislated emission specifications, available technology for power amplifiers, theavailability ofcrosspolarization for adjacent*channel isolation, andthe relativeeffects of noiseversus adjacent-charurel interference. In theabsence of external constraints, a classical resultattributed to Sundet4ll andalsopresented in references and determines optimumpartitioningasonemarching [42] [43] the outpurof the transmitfilter to the square root of the desired channelresponse. The desiredoutput spectrumY(or)is obtainedas

Y(or)= Holo);I1r*(ol)X(ro)

(6.24)

whereX(ro) = channelinput spectrum flrx(rn) = transmitfilter response = receive /1nx(ot) filter response Thentheoptimumpartitioning is obtained as

Adi*rnt rlgnrl

De$rrd tignrl

Adleent rl0nrl

Rffihrfi

filtrr.E|pofite

Figure 633 Adjacent-channel interference.

PARTITIONING 319 6.2 FILTEH

lflo*(o)l =lY(rt)llt?

lar*(ru)l=H

(6.25)

to minimizetheadjacent-channel thefilter amplitude re$ponses 6.25def,rnes Equation containidentical signals interference under the condition tttat the adjacentchannels is the powerlevels. if thetransmitted spectrumffty(ro)X(ro) In addition, with identical Hs;q(o), filter is matched thereceive filter response complex of thereceive conjugate is obtainedwith reto the channelspectrum, andthe bestpossibleerror performance spect to signalpoweron thechannel. 6.25is shownin Figure6.34for a pulseinput Partitioning by Equation asdefined signalspec(see Appendix only baseband output C). Eventhough raised cosine anda passband filter functions. is to easily theconcept extended tra areshown, theopbasisfor determining theoretical a sound AlthoughEquation 6.25provides particular may reof a application practical considerations timum filter partitioning, "optimum." in digital microwave quire deviationfrom the Oneproblemthat arises filter in Figure6.34.With of thetransmit is related to thepeakat thebandedges radios relossinto the midband only by inserting fllter this peakcanbe obtained a passive ascompensation, no ill effectsresult. If the transmitpowercanbe increased sponrte. radiosis limitedby thetechnolHowever, theoutputlevelof manydigitalmicrowave (a few wattstypically).Sincethese rapoweramplifiers frequency ogy of microwave dios are device power limited, midbandinsertionloss cannotbe overcomeand signallevel. directlyfrom thereceived subtracts therefore the optimumhansmitfilter is onehavinga applications In device-power-limited response at thedetector, channel thedesired in thepassband. To achieve flat response at insertion Channel losses peaked band edges. at receive must then the filter be the attenunoise ate performance signal and both the fhe $ince this point do not degrade thereceiver havetheundesirable effectof increasing thepeaks However, atedequally. interference. Although of adjacent-channel noisebandwidthand the P1component thanthat obtained by theoreticallyoprepresent a poorerperfonnance theseincreases to is not a$ Sreatas the insertionloss needed timum partitioning,the degradation "theoretical that achieve optimum."As onefulther note,it shouldbe mentioned the

ilob. Nnd Infirfafdftot

excitationand raised-cosine Flgrrre 6.34 Theoreticaloptimum filtering for square-pulse output.

320

DrcrrAL MoDULATtoN AND HADto sysrEMS

not all theoretically optimum transmit filters havea peak at the band edges.In particular, partial-response systemsdo not require band edge peaking (seeAppendix C). Another aspectof the optimum designto be kept in mind is that optimum error performance is achievedwith respectto signal power on the channel,and not with respect to unfiltered transmitterpower. It is this featurethat allows any amount of attenuation to be inserted into the charurelat the transmitter and not degradethe optimum performance. If performanceis measuredwith respectto unfiltered transmit power, the best transmit filter may be different from that defined in Equation 6.25. Not only would less midband attenuationbe desirable,as discussed,but it might also be desirable to widen the transmit filter response.This decreases the truncation loss in the kansmit filter so the receive filter can be narowed to decrease the receiver noise bandwidth. As an extreme example of how widening the transmit filter can improve error rate performance,consider removing the transmit filter and incorporating it into the receiver. For a given output at the power amplifier, the signal at the detector is un* changed.The receiver noise bandwidth, however, is reduced becausethe composite filter is nilrower than the original receive filter. Hence a higher signal-to-noiseratio is presentat the detector. The penalty incurred for removing the transmit filter, of cour$e, is a greatly increasedP1componentofadjacent-channelinterference.Ifadjacent channelsdo not exist or if they are adequatelyisolated by cross-polarization(i.e., if the systemis noise limited), the performance can be improved by moving some of the transmitter ffuncation lossesto the receiveruntil adjacent-channel interferencematchesthe noise. Keep in mind, however, that if the sy'rtemis adjacent-chamel interferencelimited, the optimum partitioning is indeed defined by Equation 6.25.

6.3 EMISSION SPECIFICATIONS One unavoidable consideration when determining thefilterfunctions of a transmitter
and receiver is the out-of-band emission specificationsestablishedby the FCC in the united states or the ITU-R in other parts of the world. In many casesthe emission specificationsdictate a narower transmit filter than the theoreticaloptimum. Thus the partitioning aspectof the filter designsmay be predetermined. It is somewhatironic that the FCC emissionspecificationswere intendedto control adjacent-channel interferencebut, in somecases,actually causethe interferenceto increaseby forcing the use of a wider than optimum receive filter. The FCC specifications, however, were intended to protect adjacent analog radio channels from out-of-band digital emissions.They were not selectedwith adjacentdigital channels in mind. In January 1975, when the FCC establishedthe out-of-band emission specifications, two separate specificationswere established; forradios operatingbelow 15 GHz and for radios operating above l5 GHz. The emission limitations for operationbelow l5 GHz are more restrictive than those for operation above 15 GHz because the lower frequencieswere heavily used for analog FDM-FM radios, which are more sensitive to interference.The higher frequencieshave not beenusedextensively because of vul-

SPECIF|CATIONS321 6.3 EMISSTON

specialare usedfor short-distance, Thesefrequencies nerability to rain attenuation. Initially, the putpose andarenot ascongested asthelower frequencies. applications for digitalmicrowave were I I and6 GHz. bands mostpopular below 15GHz are limitationsfor operation Theemission - 50) A = 35 + l0log,oB + 0.8(P (P > 50) (6.26)

A = powerin 4-kHzbandrelativeto meanoutputpower(dB) where bandwidth(MHz) B = authorized (50 is thebandedge) from carrierfrequency removed P = percent thebandbut outside A mustbe at least50 dB everywhere the attenuation In addition, limitations are emission point. Notice that any the 80 dB at need to exceed doesnot transmitted relative to power but the only of levels, absolute in terms not $pecified limitationsdo not constrain theoutputpowerlevelof the emission power.Thusthese amplifiertechby microwave powers conshained are often output Microwave radio. canreachit') power when technology does exist (A of 10 W of ouryut limit nology. 40 MHz of bandusing a I 1-GHz mask radios the for emission 6.35 displays Figure a signaling radio using 8-PSK power of a 90-Mbps spectrum shown is the width.Also power the $-PSK specification, the emission with To be compatible rateof 30 MHz. sigbetween the per The difference power 4-kHz band, in terms of is shown spectrum of the required attenuation the minimum represents the FCC mask and nal spectrum provides of density an information thereby signal filtered 8-PSK transmitfilter. The Colused by = frltering format and basic This modulation is the 90/40 2.25bpslHz. digitalradio,theMDR-I1 [13]' in their9O-Mbps lins/Rockwell as bands above15GHz is defined for microwave limitation Theemission

PorYrrin {kHr bmcl rclstir'c to mcln outFut potw {dBl

FCCrmidon limitrtiom SX $.ct.um Fowr/{ kHr (3OirHt $gilllne .rtrl

-60 *70 -H)

h
Frnqucncy(MHrl

maskat I t GHz anda 90-Mbps8-PSKspectrum. Figure 6.35 FCC emission

322

DIGITAL MODULATION ANDRADIOSYSTEMS

A = ll + 101og,oB +0.4(p-50)

(p>50)

(6.27)

where A = attenuationin l -MHz band below mean output power (dB) B = authorizedbandwidth (MHz) P - percentremoved from carrier frequency The attenuationA must be at least I I dB but does not have to exceed56 dB. In conjunction with the emission limitations, the FCC has stipulated that no discretelines exist in the transmittedspectrum[44]. Thus no carrier componentscan exist and no repetitive data patterns are allowed to occur. The repetitive data pattems are effectively eliminated by using a scramblerin the transmitter and a descramblerin the receiver. As mentioned already, PSK and QAM are forms of double-sidebandsappressed carrier modulation so that the carrier terms are eliminated automaticallv as long as modulation is continuous.

6.4 HADIO SYSTEM DESIGN Theforemost design requirement of apoint-to-point radio system for telephony is operational dependability,usually referredto as availability. Availabitity is expressed as the percentage of time that a systemprovides a specified minimum quality of service. with analog systems,minimum performanceis determinedby the noise power in the receivedsignal.The performanceof a digital systemis determinedby the bit error rate. Typical objectives for bit error rates range from l0-3 for voice trafTic to 10-6or l0-7 for data traJfic. Recall that a bit error rate of l0+ correspondsto the thresholdofperceptibility fbr errors in a PCM voice signal. Typical designobjectivesfor microwave radio systemsspeciff availability on rhe order of gg.g\vo [45, 46]. Hence the maximum acceptableaccumulation of outage,due to all causes,is on the order of z hr per year. Radio systemavailability is dependenton equipmentreliability and path propagation characteristics. The high-availability objectivesof a typical radio systemmandate redundalt equipmentand often require redundantpath$.The needfor redundantpaths is determinedby the likelihood of atmospheric-inducedoutages(rain attenuationor multipath interference).Rain is a dominant considerationat higher carrier frequencies (above lt GHz), and multipath interference must be considered at all frequencies. Multipath fading is dependenton prevailing climate and terrain. Redundantradio equipment typically operatesin either a backup or a hot-standby mode with automatic protection switching. The transmissionpath is backed up with sparechannels(freguency diversity) or sparepaths (spacediversity receivers).In extreme ca$e$ a backup route may even be utilized.

6.4.1 FadeMargins
The main technique usedto circumvent atmospheric-induced outagesis to provide an exffa $trong signal at the receiver during normal path conditions. The difference be-

DESIGN 323 6.4 RADIO SYSTEM pertween the normal receivedpower and the power required for minimum acceptable formance is referred to as the fade margin. Greater fade margins imply less frequent occurrencesof minimum performance levels. Radios operating in higher frequency to rain bandsgenerally require greaterfade margins becausethey are more susceptible while radio at I I a 40fade for a digital GHz, margin is typical attenuation.A 50-dB frequencies. microwave dB fade margin is typical for lower The amount of fade margin actually required for a particular route dependson the Thus drier cliprobability of multipath-induced fades and heavy rainfall occurrences. matespermit lower fade margins, thereby allowing greaterrepeaterspacing.In some mountain-basedmicrowave links in the western United States,microwave hops can be 100 miles long. By comparison,the averagehop in other parts of the country is less than 30 miles long. When large fade margins are provided, the received signal power during unfaded problems conditions is so strong that bit errors arevirtually nonexistent.Nevertheless, with extra strong signals do exist. Namely, automatic gain control in a receiver must operateover a wide dynanric range.If the maximum signal level into the demodulation and detection circuihy is not controlled, saturationis likely to degradepetformance, especially in high-density modulation formats such as 64- or 256-QAM, where information is encodedinto the signal amplitudes. To minimize dynamic rangerequirementsin a receiver and reduceinterferencebetween systems,adaptive transmitter power control (ATPC) is sometimesused [47]. ATPC usesa feedback data link from a receiving station to control the output power it is not used' ATPC of a transmitting station.Thus when excesspower is unnecessary, is commonly used in digital mobile telephone$ystemswhere interferencecontrol is a primary concern.

6.4.2 SystemGain
used to characterizedigital microwave system One of the most impoltant parameters performanceis the systemgainA,. Systemgain is defined to be the difference,in decibels, of the transmitteroutput power and the minimum receivepower for the specified error rate;

Ar=

fr,\ r0ros,o ['p;j

(6.28)

where P.1= transmitter output power Pn = rceive power for specified error rate The minimum acceptablereceive power is sometimes referred to as the threshold power and is primarily dependenton the receiver noise level, the signal-to-noiseratio required by the modulation format, and various system degradationssuch as excess noise bandwidth, signal distortions, intersymbol interference,carrier recovery offsets,

324

DIGITAL MoDULATIoN ANDRADIo SYSTEMS

timingjitter, andcouplingandfilter losses thateitherattenuate the signalor increase thenoiselevel. Noisepowerin a receiver is usuallydo:ninated by thermal noisegenerated in thefrontendreceiver amplifier.In thiscase, thenoisepowercanbe determined asfollows: pN = (FXNfl(B) = F(kTo)B whereF= No= B= ft = 7o= thereceivernoise figure thepowerspectral densityof thenoise thereceiver bandwidth' 1.38(10)-23 is Boltzmann's constant theeffectivereceiver temperatures in degrees Kelvin

(6.2e)

Equation6.29 essentially states that the receivernoisepower is determined by the spectral noisedensityof the receiver input resistance andthe additional noiseinhoduced by the amplification process (noisefigureF). Normally,a reference temperatureof 290 K is assumed sothatthethermalnoisedensity(ftTo) is 4 x 10-21 wFIz. The noisefigure of any deviceis definedasthe ratio of the input signal-to-noise ratioto theoutputsignal-to-noise ratio; _= - (S/Mi, r (s/N)out

(6.30)

In effect,thenoisefigurespecifies theincrease in noisepowerrelativeto theincrease power.sinceall physical in signal devices inhoduce noise, thenoise figureofany system is alwaysgreater than I andis usuallyexpressed in decibels. If a system hasno gainor attenuation, thenoisefigureis exactly equal to theratioofoutputnoi$e to input noise.Noisefiguresof low-noisemicrowave amplifierstypicallyrangefrom z to 5 (3-7 dB). Radioreceiver noisefiguresaretypically6-10 withouta low-noise amplifier. combiningEquations 6.28and6.29andincorporaring a termD for thedegradation from idealperformance produces thefollowing general expression for system gain;

A,=ro**,,[ffi*rJ-"
-Typically,

(6.3 r)

whereSNRis thetheoretical signal-power-to-noise-power ratiorequired for themaximum acceptable errorrateandD includes all degradations from idealperformance.
B is assumcd to be the minimum theoretical bandwidth for the particular modulation format in use. Excess bandwidth required by practical implementations is then incorporated rnro a sysrem degradation factor.

DESIGN 325 SYSTEM 6.4 RADIO

ra6.31refersto signal-power-to-noise-power Noticethatthe SNRtermin Equation in AppendixC. is provided SNRandE6lNs betwen Therelationship tios andnot EblNO. the gainsandpathlosses, determines gain,in conjunction with antenna Thesystem fademargin:
Fade margin = A, + 6r + GR + 20 log,n fu-Af - A0

(6.32)

where 6i1 = transmitter antenna gain (dB) Gq = receive antennagain (dB) L = tran$mittedwavelength Af = antennafeeder and branching loss (dB) attenuation(distanced must be in the sameunits as l,) Ao = free*space = 20logro (4nd)

is directly proportionalto the thegainof, an antenna Thedirectivity, andconsequently waveproportional of the transmitted to the square andinversely sizeof its aperture it is actuallyonly the areaof the power,however, length.In determining the receive designers andnot thedirectivityor gain.Thusradiosystem thatis important antenna gainsas contributing to signal transmitand receiveantenna consider conveniently (20log1s thegainof therel,) to relate normalization powerbut includea wavelength backto the sizeofits aperture. ceivingantenna gain,greater directivitiesalsoreduce antenna In additionto providingincreased emanation paths, whicharisefrom greater problems. Thelongersecondary multipath anUnfortunately, havelower powerlevelswhenthedirectivityis increased. angles, Economically regards: in several tennagainsarelimited by practicalconsiderations is diffimechanical alignment antennas, only limited-sized sizedtowerscansupport andthepathis limited. stabilityof boththe antenna cult, anddirectional single 6.32arisebecause in Equation 41included losses andbranching Thefeeder reFurthermore, radios. for separate channels carry several systems typically antenna availreceivers be and spare transmitters dictate that usually liability considerations or for transmission The process switching. of combiningsignals ablefor protection of attenuation amounts introduces inherently various reception themafter distributing or splittingof signalpower. gainof a l0-Mbps, z-GHzdigitalmicrowave the system Example6.4. Determine the excess an outputpowerof 2.5 W. Assume modulation and 4-PSK repeater using from ideal performance bandwidthof the receiveris 307oand ttrat other departures andthe a noisefigureof 7 dB for the receiver, Assume to 3 dB degradation. amount antenna margin assuming the fade Also determine rate is 104. error desired maximum andcouplinglosses gainsof 30 dB eachanda pathlengthof 50 km. Thebranching are5 dB. can for 4-PSKmodulation valueof E6lN0 Solution. FromFigure6.17,therequired (in C), it canbe determined 3.42 Appendix as10.7dB. UsingEquation bedetermined

326

DIGITAL MoDULATIoN ANDRADIo SYSTEMS

that the signal-power-to-noise-power ratio at the detector is 3 dB higherthanE6lr/6. Thus, therequired SNRis 13.7 dB. since4-PSKmodulation provides 2 bps/rlz,the signaling rateis 5 MHz, whichis thetheoretical minimum(Nyquist)bandwidth. Equation 6.31cannow be usedto determinethe system gain: 13.7*7-3*10losl.3 ) :l16dB At a carrierfrequency of 2 GHz,thewavelength is 3 x 108/2xlOe= 0. l5 m. Thusthe fademargincanbe determined from Equation 6.31: Fademargin= I I 6 + 60 + 20 log,o(0. l5) - S- Z0 log,n(4ru5 x lOa)
= 38.5dB

6.4.3 Frequency Diverslty

As mentioned previously, neither the transmitting and receiving equipment nor the path is normally reliable enoughto provide an acceptablelevel of systemavailability. Frequency diversity is one means of providing backup facilities to overcome both types of outages.A deep multipath-induced fade occurs when a signal from a $econdary path arrives out of phasewith respectto the primary signal. Since the phase shift produced by a path is proportional to frequency, when one carrier fades, it is unlikely that another carrier fades simultaneously. Frequency diversity involves the use of a sparetransmitter and receiver operating in a normally unusedchannel. Since separate hardware is used, frequency diversity also provides protection againsthardware failures. The simplest meansof implementing frequency diversity is to use one-for-one (l : l) protection switching as indicated in Figure 6.36. one-for-one protection switching implies that one sparechannel is provided for each assignedmessagechannel.when high-spectrumefficiency is required, it is generally necessary to have only one spare for a group of N channels( I ; N protection swirching). In fact, the FCC has stipulated that, in somefrequencybands,a systemmust be implementablein one-for-Nconfigurations. The main impact of a I ; Nprotection systemis the complexity of the switching unit and the needto switch back to the assignedchannel in the first available hop so that a single sparechannel can be reusedrepeatedlyon a long roule. Frequency diversity normally does nothing to alleviate rain outages since all channels in a particular frequency band are simultaneously affected. when rain is a pafticular problem, it can be overcome only by using higher transmit powers or shorter hops.

DESIGN 6.4 RADIoSYSTEM

327

-'Wrt

frequencydiversity. Figure 6.36 Protectionswitchingwith one-for-one

6.4.4 SpaceDiverslty two separating 6.37, by vertically in Figure asshown is implemented, Space diversity
receive antennason a single tower. The resulting difference in the two paths is norSpacediversity is mally sufficient to provide independentfading at the two antenna$. receivthe most expensivemeansof improving the availability, particularly if separate howbe minimized, The cost can for each antenna. are used channels ers for multiple to for input phase-coherent manner in a signals two received ever, by combining the than when backup provides less hardware a common receiver t451. This technique receiversare used for each antenna. completely separate

6.4.5 Angle Diverslty

Becausemultipath fading is producedby multiple incident rays alTiving at slightly different angles,protection from fading can be achievedby discriminating on the angle

diversityreceivers. with space Figure 6.37 hotection swirching

328

DIGITAL MoDULATIoN ANDRADIo SYSTEM$

of arrival' Angle diversityutilizestwo side-by-side receiving antennas with slightly differentangular elevations to providethediscrimination. Althoughanglediversityis generally not aseffectiveasspace diversity,it canimprovethe availabilityofdigital signals[48, 49] in applications wherethe towerrequirements of space diversityare impractical or disallowed. 6.4.6 Adaptlve Equallzation Sincemultipatheffectsare frequency dependent, not all frequencies in a particular channel simultaneously experience thesame amount of fading.Thusmultipath fading canproduce not only a general attenuation ofthe received signalbut alsotheequivalentof in-band amplitude (andphase) distortion. Distortionof thespectrum amplitude produces a general degradation in the errorperformance overandabovethefenalty incurredby the generalattenuation of the signal.In widebanddigital radios,frequency-selective fading (as opposed to flat fading)hasprovedto be the dominant source of multipathoutage$. Fortunately, betterperformance canbe achieved if the spectrum amplitude (adjusted is equalized to a uniformlevel). Since atmospheric-induced multipath interferena varies with time,removal of multipath-induced amplitudedistortionrequiresadaptive equalization. A commonapproachto adaptiveamplitudeequalieation merely samples the energyat selected frequencies in the received signalspectrum. A compensating filter shape is theninserted into the signalpathto adjustall energy samples to a common level.This basic technique is usedin digitalradiosmanufactured by Bell Northern[45] andRockwell International [50].Reference a 7-dB improvement [50] reports in effectivefademargin canbe achieved with an adaptive equalizer. Because channel distortions produce intersymbol interference in thereceived basebrurdsignal,time-domain equalization with adaptive transversal filters or decision feedback equalizers is alsoused. Reference therelativemeritsof both [51] contrasts approaches and providesan extensive list of references. The use of high-density modulation formats such as256-QAMplaces verystringent requirements ontheadaptive equalizers sothese radioscommonly usebothtypesof equalizers [47]. Frequency-selective fading,which comrptsonly a portion of a wide-bandwidth channel, is particularly difficult to equalize because it changes rapidly andrequires complicated equalizer (in the frequency structures domainor the time domain). The problem canbegreatlysimplifiedif, instead of usinga singlecarrier, multiplecarriers (i.e.' MCM) within theallottedbandwidth areusedto create mulriplesubchannels. With thisapproach, fadingwithin anysubchannel is relatively flat andeasy to equalize. Thedisadvantage of this approach is thecostof replicated circuiry for eachsubchannel. As reportedin [5?],however, atmospheric-induced outages aregreatlyreduced. 6.4.7 Route Design Thelayoutof a point-to-point microwave relaysystem involves numerous considerations of thelocalterrain, prevailingatmospheric conditions, radiofiequency interference with othersymbols,andinterference from onehop to anotherwithin a singlesystem.

REFERENCES 329

Path Length The foremost considerationin setting up a single hop of a microwave system is that line-of-sight transmissionis required. Using antennaheights of about 60 m, the curvature of the earth limits the transmission distanceto approximately 50 km. Longer line-of-sight distancesare possible if taller antennatowers are used.However, plsctical considerationsof mechanicalstability limit the height of a tower, particularly since longer distancesimply larger and more directive antennas. When antennasare rigidly mounted on the top of a building or the side of a mountain, mechanicalstability may not be a problem but the $tability of the path itself may becomea limiting factor. Under some atmosphericconditions, radio waves can be refracted to the point that a narrow beam completely misses the receiving antenna. Bending of the propagationpath can also causea f,rxedobstacleto intermittently obstruct transmission, implying that clearance between the notmal path and nearby physical obstructionsis required.Thus there is always a practical limit on how narrow the beam can be. Local teruainalso influences the prevalenceof multipath fading. Nearby bodies of water contribute significantly to multipath conditions during late evening or early morning hours when thereis litfle wind. Direct transmissionovor water is usually very difficult becauseof reflecfions off the water surface.Transmission over water often requireshigher antennasand some meansof blocking direct reflections.

Since there are a limited number of channelsavailable for point-to-point microwave systems,the same channelSmust be used Over and over again. ReuSeof microwave fiequency bands is enhancedby the directivity of the antennasand the general need however, thereis so much traffor line-of-sight reception.In many metropolitan areas, fic converging into one particular areathat it is impossible to completely isolate two systemsusing the samechannel. This type of interferenceis refened to as cochannel interference. results from converging routes or from overreach of one Cochannel interf'erence hop into anotherhop of the same systemreusing a channel. Sometimesreflections or atmosphericrefractions can contribute to overreach,even when direct line of sight is not present.Overreach is usually controlled by zigzagging the hops so that a beam receive antennasin a route. The reduced from one tran$mitter misses all subsequent ftaffic has reducedthe cochannel for long-distance use of point-to-point microwave interference is a major cochannel However, intetference in point-to-point systems. in as discussed systems, cellular considerationin the design and deployment of digital Chapter 9.

Cochannellnbrterence

REFERENCES
I 2 Federal Communications Commission, Report and Order, Docket No. 19311' FCC 7 4-985, releasedSePt.27, 1974. ..SpecialIssue: AR6A Radio System," Bell systemTethnical Joumal, Dec. 1983.

330

DIGITAL MODULATION ANDRADIO SYSTEMS W. A, Conner, R. J. Girvin, and W. R. McClellan, ,.FrequencyControl of the MSR_6 single sideband system," IEEE International conference on communicarions. 19g3, pp, E2.5.1-E2.5.5. Y' Yoshida, Y. Kitahara, and s. yokoyama, "6G-90 Mbps Digital Radio system with I6-QAM Modulation," IEEE International conference on comrnunicafiozs, 19g0, pp,

52.4.r-52.4.5. "Minimum s. Pasupathy, shift Keying: A spectrallyEfficient Modulation,"/EEE Comrnunications Magaline,July 1g79,pp. l4-ZZ. "continuousphase c.-E. sundberg, Modulation,"IEEE communications Magafine, pp.25-38, Apr. 1986, Y. Morihiro, s. Nakajima, andN. Furuya,"A 100Mbir/s hotorype MSK Modemfor satellitecommunications," IEEE Transactions on communications, oct, 1979,pp. l512-1518. "hactical GMSK Data Transmission," MX-coM Application Note, rggg (www.mxcom.com). K. MurotaandK. Hirade,"GMSK Modulationfor Digital Mobile RadioTelephony," IEEE Transactions on Communications, July lg8l. R. E. Ziemer and w. H. Tranter,principlesof communications, HoughtonMifflin, Boston, 1976. "A New Approach E. Panayirci andE, Y. Bar-Ness, for Evaluating theperformance of a symbolTiming Recovery systemEmploying a General Typeof NonlinEarity IEEE ,,' Transailions on Communicarrans. Jan.1996. c' R. Hogge, Jr.,'carrier andclock Recovery for g-psK synchronous Demodulation," IEEE Transactions on Communications, May 1979, pp. 529_533. P' R. Hartmann andJ. A. crosset,"A 90 MBS Digital Transmission systemat I I GHz Using8 PSKModulation," IEEE International conference on communications.lg16. p p .l 8 - 8 - 1 8 - 1 3 . I. Horikawa,T. Murase,and y. saito, "Designand performances of 200 Mbivs 16 QAM Digital Radio system,* IEEE Transactions on computers,Dec. 197g, pp, r953-1958. "64-eAM Digital J. A' crosserand P. R. Hartmann, ttadio Transmission sysrem Integration andPerformance," IEEE International comrnunications conference.lgg4. pp. 636-641. w. A' conner,"DirectRF Modulation 256eAM Microwave system,"lEEEGlobemm Proteedings, 1988, pp. 52.7.1,52.7.6. H. Matsue,T. shiraro,and K. watanabe,"256 eAM 400 Mb/s MicrowaveRadio system with DSP Fading countermeasures," IEEE Intemational conferenceon Communications, June1988, pp.41.5. l-41.5.6. "A Model K. Pahlavan andJ. L. Holsinger, for theEffectsof pcM compandors on the Petformance proceediigs, 19g5, pp. of High speed Modems," IEEE Grobecom 28.8.1*28.8.5. T. Ryu' J. uchibori, and y. yoshida,'A stepped square256 eAM for DigitarRadio system,"IEEE Intemationalconference on communicarions, 19g6,pp. 1477-l4gl.

l0 l1

l2 l3

t4

l5

r6
t1

t8

l9

331 HEFERENCES "6 andY' Yoshida, GHz 140MbpsDigitalRadio S.Mizoguchi, T. Deguchi, 20 M. Tahara, 1987' pp' Systemwith 256-SSQAMModulation,"IEEE GlobecomProceedings, 38.3.1-38.3.6. "Performance with PartiallyCoherent Communications of Offset-QPSK 7.1 S. A. Rhodes, ConferenceRemrd, Nov. 1973' pp' Detection." National Telecommunications 32A-l-32A-6. "Offset QuadranrreCommunicationswith 2? M, K. Simon and J. G. Smith, on Communftations, IEEE Transadions CarrierSynchronization," Decision-Feedback pp. 1576-1584. Oct.1974, "High Density Digital Data and J. C. Bellamy, 23 J. W. Bayless,R, D. Pedersen, Conference Record, 1976, pp. Transmission," National Telecommunications 51.3-l-51.3-6. "MSK and Offset and A. L. McBride, QPSKModulatton,"IEEE S. A. Oronemeyer pp. 1976' 809-820. Aug, on Communicafians, Transactions "MethodandApparahrs forWideband andN. Zervos, R. D. Gitlin, S.K. Rao,J.Werner, Officeand Central a Telephone for Example, Between, of Digifal Signals Transmission 8' 1990. May No.4,9U'492' U.S.Patent Premises," Customer "comparisonof single-carrierand Multitone Digital Modulationfor B. Saltzberg, Nov' 1998,pp. l14-122' Magazine, IEEE Communication't ADSL Applications," ,,Mid-range Twisted-Pair"' for Calegory3 Unshielded PhysicalLayer Specification 1994' ATM Forum,Sept. afohy-0018.000, "Modulationconsiderations for a 9l Mbit/sDigital and s. G. Barber, Anderson c. w, pp. 523-528' May 1978, on Communications, Radio,"IEEE Transactions .,Fade Margin flnd outage computationof 49-QPSRRadio D. P. Taylor andM. Shafr, Equalization,"IEEE Intemational Conferenteon Feedback Employing Decision pp. 1453-1458' 1983, Communications, Optimum Codes andanAsymptotically for Convolutional A. J. Viterbi,"Error Bounds pp' 1967' Apr' Theory, on lffirmation DecodingAlgorithm," IEEE Transactions 260-269. "Trellis-CodedModulation with RedundantSignal Sets Fart G. Ungerboeck, Feb.1987'pp. 5-l l' Magaeirre, IEEE Communicatktns Introduction." "Trellis-codedModulation signal setsPartII: state with Redundant G. Ungerboeck, pp. t2-21 . 1987' Feb. Magarine, IEEE Communications of theArt," "A RateTransmission Information R. J. F. Fang, Coded8-PsK systemfor 140-Mbivs on 7th IntennationalConference Proceedings over 80-MHz NonlinearTransponders," t2-16' pp' 1986, Communications, DigitalSatellite '"TrellisCoding l4'4kb/s Data M. Abe, and S. Kawamura, T. Kamitake,K. Uehara, Digital signalhocessor,"/EEE with a single-chipHigh-speed ModemImplemented I I 2.8.6' I 987'pp. I 2.8. edings, Proce Globemm .,A Modemoperatingat DatasignalingRates bpsfor use on theGeneral up to 28,800 swirched TelephoneNetwork and on LeasedPoint-to-PointZ-wire Telephone-Type Circuits,"ITU-T Rec.V.34,Sept,1994. "Generalized Minimum shift-Keying Modulation Ramin sadr and J. K. omura, pp. 32-40' Jan.1988, of Communications, IEEETransactions Techniques,"

25

30

3l

33

332

DIGITAL MoDULATIoN AND RADIo SYSTEMS

37 J. A' C' Bingham,'-Multicartier Modulationfor DataTransmission: An IdeaWhose Time HasCome," IEEE Comtnunitations Magazine,May1990, pp. 5_14, 38 J. M. cioffi, "Asymmetric Digita-l subscriberLines," in The cornmunications Handbook, J. Gibson, Ed., CRCpress, BocaRaron, FL, 199g, pp. 450_479. 39 Digital Vidco Broadcasting (DVB): Framing stucture,channel codingandmodulation for digitalterresrrial television, EN 300 744,vl.Z.l, ETSI. lggg_01. "Comparison 40 B. Saltzberg, of Single-Canier and Multitone Digita.lModulationfor ADSL Applications," IEEE Comrnunications l4agaline,Nov. lg9g, pp. llL-llL. 41 E. D. sunde,"IdealBinarypulseTransmission by AM andFM," Eel/ systemTechnical Joumal,Nov. 1959, pp. 1357-1426. 42 w. R. Bennet andJ. R. Davey, Data Transmission, McGraw-Hill.New york. 1965. 43 R. w. Lucky, J. salz, and E. J. weldon, Jr., principlesof Data communications, McGraw-Hill.New york. lg68. 44 Federal Communications Commission, Memorandum Opinionand Ordermodifying FCCReponand Orderof Docket193 I l, released January Zg,1975. 45 G. H. M. de witte, "DRS-B:systemDesignof a Long Haul 9l Mb/s Digital Radio," I EEE NationalTe lecommunicat ions Confe renc e, I g7g, pp. 3g,l l _3g.1.6. "Advanced 46 H. Kostal,D. R. Jeske, andv. K. prabu, Engineering Methods for Digital Radio Route Design,"IEEE Intemational communitationsconference,l9g7, pp. l9B.6.l_198,6,6. "Digital 47 c' P. Bates, P.L. Penney, andK. L, seastrand, RadioTechnology in theAT&T Network," IEEE Intemationar communications conference, 19g7, pp, -198.5.7. l98.5.l "A Multipath 48 E. A. Sweedyk andP. Balaban, FadingModelfor Tenesrrial Microwave proceedings, Radio,"IEEE Glohecom lgB8,pp. 52.6.1_52.6.1 . 49 s. H. Lin, "openingNew vistas for Microwave Radio,"gel/core Exchang,e,July/Aug. 1988, pp.9-12. 50 P. R. Hartmann andE. W. Allen, "An AdaptiveEqualizer for Correction of Multipath Distortion in a 90 MB/s B-psK system," IEEE Intemational conferenceon Communications, 1979,pp, 5.6. l-5.6.4. ,.Receiver 5l J. K. chamberlain, F. M. clayton, H. sari, andp. vandamme, Techniques for MicrowaveDigital Radio," IEEE cownunitations Magazine,Nov. 19g6,pp. 43-54. 'Advancedrechniques 52 Y, Nakamura, H. ohtsuka,s. Aikawa,and H. Takanashi, for super Multi-carrier Digital Microwave Radio with Trellis-coded 2s6 eAM proceedings,lggg, Modulation," IEEE Globecom pp. l l.3.l_l1.3.6.

PROBLEMS
6.1 To prevent the transmission of line spectra, digital radio terminals use data scramblers to randomize the data patterns. Furthermore, differential encoding is normally required for proper datadetection.Both functions inffoduce error mul tiplication. If the combined effect of theseoperationscausesan averageof five

PROBLEMS 333

enors for everychannelenor, what is the effectivepenaltyin transmit decoded At BER = 10-3? at BER = 10-6? powerfor a 4-PSKsystem errorsat a rate thermal-noise-induced is experiencing 6.2 If a digitalradioreceiver from bits, whatis thenewerrorrateifthe pathlengthis decreased of I per 106 30 to ?5 miles? 6.18. 6.3 DeriveEquation of an 8-PSKsignalcarrying4800 bandwidth 6,4 what is the minimumtheoretical bps? thefour cornerpointsof a by eliminating 6.s A 32-QAM signalsetis implemented in termsof thepeaksignal what is theminimumerrordistance 36-QAMsignal. sigfor antipodal to theerror distance compale power?How doesthis answer in decibels') theanswers naling?(Express 6.5) assuming ratio of a 32-QAM signal(Problem 6.6 what is the peak-to-average data? of random transmission to 32-PsKenor performance compare 6.5)eruor 6.7 How does32-QAM (Problem performance? (a) In termsof average signalpowers? (b) In termsof peaksignalpowers? provides anerrorrateof using4-PSKmodulation system 6.8 A carriertransmission bandto naffowthetransmission to 16-PSK is changed l0-6. tf themodulation to how muchmustthehansmitpowerbe increased rateunchanged), width (data maintainthe sameerror rate? andthe datarate that the bandwidthis unchanged Problem6.8 assuming 6.9 Repeat is doubled. with a signal-to-Gaussian-noise 6.10 Whatis theerrorrateof anidealI6-QAM signal ratio(SNR)of 18dB? 6.11 What is the error rate of hoblem 6.10 if interferenceis also present at a level
that is 21 dB below the received signal? (Assume the effect of the intefference is identical to Gaussiannoise at the samerms power.) 6.r2How much must the transmit power in Problem 6.1 I be increasedto off'setthe effect of ttre interference?(Assume the interferencelevel is fixed.) in proportion to Problem 6.1?, but assumethat the interferenceincreases Repeat 6.13 the increasein transmit power. (Signal powers in the adjacentchannelsare increasedalong with the desired signal power.) Problem 6.3 assuminga starting stateof DRepeat 6.14

IZATION RON SYNCH NETWORK ANDMANAGEMENT CONTROL

are systems of transmission requirements 4 and6 somesynchronization In Chapters involve carier recoveryfor coherentdetectionof Theserequirements discussed. incomingdata,and framingproceclock recoveryfor sampling signals, modulated considin a TDM signalformat.All of these dures for identifyingindividualchannels and,for the mostpart, operate systems areinherentin digital transmission eratrons deof one subsystem's in a network.An instance of otherequipment independently datamu$tincludeminimum wasnotedfor Tl lines.Tl source pendency on another other link. In contrast, timing on theoriginaltransmission of 1's to maintain densities the of independently synchronization clock line codesare describedthat maintain data. source for inconsiderations synchronization network-related This chapterdiscusses Foremost and switchingequipment. variousdigital transmission terconnecting of switching equipment'When is synchronization among theseconsiderations network,the wasfirst installedin thepublic telephone digital switchingequipment Hence,each switchingmachine systems. were analogtransmission interfaces frequencysource(clock) that convertedall could operatewith an autonomous voice signalsinto digital signalswith preciselythe samedatarate (nominally 64 to carry one channelrate and one kbps).Theseswitchingmatriceswere designed reswitch interconnection digital subsequent of The advent channelrate only. netin the else someplace originating digital channels quired switchesto carry work-from a different frequency source. Thus, network synchronization arose. requirements are interand switchingequipments transmission When individual synchronous syneither that to beestablished procedures need certarn to form a network, connected each chronize the clocks to each other or provide for their interoperabilitywhen of networkclock synclocks.Followingthe discussion independent uses subsystem of network to otheraspects is extended of synchronization the concept chronization, control.

336

NETWORK SYNCHRONIZATION CONTROL ANDMANAGEMENT

7.1 TIMING All digital systems inherently requirea frequency source, or ..clock,"asa means of timing internaland externaloperations. operationstimed from a singlefrequency source do notrequire particularly stable sources sinceall commonly clocked elements experience timing variations in common. A differentsituation occurs whentransfers aremadefrom one synchronous equipmentto another(asfrom a ffan$mitterto a receiver). Evenif theclockof thereceiving terminalis "synchronized" to thetransmitting terminal on a long-term or average basis, short-term variations in eitherclockmay jeopardize the integrityofthe datatransfer. Thusit is generally necessary to usefrequencysource$ (oscillators) in boththe transmitter andthereceiver thatareasstable asis economically feasible. 7.1.1 Tlming Recovery: Fhaee-Locked Loop A commonmeansof synchronizing a receiverclock to a transmitter clock usesa phase-locked loop (PLL) asshown in Figure7.l. A phase detector continuously measuresthe phase difference between the incomingclock anda locally generated clock. Thephase detector in Figure7.1merelymeasures thedifference in thezerocrossings between the two signals. Whenthe zerocrossing of the line clock precedes the zero crossing of thelocalclock,a positivevoltage is generated; otherwise, a negative voltageis produced. The outputof the phase detector is filteredto eliminate asmuchreceivenoiseaspossible, andthenthephase measurement adjusts the frequency of the voltage-controlled oscillator(VCo) to reduce thephase difference. Someamount of noiseor interference inevitablypasses throughthephase detector andthefilter, causing erroneous adjustments in the vco frequency. As time passes, however,a frequency offsetproduces ever-increasing phase shifts.Whenthephase difference builds up,it is easier to detect, andtheappropriate changes in theVCo occur. Hence thelocal

Figure 7.1 Phase-locked loop clockrecovery circuir.

rMrNG

337

variproduces $hort-term but inherenfly frequency average clock maintains the desired "hunts"theunderlying clock. line ofthe frequency as it ationsofphaseandfrequency in everyclockinterval,a to havea transition Theline clockin Figure7.1is shown With someline line codes. or diphase-type Manchester thatdoesoccurwith situation of intervals during transitions are no clock (bipolar particular) there in or AMI codes transiartificial inserts circuitry clock extraction the cases either binary0's. In these duringinis disabled detector or thephase intervals from previous tionsexffapolated pulse is detected. tervalswhenno 7.1.2 Clock InstabilltY of is an example above of the VCO described The variationin the outputfrequency free-running of instability-even amount a certain clocks have clock instability.All therateat which of clockinstabilityis its frequency: aspect An important oscillators. The frequencyof low. to being too too high being from the clock frequencychanges control VCO the of spectrum the frequency as observed the instability canbe directly varies slowly, voltage VCO control the When recovery PLL circuit. clock in a voltage the more rapid, the are variations When wander. to as clock the variationsarereferred jitter. dividing generally most accepted The to as is refened instabilityof the clock produces on a Tl line therefore pointbetween wander andjitter is 10Hz. Purewander by more (0.05 followed sec) intervals 77,200 bit than positivephase errorsfor more inclock of The main sources pha$e errors.* negative of only bit intervals than77,200 jitter) network are; (both in a and stability wander 1. Noiseandinterference media in the lengthof transmission 2. Changes in velocityof propagation 3. Changes Doppler shiftsfrom mobileterminals 4. timing information 5. Irregular

it canfilter with a verylow cutofffrequency, If thelow-pass filter of a PLL is designed link thatwouldotherwise on a transmission all of thenoiseandinterference outalmost why arbimarilylow passfilcomrptthetiming recovery.Therearethreemain reasons (e.9.,lock synchronization First,theability ofthe PLL to acquire beused. terscannot If the VCO berelated to thePLL bandwidth' clock)is inversely on to theunderlying is too narrow'thePLL may andthebandwidth ginsoscillating at thewrongfrequency is thisproblem of theline clock.Sometimes, to thefrequency neverpull theoscillator and synchronization a wide oneto acquire by usingtwo bandwidths: accommodated afterlock is achieved' a narrowonethatis selected
+As discussed later, observing wander in this way requires extremely stable clocks as a reference. The normal PLL clock recovery circuitry cannot be used to observe wandet because the VCO tracks the relatively long-term phase offsets, Thus the clock recovery citcuit does not filter out thc wanderbut passes it on.

Nolseand lnErterence

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NETWoRKSYNcHHoNIZATIoNcoNTHoLANDMANAGEMENT

A secondconsiderationthat generally precrudes the useofvery nanow filters, even after acquisition, is that the sourcemay vary in frequency that cannot be tracked by a slowly respondingPLL. In this case,the recoveredclock doesnot track the ideal sample times leading to high error rates or, worse yet, the pLL loses synchronization altogether and has to reacquire lock. The third limiting factor for low-bandwidth PLLs is the instability of rhe VCO irself. If the vco begins to drifr in frequency, very low bandwidth filters preclude adjusting the VCO input voltage soon enough to prevent bit errors or possible loss of synchronization. Because operational considerations dictate certain minimum PLL bandwidths. noise and interferenceon the transmissionlink always causethe recoveredclock to be more impaired than the sourceclock. The pLL does, however, eliminate that portion of a disturbancewith frequency content abovethe bandwidth of the PLL. Thus disturbanceswith low-frequency content are the most difficult to deal with. systematicjitter, as produced by particular pattems of intersymbol interference, can have an arbitrarily low frequency content and is discussedmore fully in a later section. An important considerationin the design of a digitrrl transmissionlink is the accumulation ofjitter in tandemclock recovery circuits. If a recoveredclock is usedto time the transmissionof outgoing data, as in a regenerativerepeater,some amount of incoming jitter is imbedded into the outgoing clock. The clock recovery circuit in the next receiver tracksits incoming clock but introduceseven morejitter due to noise and interferenceon the secondsection. Thus jitter accumulatesat every regenerativerepeaterusing its received line clock as its transmit clock. If there is a large number of regenerativerepeaters, thejitter can accumulateto a point where subsequent clock recovery circuits have difficulty tracking the receive clock, produce sampling error$, and possibly lose lock.

Changee ln Lengthof Transmiesion Media

Path length changesoccur as a result of thermal expansionor conffaction of guided transmissionmedia or of atmosphericbending of a radio path. while a path is increasing in length, the effective bit rate at the receiver is reducedbecausemore and more bits are being "stored" in the medium. similarly, as the path shortens,the bit rate at the receiver increa$e$ because the number of bits storedin the transmissionlink is decreasing.After the path has stabilized, the receive signal returns to the nominal data rate. The mo$t significant changesin path length occur with communications satellites' Geostationarysatellitesproduce path length variations of approximately ?fi) miles, which causepropagationtime variations of approximately I msec I I . path length changes I also occur in guided transmission media such as copper wire and optical fibers. These changesare referred to as diurnal changesbecausethey occur once a day.

Changesin the Vetocityof propagation

Temperaturechangesnot only causeexpansionand contraction of wireline transmis* sion media but also can changethose propagation constantsof the media that deter-

7.1 rMrNG

339

mine the velocity of propagation.The resulting changein received clocked stability, however, is much less than that produced by the changein path length [2]' The propagation velocity of radio waves in the atmosphere also changes with temperature and humidity. Although these velocity changes are more significant than those occurring in wirelines, they are still smaller than the path-length-inducedvariations. Notice that a change in propagation velocity is effectively equivalent to a "stored" in the transmission path is change in path length since the number of bits changed.

Doppler Shlfts clock occurs timing instabilityin a received of potential source The mostsignificant a Dopplershift For example, or satellites. asa resultof Dopplershiftsfrom airplanes clockinstabilityof 5 x 10*7' to anequivalent amounts airplane by a 350-mph induced to Dopplershiftsequivalent must accommodate receivers Digital mobiletelephone Again,Dopplershiftsoccur,in es$ence, of aboutonepartin 107.* clock instabilities asa resultof pathchanges. Ineg u lar Tlm ing lnfo rmetlo n of a digital line codeis thatit requirement 4, a fundamental in Chapter As discussed andmaintaina receiverline clock. provide sufficienttiming informationto establish jitter in therecovered durclockincreases is datadependent, If thetiminginformation of thejitter is de* of relativelylow densitytiming marks.Themagnitude ing periods pendentnot solely on the densityof timing marksbut also on the timing (data) however, only the densitywould matter.In practice, patterns. In an ideal repeater, jitter [3]. leadto pattern-dependent variousimperfections insertoverhead higherlevel digitalmultiplexers laterin this chapter, As discussed rate data higher purpo$es. When the for various stream data bits into a composite is irregular' individual channels within rate of data the arrival is demultiplexed, stream new line clocksfor thelower timingjitter whengenerating This inegularityproduces jitter) and (waiting themosttroublesome is often time ofjitter This source ratesignals. later. in more detail is discussed 7.1.3 Elastic Stores represent paragraphs essentially in the preceding described The timing instabilities noiseand the case of link. In in a transmission in the numberof bits stored changes "bits are samdata stored"occursbecause in the change interference-inducedjitter, dataof a regeneraSincetheoutgoing pleda little earlieror a little laterthannominal. offsetin the clock, a phase to the recovered according aretransmitted tive repeater is nomisalignfrom whenthere is different therepeater thedelaythrough clockmeans mentin timing.
*If you *e pa*noid about cooperation between cellular operators and law enforcement authorities, you may not want to use your cell phone while speeding.

340

NETwoHKSYNcHHoNIZATIoNcoNTRoLANDMANAGEMENT

Ifphase offsets in successive regenerativerepeaterscoincide, a net changeof several bits of storagein a long repeatedtransmissionlink occurs. Sincetheseexffa bits enter or leave the hansmission link over relatively short periods of time, the accumulated jitter rnay representa relatively large, but short lived, instability in the receive clock. Becauseregenerativerepeater$ use incoming sample clocks as output clocks, sustained timing differencesbetween inputs and outputs do not exist. The endpointsof a transmissionlink, however, may interface to a local clock. In this casea difference between a received and a relatively fixed local clock must be reconciled with an elastic store' An elastic store is a data buffer that is written into by one clock and read from by another.If short-term instabilities exist in either clock, the elastic storeabsorbsthe differencesin the amount of datatransmittedand the amountof datareceived.An elastic store can compensate only for short-term instabilities that produce a Iimited difference in the amountsof data transmitted and received.If sustainedclock offsets exist. as with highly accuratebut unsynchronizedclocks, an elastic store will eventually underflow or overflow.

TDld-Swltch ln|errtace
A typicalneed for anelastic store occurs whena digitaltransmission link is interfaced to a digitaltime divisionswitch.As shown in Figure7.2,theelastic storeis placed betweentheincomingdigitaltransmission link andtheinlet sideof the switch.In most instances thedigitalswitchprovides timingfor all outgoing TDM links sotharno timing discrepancies existbetween these links andtheswirch. For thetimebeing,assume that the far end of the digital link derivesits clock from thereceivesignalanduses thatclockto timedigitaltransmissions returning to theswitch. Thisis thesituation that arises whena remotechannel bankis connected to a digital swirchthroughTl ]ines andis commonly referred to aschannel bank"loop timing."when looptimingis used, the line clock on the incominglink of the switchis nominallysynchronized to the switchclock.However,for rea$ons discussed previously, a certainamountof instability in the incomingclock necessarily exists.The elasticstoreabsorbs these instabilities sothatpurelysynchronized dataareavailable for the swirch.

Figure 7.2 store.

Interface between TDM nansmission link and a digital switch using an elastic

TrMrNc 941

maintains store links andtheelastic by thetransmission In essence, theloopformed a constantand integral numberof clock intervalsbetweenthe inlet and outlet of the asthoughdioperate switch.Thus,from a timingpoint of view,theinletsandoutlets of timing. source to eachotherusinga common rectlyconnected Removal of Accumulated Jitter for an elasticstoreis shownin Figure7.3,whereit is usedto reAnotherapplication Normally,aregenrepeater. timingjitter in a regenerahve movetransmission-induced the transmittiming directly from the locally derived establishes erativerepeater local by a separate timingis defined thetransmit sample clock.In Figure7.3,however, clock,butthe in thereceive instabilities theshoft-term storeabsorbs clock.Theelastic a cefrain"avby maintaining clock is controlled Ofthetransmit frequency long-term to clockis synchronized Thusthetransmit in theelasticstore. level of storage" erage is Ifthe elasticrltore basis. basis, but not on a short-term theline clockon a long-term in thedatarate,high-frequency variations all transient to accommodate largeenough instabilityof theinputclockis removed. timing,deused to recover of themechanism regardless repeaters, All regenerative overa period the incomingtiming information rive their outputclocksby averaging theincomingclockfor relativelyfew signalintervals; of time.Tunedcircuitsaverage of storage a certainamount In all cases phase-locked loopsdo sofor manyintervals. the available to increase or delayis implied.An elasticstoreis merelya mechanism canbe mademore gradually.Notice that an delay so that output timing adjustments of artificial delayinto the datapath' amount$ elasticstorealwaysinsertssignificant (wander), aftihalily large elastic instabilities To removearbitrarilylow frequency elasticstore Thusa jitter-removing VCOs)arerequired. (andarbitrarilystable stores jitter accumulation the threatens only when into achainof repeaters should beinserted to maintainsynchronization' repeater ability of a regularregenerative in digilink but alsooccurs of a digitaltransmission Jitteris notjust a phenomenon jitter removallike that shownin Figure7.3 is used For example, $y$tems. tal storage blurringof thevisualimages to eliminate [4]. in laserdiscptayers Elastlc Store ImPlementdtiong bits for hundred sizeof an elasticstorevariesfrom a few bits to several The required of imonemeans links.Figure7.4 shows communications long-distance high-speed, and a register, converter, plementing a smallelasticstoreutilizing a series-to-parallel

repeater. regenerative Figure 7.3 Jitter-removing

342

NETWoRK sYNcHRoNIzATIoN coNTRoLANDMANAGEMENT

Input clock Input rignrl

Ortput clock OrrtDUtdrtr

Figure 7.4 Basicimplementation of an elasticstore. a parallel-to-seriesconverter.As indicated, incoming data are transferredinto the register as soon as each word is accumulatedin the series-to-parallelconvefier. Some time later, data in the register are transferredto the output parallel-to-serierr converter as a complete word is shifted out. Notice that transfersto the parallel-to-seriesconverler are independentof the incoming clock. As long as ouFut transfbrsoccur between input transfers,no data are lost, and short-term jitter is absorbedby varying delays through the elastic store. Normally, somecontrol circuitry (not shown) is neededto initialize the elastic store so that the first transferinto the registeroccurs midway betweenoutput transfers.This processmeanssomeincoming dataare initially discardedby the series-to-parallel register until the desiredtransfer time occurs. The relative times of the parallel transfersinto and out of the holding registerprovide a direct indication ofthe relative phaseofthe input and output clocks. Thus the parallel transfer clocks contain the information neededto generateVCO control voltagesif the elastic store is being used to remove accumulatedtransmissionjitter. The basic structureshown in Figure 7.4 can be extendedto implement larger elastic stores,as shown in Figure 7.5. The only changeinvolves the substitution of a f,rrst-in, first-out (FIFO) buffer for the holding register of Figure 7.4. This data buffer i$ designed specifically to allow input transfersunder the control of one clock while output$ are controlled by a different clock. Normally, the FIFO buffer is initialized by inhibiting output transfers until it is half firll. In fact, some commercially availabll FIFO buffers have an output signal specifically indicating when it is half full or greater.

7.1.4 Jitter Measurements A simple circuit for measuring jitteris shown timing in Figure 7.6.As indicated, it is
nothing more than a phase-lockedloop (pLL) with the output of the phasecomparator providing the measurementof the timing jitter. Normally, the bandwidth of the lowpassfilter (LPF) is very small so the vco ignoresshort-termjiner in the timing signal. If there is no jitter at all, the output of the phasecomparatoris constantand no signal is passedby the high-passselectionfilter (HpF).

7.1 TrMrNc 343

Inrutfita Irput clalt

Outputclock Output (htr

of anelastic store. Figure7.5 FIFOimplementation jitter ciurnot by thecircuit in Figure7.6 because be measured Very low frequency jitter maybe of no conphase shifts.Low-frequency theVCO tracksslowlychanging jitter, on the it canbe hackedby a PLL. Higher frequency because cern,however, errorsor a lossof lock in theclockrecovery sampling otherhand,is moreaptto cause is of intercontent of thejitter aswell asits magnitude Thusthespectral of a repeater. jitter, the circuit of Figure7.6 low-frequency not beingableto measure est.Besides declock signal,Section7.4.7 lock ontothefundamental if it cannot cannotoperate jitter andothertiming impairments within a network. scribesanotherway to measure theorists asa powermeasjitter is commonlyspecified by communications Phase As radians') (Onecycle= Zru or cyclessquared. squared in unitsof radians urement jitterPoweristhenameasure of thenumof thevariance in Figure7.7,phase indicated link. In a physical (UIs) stored in thetransmission berof clockcyclesor unit intervals not timing variations, it represents jitter "power" haslittle meaning because sense jitter asa powercanbe obtained by justificationfor expressing physical power.Some detectoroutput signalis propottionalto that theIms power o| of the phase observing jitter ofr: therms phase

2 at

Jitt0f

Clock rlgnal

Phi|e lock loop

timingjitter' Figure 7.6 Circuittbr measuring

344

NETWORKSYNCHRONIZATION CONTROLAND MANAGEMENT Prohbility dkfibution of ryrtolr in trrnrlt of nuftbGr

lntunbncou| numblr = /V Ar,6rgp - ilo

Trsn|ftrhtfi *ith it|bh rimingsurE+

Rtcdrnr

Figure 7.7 Phase jitter modeled as the variance in the number of symbols ',stored" in the transmissionlink.

ot,=K3siry2)
whereKa is thephase gainfactorin voltsperradian. detector

(7.1)

Example7.1. Givenan rms phase jitter of 10.7dB relativero oneuI, what is the standard deviation of thephase offset? Solutinn. Thevariance of thesignalphase is determined = asofr: l0 exp(10.7/10) 11.76UI squared. Hence, the standard deviation is (ll.?6)u2 = j.4j UI (symbol intervals)'Since687oof a normalprobabilitydistributionlies within one standard deviation, thephase of thissignal is within +3.43symbol intervals for 687o of thetime. Onepercent of the time the signalphase will be outside2.6 standard deviations. or +8.9symbol intervals. jitter arises If phase as a resultof additiveGaussian noiseon a stablesignal,the phase noisecanbe approximated as

4:#
whereofr= additivenoisepower Pr = signalpower

(rad2)

(7.2)

Equation 7.2 is the basicequation ofphasejitter produced by additivenoiseon a continuous sinusoid[5]. when timing is exhacted from a datasignal,the timing informationis usuallynot continuous. The distinctionis not importantbecause jitter produced by additivenoiseis normallyinsignificant compared to othersources [6]. For an analysis jitter produced of phase by regenerative repeaters operating on randomlyoccurring timing transitions, seereference [7].

TrMrNc 3rt5 TABLE7.1 Maxlmumlnstabllltyof D$l Customerlnterlace Band Frequency

<10H2 < 10Hz 10 Hz-40 kHz I kHz-40 kHz

Variation Peak-to-Peak Maximum 28 Ulsin 24 hr 5 U l si n 1 5m i n 5 Uls 0 , 1U l s

As an example of a particular instability specification, Table 7.I lists the wander and jitter specificationsof a DSI digital carrier (Tl) interface to the public network [8]. Notice that the higher frequencyjitter specificationallows deviationsin pulse centers of only 5Vo,which effectively specifies the accuracy of the data sample clock' Larger variations are allowed for lower frequency instabilities becausethe clock recovery circuits can track the changesto maintain a good sample clock.

7.1.5 $ystematlcJitter by Byrne' wasreported An originalanalysis of jitter in a chainof digitalregenerators of Each basic their analysis' 7.8 shows model the Figure Karafin,andRobinson [3]. wavetiming from thereceived in a T-carrierline extracts of theregenerative repeaters of clock.Because asa transmit form andpasses thattiming on to thenextregenerator rein the timing (primarily intetference) intersymbol implementation imperfections on the datapatterns' One is dependent by repeaters coverycircuits,jitter produced pattem produces an exphase lag. pattern produces exheme Another an worst-case phase a to the other, worst case lead.Whenthedatflpatternshiftsftom one tremephase thejitterproimplemenfadon, thesame basic everyrepeaterha$ Because rampoccurs. nature ofthisjitter Thesystematic tends to be coherent. by individualrepeaters duced of accumulated line clockjitter at the end of a source makesit the most signiflrcant chainof repeaters.

I I

Phuodritt $rilih rr
Stvitch ln drtr ptt$7nt indlvlilirl ttlpetif

(D2= phaseshift jitter in a string of regenerative repeaters; Figure 7.8 Model of systematic by worst-case shift produced lead;(Dt = phase datapattemfor phase produced by worst-case datapattemfor phaselag.

346

NETWoRKSYNCHRoNIZATIoNcoNTRoLANDMANAGEMENT

As indicated in Figure 7.8, the last repeaterin the chain experiencesa large phase ramp equal to the number of repeaters times the phaseshift of eachindividual repeater. This phaseramp representsan abrupt changein the clock frequency that may cause bit errors or a complete loss of synchronization.Thus there is a limit to the number of repeatersthat can be used without jitter removal. For more analysesof jitter accumulation including the combined effects of systematicjitter and rzurdomperturbations, seereferences [9J, [0], and [11].

7.2 TIMING INACCURACIES

In the precedingsectionthe natureof certain instabilities or transientvariationsin timing was discussed. Although thesevariations representshifts in the frequency of a line clock, the shifts are only temporary and can be absorbedby elastic stores.In some instances digital communicationsequipmentusing autonomousfrequency sourcesmust be interconnected.when this happens,the clock ratesof the two systemsarenever exactly the $ame,no matter how much accuracyis designedinto the frequency $ources. An offset in the two clocks, no matter how small, canaotbe reconciledby elastic stores alone. In the preceding section,channel bank loop timing was mentioned as an example of how remote terminals are synchronized to a digital switch. When the remote terminal is anotherdigital switch using its own frequency sourceas a reference,a difTerent situation results. As shown in Figure 7.9, the outgoing clock for each direction of transmissionis def,rned by the local switch clock. Thus the incoming clock at each switch interface containsnot only tran$mission-line-induced jitter but also a small and unavoidablefrequency offset.

7.2.1 Slips
As indicated in Figure 7.9, the interface of eachincoming digital link necessarilycontains an elastic store to remove transmissionlink timing jitter. The elastic store at the first digital switch is written into by the recoveredline clock but read from the local rateR1.If the averagerate of the recoveredline clocklR2is different fromRl, the elastic

Figure 7.9 Connections between autonomously timeddigital switches.

7,2 TIMING INACCURACIFS 347

storewill eventually underflow or overflow,depending on whichrateis larger.When causing thanR1,the elasticstoreat the first digital switchoverflows, a R2is greater If R2is lessthanR1,thesame lossof data. elastic storeunderflows, causing extraneous datato be insefiedinto the bit sffeamentering the switch.Normally,the extraneous transferred dataarea repetition of databits already into theswitch.Disruptions in the datastream of caused or overflows an elasticstorearereferred to as by underflows "slips." impairments Uncontrolled very significant to a digitalnetworkbeslipsrepresent generally Thetefore, cause cause synchronization. slips are althey a loss of frame manners lowed to occuronly in prescribed that do not upsetframing.One general approach thattheyoccuronly in theform of a repeto controllingthe slipsis to ensure andframing logic astition or deletionof an entireframe.Thusthe time slot counter$ group with the multiplex remainsynchronized. Conholledslipscomprising sociated canbe assured entireframes with at leastoneframeof storage. by usingelasticstores As a slip occurs, level in the elasticstoreis effectivelyincreased or dethe storage creased by a full frame.Ratherthanactuallyinsertingor deletinga frameof informapointersin a more easily by indexingaddress tion, the desiredeffect is achieved random-acce$$ memory. Sucha system is shownin Figure7.10. writing input information by sequentially Theelasticstorein Figure7.10operates to individualTDM channels. into memoryaddresses corresponding Datafor individin thesame ual outputchannels areobtained thesame sequential by reading addresses manner. the clock rates, Ideally,if thereis no offsetbetween the readtimesof each The elastic occurmidway between write timesfor corresponding channels. channel delayvariations storethenhasthecapability transmission up to one-half of absorbing of a frametime.

Memory wrltS* Memory reodr

Double reEd

Figure 7.10 Hlastic storeoperation memory, with a one-frame

348

NETWORK SYNCHRONIZATION CONTROL ANDMANAGEMENT

The timing diagram in Figure 7.10 depicts an exaggerared timing offset in which the switch clock R2 is greaterthan the incoming clock lt1. As indicated, the read times carch up gradually with the write times until a "double read" occurs.At that time the information retrieved for eachcharurelis a repetition of the information retrieved for the previous outgoing frame. Although write and read times for only one channel are shown, the corresponding times for all other channelshave the samerelationship. Thus all charurelsslip together.Notice that R1 is greater than R2, a slip occurs when a "double write" on all channelscausesthe information in the previous incoming frame to be overwritten. The elastic store operation depicted in Figure 7.10 is very similar to the operation of a time slot interchangememory describedin Chapter5. This relationshipis exploitable in a TST switch where the inlet memory can provide both the elastic store function and the time switching function. When the two functions are combined, slips generally occur at different times for different channels. Nevertheless,individual charnels maintain proper frame alignment since each channel is transferredthrough the inlet memory using dedicatedmemory addresses. One attractivefeatureof using the inlet memory as an elastic storeis that, when setting up a new connection,an internal switching time slot can be chosenso that the inlet memory read is halfway betweeninlet memory writes for the particular channel.Thus a slip in that connection will not occur for a long time, probably not until long after the connection is released.(With a clock inaccuracy of one pafl in 108,ttre time between slips in any one channel is 3.5 hr.) One potential problem with the elastic store in Figure 7.10 occurs when write and read times nearly coincide. When both accesses to a single channeloccur one after the other, transient timing instabilities can causethe two accesses to cross back and forth with respectto each other. Thus slips causedby double readsmay follow slips caused by double writes and vice,versa.To remedy this situation, some amount of hysteresis is neededin the counter adjustmentprocess.The hysteresis,in turn, implies that additional storageis neededto defer the occurrenceof one type of slip after a slip of the other type has recently occurred. One meansof implementing an elastic storewith the desiredhysteresisis to usetwo framesof storageas shown in Figure 7.11. Forconvenience,the elastic storeis divided into an A-frame memory and a B-frame memory. The counterlogic again accesses the memories in sequentialfashion except that frames are written alternately into the A and B memories.Under normal operation,the memoriesare accessed in the sameway for output data. When a slip is imminent, however, control logic causesthe output channelcounter to be reset so that the A memory is read twice in a row. This situation is depicted in the timing diagram of Figure 7.1I, which again assumesthat R2 is Sreaterthan R1.The imporrant point to be noticed in the timing diagram is that after the counter adjustmentproducesa double read of memory A, the write and read times of each individual memory are approximately one frame time apart. Thus anotheradjustment can be deferred until the write and read accesses again drift one full frame time with respectto eachother. The structure and mode of operation shown in Figure 7.11 describethe elastic store used for DSI signal interfacesto AT&T's (now Lucent's)No. a ESS II2].

7.2 TIMINGINACCURACIES

349

n,$

VP

I awntr I l \

J I
I

J}
P/S ilhmory r$lt|| l,/hmofy rgrd A A

fi2

A Double t?ral

Figure 7.ll

Elasticstorewith a two-frame memory.

9llp Bate Qbjactlves

If the difference between an elastic store's input data rate and its output data rate is M,- the time between slips is

A7={ AR
where N is the number of bits that get dropped or repeatedwhenever a slip occurs. Normally, a slip involves a full frame of data, in which casethe time between slips is determined as

47=-l^F

whereAF is the differencein framerates. As long asslipsarecontrolled sotheydo not disruptframing,ltheir only effectis repetition aninfrequent of theinformation within affected TDM channels. or deletion "click." Only The audibleeffectof slipson a digitizedvoice signalis an occasional oneslip in 25 produces click in PCM voice[]. Voice signals cantherefore anaudible per tolerate slips minute[13]. several
*Typicatly, clock offsets are specified in relative terms (e,g,, onepart in 106). A clock tlat is accurateto P parts per million (ppm) has a maximum offset of AR = ll . P/10". TWith single-frame slips, framing is disrupted in thc sense that framing pattem is shifted, Thus, the frame sequence has to be reacquired, but this process is simplified by the fact that the location of the framing bits and the integrity of the message channels are maintained.

350

N ETWORKSYNCHRONIZATION CONTHOLAND MANAGEMENT

A moresubtle andtroublesome aspect of slipsoccurs whena digitizedchannel carriesvoiceband data.High-speed datamodems for the analogtelephone networkuse with coherent detection in thereceiver. Since these modems QAM modulation areparticularlysensitive to phase shifts, theyareparticularly vulnerable to slips.An 8-bitslip in a digitizedmodemsignalusinga carrierof 1800Hz causes phase aninstantaneous shift of 8l o.obviously,a phase shift of this sizecauses a dataerror,but moreimportantly,it upsets thecarrier recovery circuitryin thereceiver andcauses multipleerrors. A singleslip canupsettheoperation of some voiceband modems for several seconds [ 1 4 ,1 5 ] . characterizations of theeffects of slipson Group3 facsimile equipment [16]reveal thata singleslip cancause thelossof four to eightscanlineswithoutanerrorreport. Sometimes thelossof thelinesis not immediately evident to thereconstructed image. Diagonal lines,however, readilyrevealmissingverticalspace. Encrypted traffrc(voiceor data)is moresusceptible to slipssincetheencryptionprocess decryption usuallyrelieson bit-synchronous scramblers and unscramblers. Whenthebit countis altered by insertion or deletion of bits in a time slot,counters in the source anddestination become unsynchronized. At berrt, process the decryption causes everyslip to be audible. At worst,unintelligible speech or dataresultuntil the unscrambler is resynchronized. Anotherimportantaspect of encrypted communication is transmission of encryption keysor indexes to encryption keys.If synchronization is lost for some reason, it maybenecessary to resynchronize theencryption keys, thereby compromising security. Whena digitaltransmission link is beingusedto transmit datadirectly,theeffect of a slip maynot be anymoresignificant thana singlechannel error.Most datacommunications receiving equipment requests a complete retransmission of anyblock of datanot satisfying certain redundancy checks. Thusoneerroris asbadasmanyerrors or a complete lossof data.Theeffectof the slip will be moresignificant, however, if the communications protocol[e.g.,the DDCMP of Digital Equipment corporation (compaq)lrelieson bytecountprocedures to delimitmessage blocks.Insefiionor deletion of databy the networkcauses the receive counter to become unsynchronized, andthenormalexchange of information is disrupted until thelossof synchronization is recognized. Fromtheforegoing considerations for datatransmission, theslip rateobjective for theAT&T networkandadopted by BellcoreandANSI for NorthAmericawasserar oneslip in 5 hr for anend-to-end connection [17-19]. Sinceslipscanoccurat multiple pointswithin a network,the objective for slipsat individualtrunk and switchinginterfaces was$etat oneslip every20 hr. Example7.2. Determine the relativeaccuracy requirement$ of two independent clocksto maintaina mutualslip rateobjective of one slip in 20 hr. Assume a frame rateof I kHz asin PCM voicesisnals. solution. The slip rateobjective impliesthattheframerateproduced by oneclock canbe different thanthe framerateproduced by the otherclock by no morethan

7.2 TIMINGINACCURACIES I

351

r;

* * *

= 1.39x 10-5slipsper second

per second, therelativeaccuracy is determined as Sinceilrereare8000frames

1.39xl0-5 n.-, = 1.7x " lo-e sliPs/frame

ffi

Hence theclocksmustbe accurate to 1.7partsin lOe. Example only a maximumrelativeinaccuracy, the absoBecause 7.2 determines ( each I lute inaccuracy individualclockmustbe lessthan .7 x 10-e)/2, or 0.85parts of in 10e. 7.2.2 Asynchronou$ Multlplexing sectioncertainaspects In the preceding of networksynchronization werediscussed that implied the needfor clock synchronization to preventa lossof databy way of to as"pulsestuffing"is discussed slips.In this section a procedure referred thatavoids The termpulsestuffingcanbe somewhat misboth slipsandclock synchronization. Ieading sinceit impliesthatpulses into the line codeto maketiming adareinserted justments. Actually,pulsestuffinginvolvesonly the datastream andis independent system in use.Pulsestuffingis a termcommonly used of theline codeor modulation concept in North Americawhile the $ame is refenedto as"justification"in Europe.whose rate Thebasicconcept ofpulsestuffinginvolves theuseof anoutputchannel higherthantheinputrate.Thustheoutputchannel is purposely cancarryall inputdata plus somevariable numberof "null," or "stuff," bits.The null bits arenot partof the Theyareinserted, in a prescribed to padtheinputdataskeam incomingdata. manner, to the higheroutputrate.Naturally,the extraneous null, or stuff,bits mustbe identifiablesothat"destuffing"canrecover theoriginaldatastream. (Table of pulsestuffingarose whenthe initial digitalTDM hierarchy Thepractice links 1.10)was defined.At this time therewere only isolateddigital transmission within the networkthat precluded themto a commonclock.Whenit synchronizing (e.g., (e.g., DSls) into higherlevelsignals came timeto combine lowerratetributaries procedure DS2sor DS3s),themultiplexing necessarily hadto accommodate tributarThegeneric unsynies operating these at $lightlydifferentrates. termfor combining chronizedsignalsis asynchronous multiplexing.In this context,"asynchronous" refersto multiplexingofunsynchronized into a higherlevel signal(using tributaries pulsestuffing).It doerr not refer,in any way, to a means of transmission. The higher link. level signalis alwayscarried on a synchronous transmission As the amountof digital equipmentin the networkgrew andmore andmore of it interconnected, andthenecessity for a differentform of mulbecame boththemeans
*Justification is the pnnting industry practice that aligns the right sirle oflines oftext by inserting a variable amount of spacewithin the line. As you will seein the following discussion,aligning individual tributaries to thc rate of a higher level multiplexer is conceptually the same process,

352

NETWoRKSyNcHRoNTzATToNcoNTRoLANDMANAGEMENT

tiplexing arose.The chosenapproach is refened to as synchronous multiplexing (SONET)in North AmericaandSynchronous (SDH) in therestof Digital Hierarchy theworld.Theprinciples of SONETandSDH aredescribed in conjunction with fiber systems in thenextchapter. P ulse-Stuff i ng Concepts point for understanding As a starting theneedfor pulsestuffing,consider the simple two-channel, bit-interleaved multiplexerin Figure 7.12. As indicated,within any stringof even-numbered bits in the multiplexer ouryut,thenumberof bits carriedin eachsubchannel is necessarily identical.Thus the ratesof the subchannels are also identical.If the two input clata streams arerunningat differentrates,the outputcanbe synchronized to oneofthe channels but not both.Thusslipswould necessarily occur in at leastoneof thetributaries. As a simplifiedexample of pulsestuffing,Figure7.13 showsa two-channel, bitinterleaved formatasbefore but with theadditional detailneeded to allow adjustments of theinformation flow within eachsubchannel. As indicated, themultiplexed output is formatted into 10-bitmaster frameswith 5 bits assigned to eachsubchannel. The frrst 3 bits in eachsubchannel of eachmasterfoame alwayscarrydatafrom therespective tributaries. Thefourthbit in eachsubchannel (C1andCj specifywhether thelast bits (S1andSj carrydataor arestuffbits.WhenC1is a "1," a bit is stuffed; otherwise s 1carries tributarydata. Hence each ma$ter framecancarry3 or 4 bitsfromeach tributary.Il on average! eachtributarysends 3.5bits duringa ma$ter frame,variations of +l4Voin thetributaryclockrates canbe accommodated. An important point to noticeaboutan asynchronous multiplexer is thattheoutput framestructure is unrelated to theframeskucture of thelower level inputs.As far as thehigherlevelmultiplexer is concemed, each inprrtsignalis merelya serial bit stream with no particular structure assumed. Framing bitsin thelowerlevelmultiplexsignals aretransmitted right alongwith the informationbits. After thehigherlevel signalis demultiplexed and the tributaries are unstuffed, framingof the lower level signals mustbe established for furtherdemultiplexing. Althoughpulsestuffingcanbeimplemented with a varietyof higherlevelframing formats, thegenerally mostdesirable features of a pulse-stuffing formatareidentified asfollows: 1. Theuseof fixed-length master frames with each channel allowedto stuff or not to stuff a singlebit in themaster frame

ffi
Figure 7.12 Two-channel multiplexer showing equal output data rates for each input,

7.2 TIMING INAccURACIES 353

I Frame

example. Figure 7.13 Simplifiedpulse-stuff,rng

2. Redundant$tuffing specifications 3 . Noninformation bits distributed acrossa masterframe quitesmall,soonly smalladjustments Timing offsetsaregenerally from a singleocstuff bit arerequired. of tributarybits canbe combined Thuslargenumbers casional into a master framewith one specificbit positionidentifiedasthe S bit. Nominally, one-halfof the master frarnes approximately containthemaximumnumberof informationbitsNM,andtheotherhalf contain Ny - l information bits. Thepurpose of a pulse-stuffing operation a lossof datawhentwo inis to prevent with respect other. terconnected to each digitaltransmission links areunsynchronized (or viceversa), If singlebit errorscancause a stuffbit to be interpreted asinformation of a the basicobjectiveis lost. Furthermore, noticethat an erroneous interpretation stuff codecauses lower level multiplexsignals embedded, to loseframing.For these reasons, theinterpretation of C bitsmustbeencoded Underthe a$rtumpredundantly. tion that channelerrorsarerandom,the probabilityof misinterpreting a stuff code is

Po:rfti,';,-','
- p)' wherep = probability of a channelerror of correctable n = number stuff codeerrors(2n + I bits in a stuff code) framefor several reasons. Informationbits shouldbe distributed across a master First,by sepamting these bits asmuchaspossible, enorsin redundant $tuffingspeciIf thespecification bits aretoo ficationbits(C bits) aremorelikely to beindependent. closetogether theredundant is of little use. andbursterrorsareprevalent, encoding Second, bits, the irregularityof informationflow is by distributingnoninformation minimized. aredemultiplexed, a clock for each Whenhigherlevel multiplexsignals rate individuallower level signalneeds to be derivedfrom the irregularinformation in each channel. of a suitably stable clocksynchronized to theinformation Generation rate is simplif,red if informationburstsor gapsare minimized.Furthermore, elastic storesneeded to smoothout the informationratesare smallerwhen the length of informafiongapsis minimized.

354

NETWORKSYNCHRONIZATION CONTROLAND MANAGEMENT

M12 Multiplexer An example of a higherlevel multiplexingformatis providedin Figure7.14.This is theformatused for 6.3l2-MbpsDsZ signals in theNorthAmerican digitalhierarchy.* A DSz signalis derived by bit interleaving four DSI signals andaddingtheappropriateoverhead bits. A DS2master frameis 1176 bitslong.Of these thereare1148 information bits(287 perchannel), I I framingbits (I%, Mr, Fo,Fr), l2 stuffingconrrol bits (Cr, Cz,C:, C+), 4 S bits (Sr,Sz,Sr, S+), andan alarmbit X. Sincean S bit canbe a null bit or aninformationbit, eachchannel can send287 or 288 bits in a master frame.An S bit is designated asan informationbit if all threeof the corresponding C bits are0. The S bit is a null (stuff)bit if all threecorresponding c bits are 1.obviously,thisencoding procedure allowsfor singleerrorcorrection in the stuffingcontrolbits. The first level of framingis established by the alternating F6,F1,F0,. . . pattern. Noticethat exactly146bits separate theFs andFl bits.Anotherlevel of framingfor identifyingthe C andS bits is established by theMs andM1 bits.A fourthM bit (X) is not usedfor framingand therefore can be usedas an alarmservice digit. Similar framestructures exist for otherhigherlevel digital signals. Figures7.15-7.18show thestructures for DS3,DS4,DSIC, andtheE2 second-level digital signalof theITU, respectively. Example7.3. Determine the minimum and maximum input channel rates accommodated by an Ml2 multiplexer.Also determine the rateof DSI misframes caused by anerroneous interpretation of a stuffed bit. Assume thebit errorrateis 10-6. Solution. The maximum information rateper channel is determined as 6.31?:?8s = 1.5458 Mbps lt76 Theminimuminformation rateper channel is determined as 6.312x287 = 1'5404 MbPs ffi6 Sincetherearethreepossible combinations of two errorsin theC bits,theprobability of misinterpreting =3 x l0-r2. Theduan S bit is closelyapproximated by 3 x (10-6)2 rationof eachmaster = 186Fsec. frameis 117616.312 Thustherateof misframes per DSI sienal is
3 x 10-12

"#r":0'016x

persecond 10{ misframes

whichis equivalent to onemisframe every2 years.

'DS2 signals are no longer transmitted as individual signals. They only exist as an intermediate level between 28 DSls and a DS3 sienal.

7.2 TIMING INAcCURACIES 355

+--'aE
ilC-*r-rO

Zgt-Bit1;btilffi /tB
Erulf bitr

f !

C1

F
l

E
E Figure 7.1C Frame format of DSZ digital signal. Stuffing occurs in channel i when the previous Ci bits = lll; X is an alarm bit that equals I for no-alarm condition. Framing is establishedby the F6F1F6. . . sequencewith 146 intervening bits.
T

7.3 demonstrates Example thatthetolerance of a 1.544-MHz DSI clockis -3.572, to +1.796kHz. Thustherelativeaccuracy theDSI andDS2 clocksmustbe between I.79611544, is much or only I part in 860. This relativelylarge timing tolerance greater thanwhatis required for reasonable clockandline instabilities. Thetiming adjustment capabilities rangewerechosen out of a desire andunsymmetric tolerance to (l) minimizeDS2reframe times,(2) providea line clockthatis a multipleof 8 kHz, and(3) minimizewaitingtimejitter [20].
C8O blt ilbfrfile

E
t ll

$ E

Figure 7.15 Frameformatof DS3digitalsignal;P is evenparityoverall message bits in the previous master frame.Stuffingoccursin channeli whenthe previousCi bits = lll, The X (alarm)bits andthe P bits mustbe l l or 00 so the MoMrM6sequence canidentifythe endof the masterframe.

356

NETWoRKSYNCHRoNIZATIoNcoNTRoLANDMANAGEMENT
Stuft bit

E
E g
o ti

tl o

Figure 7.16 Frame format of DS4: Ci bits = I l l implies stuff the eighth message bit position for channel i following the last ci; Pr is even parity over the 192 previous odd-numbered messagebits; P0 is even parity over the 192 previous even-numberedmessagebits.

ElastlcSlore Size Requlrements A functional model of anMl ? multiplexer is shown in Figure 7.19. Associated with
eachlower level (DSl) input is an elastic store to hold incoming data until it is transferred to the higher level (DS2) output. The elastic storesserve two purposes:to remove the arrival jitter of the incoming data and to hold data for the proper time slots. In addition to generatingframing, the control logic of the multiplexer monitors the

318 bir NUbfrEmG

rtro-i-c,-33-ro
5 ({

cr

Mr

tl o
6 q

Ml

E :E

Figure 7.17 Frame format of DSIC digital signal. Stuffrng occurs in channel i when the previous Ci bits = lll; X is an alarm bit that equals I for no-alarm condition. Framing is establishedby the FoFrFo. . . sequencewith 158 intervening bits.

7.2 TrMrNc rNAccuRActEs 357

21?Eitsblm
Fflri digffi$t rign|l

200ilmgr

blt

irBtff tffir8{8 bltr

Figure 7.18 Frameformatof second-level digital signalof ITU-T (E2), Stuffingoccursin i whentheprevious channel Ci bits are lll.

$toragelevel (which servesa$ a phasecomparator)of eachelastic store and initiates a stuffing operationwheneverthe elastic storeis lessthan half full. Conversely,no stuffins occurs when the elastic store is more than half full.

rate, Sincestuffingcanoccurat only certain timesandonly at a certain maximum the elastictltoremustbe at leastas largeasthe peakjitter (peakphase offset)of the jitter accumulates incomingsignal.As discussed at the beginningof this chapter, alongthe entirelengthof a repeatered transmission link. Thus longerlinks require largerelasticstores if slipsareto be prevented. As an example line length(number of repeaters) between and of therelationship numberof bits of elasticstorage referto Figure7;20. needed by anM12 multiplexer, This figurewassubmitted studygrouponjitter [21]. by AT&T to the CCITT special jitter The analysis analysis is an extension of reference of the systematic [3].

DS-l inputs

DS-Zoutout
Sdl6ctorcodtrol framing inrrtion dnd rtuffing

Framing gonaration Etuffing contfol

Storag6 l#el Eign|lr

of a Ml2 multiplexer Figure 7.19 Functional diagram

358

NETWoRKSyNcHRoNtzATtoNcoNTRoLANDMANAGEMENT

{ e
E

li o
o o o E

fl.
o cl o E
E o

e5

3.0

Jltur rlopq (kHr)

Figure 7.20 Maximumnumberof regenerative repeaters asa functionof elasticstoresizeand jitter slope; ,4 = number of cellsin elasticstore. The abscissaof Figure 7.20 is the maximum-phaseslope produced by a clock recovery circuit in the presenceof a worst-caseshift in datapatterns(worst-casesystematic jitter). Since phase slope is nothing more than frequency offset, the required elastic store size can be determined as the maximum phaseslope times its maximum duration. Since the total phase slope is proportional to the number ofrepeaters, Figure 7.?0 displays the maximum number of repeaters per storage cell in an elastic store versu$ the jitter slope of an individual repeater when making worst-case timing transition. As an example, f,ust-generation Tl repeater$ produce a worst-ca.se slope of 2.4 ktlz. Ml2 multiplexers allocate 5 bits of storageto input phasejitter (3 more bits are included for implementation easeand waiting time jitter). From Figure 7 .20 it can be seenthat the ratio of N-* to A is 56, which implies that N*"* = 56 x 5 = 280 repeaters.*

*The

performance of long Tl lines is not as much of a concem as it once was becausemost long-distance DSl circuits ate now embedded in frber links, which have much greater repeater spacing,

rNAccuRAcrES359 7.2 TrMrNc

7.2.3 WaitlngTimeJitter
a it is necessary to generate a higherlevel TDM datastream, Whendemultiplexing (or transtransfened Because are the subchannels clockfor eachderivedsubchannel. Derivathe derivedclockmustbe continuous. datastream, mitted)asa synchronous data of into TDM streams by the insertion clocksis complicated tion of subchannel gapsin the bit anival times.Inegularityin the dataanival overhead bits that create gapsis referred to aswaitingtimeiitter. ratecaused by these Mostof theoverhead bits(e.g.,framingbits,paritybits, stuffingcontrolC bits)ocby thesegaps basis.The waitingtime jitter caused cur on a regularandpredictable store (sometimes canbeeliminated easilywith anelastic referred to asmappingjitter+) a singlePCM from theincoming line clock.For example, andanoutputclockderived Tl line clockby multiclock at 64 kbpscanbe derivedfrom a 1.544-Mbps channel jitter asit occurs into in a EI signal mapped plyingby I anddividingby 193.Mapping of the tributarydata . In this figure the phase in Figure7.21 an E2 signalis depicted (continuous) into the higherlevel signalis shownrelativeto an unmapped mapped of the tributary falls behind rate.Notice that the phase dataclock at the sameaverage the but catches up duringdatafieldsbecause of datagaps thereference duringperiods reference. Nohigher is slightly than the fields rate during average data these tributary tice furtherthat the fill level of an elasticstoredoesnot get perfectlyreconciledat the on average, a nonintegral because, ftame.This resultoccurs endof a singleE2 master master calried in frame. a numberof bits of a tributary are by pulse waitingtime jitter produced to mappingdataratevariations, In contrast waitdifficulty because arises moredifficult to dealwith. The stuffingis significantly For this reason ing timesproduced by stuffedpulses areirregularandunpredictable. TDM line mustbe derived from a pulse-stuffed the subchannel outputclocksderived data-not from arrivalrafeof each channel's independently andonly fromtheaverage thehigherlevelTDM rate! jitter-removing using elastic aregenerated Outputclocksfrom M12 demultiplexers output andvery slowly adjusted stores, asshownin Figure7.22.If laryeelasticstores waitingtimejitter Unfortunately, clocksareused,mostof thejitter canbe removed. so the jitter (e'g', wander)can down to zerofrequency components hasfrequency to aslow a bandof thejiner canbe conf,tned neverbe eliminated entirely.However, Figure7.23depicts time elasticstore. by usinga largeenough frequencies asdesired process. Thekey point to from thepulsestuffing-destuffing intervalerrorsresulting datacanocdataclockandthemapped thesource noticeis a full bit of offsetbetween canonly be madewhenthenext stuff opportunity cur at anytime but an adjustment occurs-hencethetermwaitingtimejiner. but it is arestuffed, a functionof how oftenpulses Waitingtimejitter is basically If theinputclock alsodependent on theratioof actualstuffsto stuffingopportunities.
"Some references include mapping jitter to include waiting time jitter. Here, mapping jitter is used to represent repetitive data rate variations that occuf when both the tributary and the higher level transport signals are respectively at their pre,ciserates. Thus, waiting time jitter only occurs as a result of frequency adjustments,

360

NETWoHKSyNcHRoNtzATtoNcoNTRoLANDMANAcEMENT

Phffi of tn'hrrsry m cmpositc

rig*t

rcl8tivc b tqFt EigFrl iD Ulg

X: otrcrtad lr& Frfio I; lfrffilrim bit pilidm fn I rrfrltry sr Tffig a{iahflr (.||d) blr poridn ' Ewy_@lpilh AM c*df, Zoj hfffi|timtir p* ffirieyftr wDoilftb rd,fdwlirftd|thf, til !H hhEyin m S bit poiria strpaftrg o r!.d.

Ftgure 7.21 Mapping Jitter of a CCITT El in a CCITT E2sisnal.

jitter peaks is jitter free,theoutput whenone-half of theopporhrnities areused. From thepoint of view of maximum tolerance for clockoffsets, a stuffingratioof { is ideal. To reduce thewaitingtimejitter, however, stuffingratiosof approximately {'areoften used. For a thorough analysis of waitingtimejitter, see reference t2zl. As anexample of waitingtimejitter dependence on stuffing(iustification) ratios,seeFigure7.24 obtainedfrom reference ofFigure 7.24represents [21]. The abscissa the ratio of stuffs to opporhrnities while theordinate is jitter powerproduced by a singlepulse-stuffing process. Thejitter poweris expressed in decibels relativeto one slot squared (a slot is an olderterm for a unit interval,ul). curve A shows the outputjitter pro-

Figure 7.22 Functional diagram of Ml2 demultiplexer/desynchronizer,

SYNCHRONIZATION 361 7.3 NETWORK

AdJurtuent thrcshold

Tlms iileffsl

rrorE

H
lnput clock phase produced waitingtimes. by adjustment Figure 7.23 Time intervalerrors
(dBl 0dB = t slotr

-12 E
o

E *rE .;
5

,A

'1 \
JE

E h

-h

B -20
o o

ol

0.4

05

0.6
ratio

0.7

0.s

cclTT.4773A 1.0 0.9

A : Tributsryjitter - 0.10 tlot r.m.r. B I TributEry iitter - 0.25 rlot r.m.r

Juttification

on justification ratio. Figure 7.24 Waiting timejiner dependence

the outputjitter duced whentheinputjitter is -20 dB (0.t UI rms).CurveB shows -72 dE (0.25UI rms).Figure7.24 showsjitterproduced whenthe inputjitter is esdata 122],a good order-of-magnitude by a singlemultiplexer.From measured by N, tandemM12stuffing-destufftimateof the waiting time jitter accumulated is ing operations

4=ffiruti'
7.3 NETWORKSYNCHRONIZATION

(7.6)

link is conwhenever a digital transmission in the preceding section, As discussed by havingthe to synchroniee thetwo systems nected to a digital switch,it is desirable

362

NETWoRKSYNCHHoNIZATIoNcoNTHoLANDMANAGEMENT

transmission link obtainits timingfrom theswitch. An obvious exception to thismode of operation occurswhena digital kansmission link is connected to a digital switch onbothends. Generally, a hansmission link in anall-digitalnetwork derives its timing from just oneof the switches to whichit is connected. If theotherswitchis not synchronized to thefirst in some manner, anunsynchronized interface necessarily results. This section is concemed with networksynchronization as a whole,not simply the synchronization of a singleinterface. Basically,networksynchronization involves synchronizing the switches of the network.The transmission links canthenbe synchronizedautomatically by deriving timing directly from a switchingnode. Therearetwo basicreasons for payingassiduous attention to the timing requirementsof a digital network.First, the networkmustpreventuncontrolled slips that couldproduce misframes, inadvertent disconnects, andcross connects. It is generally very difficult or very expensive to prevent slipsaltogether. Thusa second aspect of a networktiming plan requires establishing a manimum rateof controlled slipsaspafi of theend-to-end circuitqualityobjectives. Synchronizing private networks is sometimes difficult because thenetwork topologiesarenot designed with networksynchronization in mind,andtheswitching equipment (PBXs) me not designedto provide synchronization to other nodes. Furthermore, the privatenetworksoften interfaceto multiple cardersin multiple locations. Determining which signals to synchronize to, particularly on a dynamic basis whena reference signalbecomes unavailable, is exceptionally difficult. Therearesix basicapproaches used, or considered for use, in synchronizing a digital network: 1. Plesiochronous 2. Networkwide pulse$tuffing 3. Mutual synchronization 4. Networkmaster 5. Master-slave clockins 6. Packetization 7.3.1 Plesiochronous A pJesiochronous networkdoesnot synchronize the switches but merelyuses highly accurate clocksat all swirching nodes sotheslip ratebetween thenodes is acceptably low. This modeof operation is the simplest to implement sinceit avoidsdistributing timing throughout thenetwork. A plesiochronou$ network, however, impliesthatthe smaller switching nodes carrythecostburden of highlyaccurate andredundant timing source$' As a compromise, largenetworks canbedividedinto subnetworks for timing purposes anduseplesiochronous operations for inter-subnetwork synchronization and someother,morecost-effective, means of providingintra-subnetwork synchronization. As described in section7.5, the public telephone networkin the united states plesiochronous uses synchronization at theupperlevels.

7.3 NETWORKSYNCI{HONIZATnN 363 Plesiochronoustiming is also usedto synchronizeinternationaldigital network interconnections.In recommendationG.811 [23], the ITU has establishedthe stability objectives for clocks of all intemational gateway digital switches.The stability objective of one part in l01l implies that slips betweeninternational gateway switcheswill one clock is positive one part in 10lt occur at a rate of one per 70 days. (This assumes and anotherclock is negative one pafr in 1011.)

PulseStuffing 7.3.2 Networkwide

to run at nominalrates If all internallinks andswitches of a networkweredesigned processes, ofthe voicedigitization all voicesigslightlyhigherthanthenominalrates nalscould propagate throughthe networkwithout slipsby stuffingthe information to rate.Noneof theclockswouldhaveto be synchronized rateup to thelocalchannel be tolerated. At every intercould relatively clock accuracies coarse eachother,and the individualchanrunningunderdifferentclocks,however, facebetween systems nelswouldhaveto be unstuffed from theincomingrateandstuffedup to thelocal or rate.In essence, theTDM linksof thenetworkwouldprovideTDM channels outgoing beingabthroughwhich userdataflows at lower andvariablerates,the differences sorbed by internalpulsestuffing. whereall chanoperations of higherlevelmultiplexers ln contrast to pulse-stuffing imply operations nelsin a lower level digital signalarestuffedasa group,switching pulse-stuffing for The separate must independently. need channel be stuffed thateach two voicesignals beingswitched is illustrated in Figure7.25,whichdepicts operations is thebit ratert3of bothoutputchannels into a common TDM outletlink. Obviously, in portionsof the networkrunningunderdiforiginate identical. If the two channels for mustbe madeseparately adjustments ferentclocksR1andR2,the pulse-stuffing at eachchannel. The complexityof stuffingand unstuffingevery64-kbpschannel whenthe digital netexpensive would havebeenextremely everynetworkelement work began to takeshape.

with different ratesonto a commonTDM output Figure 7.25 Swirchingtwo channels

364

NETWoFKSyNcHRoNtzATtoNcoNTHoLANDMANAGEMENT

Although the availability of low-cost logic could minimize the cost aspectof networkwide pulse stuffing, other problems would occur. First, the 64-kbps clocks for speechreconstruction would be required for each channel and would contain relatively large amountsof waiting time jitter. second, the network would no longer provide byte framing so the channel recovery processwould have to also include byte framing logic. Byte boundariesof PCM datacan be readily determinedfrom statistical data patterns in the bit positions (e.g., the polarity bit), but other applications for the channelsmay require explicit byte boundary identifiers.

7.3.3

Mutual Synchronizatlon

The two precedingsectionsdiscussmodes of operation for the network that do not involve synchronizationofindividual clocks. This sectionand the next two describenetwork timing plans that synchronizeeachindividual clock to a common frequency.The first method, mutual synchronization,establishes a coilrmon network clock frequency by having all nodesin the network exchangefrequency referencesas shown in Figure 'l .26.Each node averages the incoming referencesanclusesthis for its local and transmitted clock. After an initialization period, the network clock normally convergesto a single stable frequency. under certain conditions, however, the averaging process can become unstable[24]. The main attractiveness of a mutually synchronizednetwork is its ability to remain operationalin spite of a clock failure in any node. The main disadvantages are the uncenainties of the exact averagefrequency and unknown transient behavior. Mutual synchronizationhas not been consideredfor the North American telephonenetwork. In Great Britain, however, a hierarchical timing structure was once consideredthat utilized mutual synchronizationwithin some portions of the network [25].

7.3.4 NetworkMaster
method a singlemaster clockis tranrtmifted to all nodes enabling themto lock ontoa common frequency. As indicated, all networknodes aredirectlyconnected to thenetwork master, implyingthe needfor a separate transmission networkdedicated to the

Another method of synchronizing thenetwork is shown in Figure 7.27.with this

SN

Flgure 7.26 Mutual synchronization: SN, switching node.

SYNCHHONIZATION 365 7.3 NETWORK

node, synchronization: SN,switching Figule7.27 Network master paths alsoimply thatalternate Reliabilityconsiderations of thereference. distribution for the separate timing netofcost considerations to eachnode.Because be provided a networkmaster with direct with reference distribution, work andreliabilityproblems transmission to eachnodeis undesirable. networkis evolvingthroughthe use synchronized Something similarto a master for timing distributionto network of Global PositioningSystem(GPS) satellites networks theworld areusing around of telecommunications system$ nodes. Switching their switchingoffice clocks.As the to synchroniee GPSandothersatellite systems dropin cost,moreandmore andsuitablystable oscillators costsof theGPSreceivers (highly source. accurate) Because master being from this timed networknodesate systems lower lock cost synchronization to GPS, also CDMA digitalmobilesystems stations CDMA in lieu base thatobiainGPStimingfrom the developed havealsobeen receive from to of directly receivingGPSsignalsthat often requireoutsideantennas simultaneously. multipleGPSsatellites 7.3.5 Master-Slave Synchronizatlon in the preceding synchronization asdescribed The main drawbackto networkma$ter Figure facilitiesto everynode. is its need andreliable transmission for separate section by way of reference that disseminates a master 7.28 showsa networkconfiguration to a few is transmitted A networkreference frequency links themselves. themessage their clocksto After thesenodessynchronize higherlevel switchingnodes. selected the referenceand remove tansmission link-induced timing jitter, the referenceis digitallinks.Thenextlowerlevel passed by wayof existing onto lowerlevelswitches timlink from incoming thehigherlevelandpass in turn, synchronize to an switches, process links. digital The their by way outgoing of levelof switches ing on to another to as"masfrom onelevel to thenext is referred downward the reference of passing " ter-slavesynchronization. eitherdirectlyor indiin the networkaresynchronized Sinceall switchingnodes nominalclock rate.Thus slips reference, rectly to the same they all run at the same paths whichtimingis disthrough because However, of thedifferent should notoccur. If these somenodes' frequency canoccurbetween short-term differences seminated,

366

NETWoRKSYNcHRoNIZATIoNcoNTHoLANDMANAGEMENT

Indlrcctly rynchronlrrd linkr

.---;_

Figure7.2t Master-slave synchronization. nodes aresynchronized indirectly,asshown in Figure7.28,infrequent slipsmightoccur. Furthermore, reliability considerations imply that backupclocksmust be provided in all switches shouldthe clock distributionsystemfail. when this happens, slips become more likely, but only after relativelystablebackupclockshave had enoughtime to drift from the commonreference frequency. AT&T andthe united statesIndependent Telephone Association (usITA) originally selected master*slave synchronization for the switched digital networkin the united states[26]. Thereference ftequency waslocared in Hillsboro,Missouri,from whichselected No. 4 ESSswitching centers received theirtimingby wayof dedicated transmission facilities.synchronization of all otherswitches occuned by way of existingdigitaltransmission links.As discussed in Section 7.4,theoriginalplanhasbeen changed to useplesiochronous synchronization at the highestlevel.Furthermore, as mentioned in the previou$ section, the availabilityof Gps timing sources is leadingto moreandmorenodes atthehigherleveland,consequently, fewerandfewerslave nodes. 7.3.6 Packetlzation Thesynchronization discussions of thefive preceding sections haveassumed implicitly thata synchronous, circuit-switched networkwasbeingconsidered, prevailsince ing digitalvoicenetworks operate in thatmanner. Forcompleteness, however, another form of networkmustbe mentioned-a packet-switched network. As discussed in chapter 10,packet-switched networksbreakup messages into identifiable blocks(packets or cells)of data.In between theblocks.thehansmission linkscarryeitheridle codes or controlmessages. If all messages (controlanddata)are separated by a nominalintervalof idle transmission, elasticstorescan be resetin preparation for the nextblock.As long aseachblock is limited in length,theelastic stores canabsorb clock differences andavoidlosses of data.(In essence, slipsoccur in theidle codes.) 7.3.7 Network Timing Performance Measuremcnts After choosing a synchronization architecture for a network,it is necessary to be able to measure thequalityof thetiming signals within thenetworkto qualifyequipment,

367 7.s NETwoRK sYNcHRoNrzATloN or transmission links, and performance margins, isolatefaulty equipment determine of time usetheconcept possibly ANSI andITU standards altematives. evaluate design An interval error (TIE) andmaximumtime interval error {MTIE) for thesepurposes' (TVAR). is a time variance measure additional of clockperformance Maxlmum Time lnterval Error A TIE is the differencein delay betweena timing signal and an ideal timing signal time period(i.e.,theerrorat the endof a time inmeasured at the endof a particular varjationin TIE valuesthat occur terval).An MTIE is the maximumpeak-to-peak in Figure7.29.Figure concepts areillustrated time interval.These within a specified but inaccurate the TIE that occurswhenmeasuring a perfectlystable 7.29adisplays testdiffersfromthereference ofthe signalunder thefrequency Because timing signal. frequencyby a constanfvalue (A/), the TIE is directly propol'tionalto the measureand clockcyclesin both signals by counting mentintervalS.Theenor is determined the differenceas the time requiredby the test signal to catch up (or fall expressing by a constant-frequency count.ThustheTIE produced back)to thecurent reference offsetis

T''=T
_ s(/+4fl - s(/)

='H)

(7.7)

offset,and in clockcycles, A/is thefrequency difference whereAn is theaccumulated intervalin seconds. S is themeasurement with S,theMTIE andthe monotonically Because theTIE in Figure7.294increases produced by a timing signal Figure7.29bdepicts theTIE In contrast, TIE areidentical. instabilities offsetbut someshott-term frequency with no long-term fiitter andwanthe As indicated, througha network. wasrelayed der)aswouldoccurif thereference peak-to-peak difTheMTIE is thelargest asa functionof Sbut is bounded. TIE varies of MTIE with interval S. The determination ferencein TIE valuesin a measurement periodic samples offsetsis alsoshownin Figure7.30,where frequency no long-term of time interval errorsaredepicted. the moregeneral casewherethe signalundertestcontains Figure7.29cdisplays of thevaluefor S is critical. thechoice offset.In ttriscase bottrinstabilityanda frequency jitter will maskthepresence of theoffset.If Sis too large,thefrequency If S is too small, needto Thusperiodicmeasurements theTIE andMTIE measurement$. offsetdominates thetiming imperfections. for a time historyto fully characterize be recorded with theuseof a "perfect"reference in Figure7.29assume examples Thefirst three "imperfect" is used,meaningful If an reference which to makethe mea$urements. than areobtainedaslong astheTIE variationsaresignificantlygreater measurements

NETWOHKSYNCHRONIZATION CONTROLAND MANAGEMENT

PErfEGt Source

StablE lnaccilratG Sourcl

Time + PErfoct Soutcs

Time +

(d)

-rF Timc Tim6 -r>

s s

Figure 7.29 TrE andMTIE for variousclock imperfections: (a) pureoffset;(D)purejitter; (c) offset andjitter; (d) TE differencemeasuremenr.

369 7.3 NETWORK SYNCHRONIZATION

example, timeinterval error 7,30 Maximum Figure two between therelativeperformance of thereference. Sometimes theimperfections to two different For example, a PBX with Tl connections is of interest. timing signals thetwo trans(or carriers) between places is moredependent on thetimingdifferences the measuring performances. Figure7.29ddepicts missionlinks thanon the absolute aremeaningful, all measurements relativeperforrnance of two suchlinks.In thiscase, whichcancause slipsbut is difficult or imposwander, evenarbitrarilylow frequency timing probindicate If relativemeasurements in an absolute sense. sibleto measure to isolatetheproblemsource. measurements maybe needed lemsexist,absolute Time Varlance conveyany informationregardingthe freNeither TIE nor MTIE measurements jitter interval,f). (other by themeasurement thanthatconveyed quency of the content thejitter representing characterization of thejitter requires A moregeneral statistical or equivalently, asa functionof time between asa functionof frequency, magnitude (TVAR) is sucha measure. aredeterTVAR values The time variance TIE samples. TIE samples that between differences of second-order vaJiance minedastheexpected to by a time t, wheret variesfrom zero(or somefractionof a second) areseparated in units measured period.TVAR values arecustomarily somemaximum observation TVAR val(e.g.,nanoseconds Theformulafor calculating squared). of time squared = uesfromTIE samples;;(i 1, . . . ,19 is TVAR(I) = o:(r) :.tgltltt)tl
N*3n+l fn-r '2

-ffi-

r . -+ L1) r L v ' ' r 3n

I
Fl

lE

-zxv*k**r*) {"r*r"*o |

(7'8)

l lm period is Nto' where t = nto (to is the sampling interval) and the obserrvation The use of second-orderdifferencesremovesthe effect of a dc offset or of a linear phaseramp in the TVAR samples.Thus, there is no need to ulie a synchronizedrefer-

370

NETWoHKSYNCHHoNIZATIoNcoNTHoLANDMANAGEMENT

enceto deterrninethe TIE samplesbefore determining the TVAR values.However, if TVAR values for long observationperiods T are to be determined,a stablereference is neededto preclude referencewander from influencing the measurement values.

Time Devlatlon Timedeviation (TDEV) measurements are merely thesquare rootof theTVARmeasurements. Thus, TDEVandTVARvalues have thesame relationship astheclassical
standarddeviation and variance of a probability distribution. TDEV is customarily measuredin nanoseconds.

7.4 U.S.NETWORK SYNCHRONIZATION Theoriginal plan for synchronization of theu.s. network formulated by theBellsystemandtheu.s. Independent Telephone Association wasto usemaster-slave syn-

chronization with a single master clock [26]. Due to the breakup of the network into multiple independentcompaniesand to difficulties in reliably distributing a highly accurate master,the synchronizationarchitecturefor the United Stateswas changedto a plesiochronous/hierarchical designin the lare l9g0s [13, lg, I g]. Although the hierarchical design is still in use,it is gradually changing to a ..flatter" design by incorporating top-level functionality in more and more nodes.

7.4.1 Synchronization Regions

As shown in Figure 7.31, the public network is partitioned into synchronization regions that are intemally synchronizedwith a master-slave timing hierarchy that establishesdifferent levels of timing quality: sffatum I to stratum 4. stratum I clocks have the highest quality while stratum 4 clocks have the lowest. Timing for each region is established by a primary referencesource(pRS) at stratum l. stratum I clocks are free-running clocks with inaccuraciesno greater than one part in 10il. Some regions may have their own PRS while others may use a synchronization signal from anotherparty (e.g., an interexchangecarrier such as AT&T). For the most part, the synchronizationregions correspondto LATAs. Every region must have at least one stratum 2 clock, which is typically associatedwith an access tandem switch. Toll offices within LATAs may also have stratum 2 clocks. All toll switches within AT&T network contain stratum ? clocks [13]. Except when they use a coilrmon PRS, the synchronization regions are independently syncfuonized. Thus connectionsbetween the regions (using interexchangecarriers like AT&T) are typically plesiochronouslytimed. within a single region nodesare synchronizedin a master-slave hierarchy as indicated. The accuracyrequirementsof the four levels of stratum clocks are provided in Table 7 .2. These accuraciespertain only to situations in which the nodes are operating in a free-running mode. Normally the nodes are synchronizedto higher level clocks so the long-terrn accuracyis haceableback to the respectivePRS. In addition to listing free-running accuracies,Table 7 .2lists accuraciesthat must be met durine holdover

o 0

o .9

o _th
E(J l;6

o
F(, U O

x q r f ; tc aoJ4
E6(JE

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q i

* [

6 N

ti h

+ F
E

\
I
i

{ -

z
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371

572

NETWoRK syNcHHoNtzATtoN coNTRoLANDMANAGEMENT

TABLE7.2 Stratum ClockAccuracy Requlrementa Level Stratum 1 Stratum 2 Stratum 3E Stratum 3 Stratum 4 Free-Run Accuracy +1 x 10-11 +1 . 6x 1 0 + t4.6 x 10+ f4.6 x 104 i32 x 104 24-HrHoldover Accuracy Notapplicable t1 x10-loperday (day1) +1 x 10-s < 255slipsin day1 Notrequired

states. Theholdover modefor stratum 2 and3 clocksrequires these nodes to gradually transition to thefree-running statewhentheylosetheirreference signals.* A stratum 2 clock,for example, loses thepreviously established frequency at therateof I x I 0-r0 per day,implyingit would take 160daysto reachthe worst-case free-running accuracy'Stratum 4 clocks, however, haveno holdover requirements sotheyenterthefreerunningstate immediately uponlosingtheirreference(s). Networksynchronization requirements alsospecify how thevarious nodes respond to degradation or complete failure of their references. Stratum2 and 3 clocksmust bridgeshortintemrptions in thereference with minimumspecified time-keeping errors [l9]. Stratum 3 clocks, whichtypicallyhavea primaryreference anda secondary reference, mustperforma very gradualswitchover to the secondary reference when theprimaryfails. Abruptswitchovers, asoftenoccurin stratum (pBXs),can 4 nodes cause phase transients in the outputclock,which canin turn disruptsynchronization in all downstream (e.g.,within a privatenetwork). devices 7.4.2 Primary Reference Sources TheANSI MTIE specification for theaccuracy of a primaryreference source is shown in Figure7.32.Noticethatjitter (instabilitythatcanbeobserved in lessrhan0.05sec) is not specified. wander,asmeasured over500-sec time intervals. is limited to 3000 nsec. The asymptote for long-termtiming errorscorresponds to inaccuracies of 1 x 10*1r. In additionto beingdesigned with highly accurate (cesiumbeamor rubidium) clocks, all PRSsmust be continuously verified with universalcoordinated time (urc). such verificarion canbe achieved by usinga UTC-based navigation sysrem suchasLoran-c or GPS.MCI uses Loran-c andGps to directlysynchronize its pRS. AT&T uses pRS GPSto monitor(verify)thelong-term accuracy of each nodeestablishedin NorttrAmerica.tThetypicalaccuracy of these nodes is muchbetter thanthe ANSI or ITU requirement [13].
operations are typically implemente<lby storing the last valid conection value (e.g., filtered phase detector output) and maintaining that value as an offset conection to a highly stable oscillator. *(temperature-compensated) 'Originally' AT&T had 16 PRS nodes. Subsequentlarge-scaleusage of GPS has led to the establishment of hundreds of PRS in the AT&T network. *Holdou-t

CONTROL 373 7.5 NETWoRK

........ MTtE aTrT, 10-il

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Ob86NationPBriod(sec)

periodat the outputof a primary reference MTIE versusobservation Figure 7.32 Permissible source.

7.4.3 1996 AT&T Synchronlzation Architecture ar' synchronization a moveawayfrom a two-tiered in 1996AT&T began Beginning with a sfiatum2 clock in everyoffice synchroto a single-levelarchitecture chitecture ofthis architecture are: features nizedto GPS[?7]. Significant networkhasbeeneliminated. distribution l. The synchronization of the networktopologyso the traffic-carrying is independent 2. Synchronization without affectingsynchronization. networkcanbe changed nodesand eachnodemonitorstwo 3. Eachnodeis monitoredby two adjacent performance verification' nodes adjacent for 4. Performance verificationinvolvesthe useof both MTIE andTDEV. from SONETopticalsignals. arederived 5. DSI timing signals

7.5 NETWORKCONTROL methods sectionrepresent procedures in thepreceding described The synchronization In this section systems. andswitching transmission thetimingbetween for controlling

374

NETWoBK$yNcHBoNIzATtoNcoNTHoLANDMANAGEMENT

synchronizationis discussed in a more generalsense. Insteadofjust time or frequency control, the synchronizationconcept is extendedto higher level functions ofconnection control and network control as a whole. Fundamentalto the control conceptis the interactionbetweentwo processes (e.g.,the exchangeof information from one switching machine to anotherto set up or monitor a connection). A particularly useful meansof defining the interaction of two processes is a state transition diagram. The main purposeof the statetransition diagram is to abstractthe operational state$of a process and indicate what events causeffansitions from one $tateto another.when theseevents are messages (signaling tones or ccs messages) from another process,the statetransition diagram efTectivelydef,rnes how two communicating proce$$es interact.

processes 7.5.1 Hlerarchical Synchronization

included to demonstratethree distinct levels ofcontrol for a conventional telephone connection using digital transmission and multiplexing. The lowest level process shown in Figure 7.334 depicts nothing more than the clock synchronizationproces$ required to transmit and receive digital information. There are only two statesto the processin both the transmitterand the receiver.The purposeof clock synchronization is to causeffansitions between the two statesin the receiver to coincide with transitions in the clocking processof the transmitter. To accomplish this, a certain amount of transmissioncapacity is required in the form of line code transitions. Figure 7.33b depicts a higher level synchronizationprocessinvolving the framing of a time division multiplexer. Both processes representa modulo-N counter, where N is the number of channelsin the TDM frame. The two processes are synchronized (framed) by utilizing someof the transmissioncapacityto sendframing patterns. once the receiver acquiresframing, the counter in the receiver counts in synchronismwith the counter in the transmitterso that individual TDM channelsare properly identified. Figure 7.33c provides state transition diagrams of a somewhatmore complicated but easily understoodprocess.The figure depicts the connectioncontrol ofa conventional telephonecall. The statetransition diagram ofthe first processrepresents a subscriberplacing a call (going off-hook). The secondstatetransition diagram represen6 the sequenceof statesthe control element in the local switch goes through to set up the connection. As indicated, the processbegins by the originating subscribergoing off-hook and waiting for the dial tone. When the switch recognizesthe off-hook signal (current flow in the line), it connectsthe subscriberline to a digit receiver that returns a dial tone. The subscriberthen dials the addressofthe desiredtelephoneand entersanotherwait state' Upon receiving the last digit of the address,the switch control processes the request.once the statusof the called party is determined,a busy tone or a ringback tone is returned to the originating subscriber.A busy tone prompts the subscriberto hang up (go on-hook) while a ringback signal causesthe subscriberto stay in the wait state until the called party answersor until the caller "times out" and abandonsthe call.

Asanexample of amore generalized concept of synchronization, Figure7.33has been

coNTRoL 375 7.s NETWoRK

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enter the connectedstateand comWhen the called party answers,both processes munication between the end users begins.The end usersthen get involved in yet an"synchronization." Voice telephone users begin by exchanging other level of "connection" betweentheir thought processes to greetingsand identities to establisha process also The exchange message subject. on understood a mutually communicate requires synchronizationso that only one person talks at a time. Hence various forms "turn the line around." Although being somewhatsubof control signalsareneededto tle in nature, thesecontrol signalsrepresenttransmissionoverheadin the same sense as control signals within the network. A talker may indicate his end of transmission

376

NETWoRKSyNcHRoNtzATtoNcoNTRoLANDMANAGEMENT

by asking a question,by inflections in the voice, by the messageitself, or more com* monly by a pause. Data communicationsequipment goesthrough the samebasic proceduresin order to establishconnection$and exchangeinformation. In this case,the proceduresaredefined more formatly and, consequently,are more restrictive. The formal rules of communication between data communications equipment are usually referred to as a -'protocol." Data communications protocols typically include a definition of certain control codes,code interpretations,message framing, turn-aroundproceduresfor half_ duplex lines, error control, messagesequencing,fault control, and recovery. Automated fault control and recovery proceduresfor communications networks can becomequite involved and difficult to implement reliably. When individual voice circuits malfunction (e.g.,becomenoisy or disconnected), the recoveryproceduresare left to the users.They merely redial the connection and take up where they left off. However, Iarge trunk groups or switching systemsmust be designedfor higher levels of dependabitityand maintainability. The dependabilitycriterion ensuresthat failures or malfunctions rarely occur or that they are circumventedautomatically by protection switching' High levels of maintainability ensure that failures are repaired quickly when they occur. within switching systems,most of the instructions and memory words of the processorare dedicatedto hardwareand software performancemonitoring, recovery procedures,and maintenancediagnostics.

7.6 NETWORK MANAGEMENT

In addition to controlling individual connectionsand equipment, a communications network must also manageits facilities on more macroscopiclevels. The basic goal of network managementis to maintain efficient operations during equipment failures and traffic overloads.The main considerationsare routing conffol and flow control.

7.6.1 RoutingControl
Routing conffol refers to proceduresthat determine which paths in a network are assigned to particular connection$.If possible, connectionsshould use the most direct routes at the lowest levels of the network. The direct routes are obviously desirable becausethey use f'ewer network facilities and generally provide better ffansmission quality' However, economic considerations often limit the capacities of the direct routes so that alternate routes are needed to maintain suitably low blocking prob_ abilities between one switching machine and another. lf a t.unk group between two switching machinescontainsenough circuits to provide an acceptablylow blocking probability, a significant number of the circuits in the group are idle during averagetraffic loads.A more economicaldesign allocates a limited number ofheavily utilized trunks in the direct route and provides alternateroutes for overflow (alternately routed) traffic. In this manner the users are able to share larger portions of the network. chapter 12 presentsbasic examplesof how a network

377 7.6 NETWoHKMANAGEMENT can be engineeredto minimize the transmission facilities while providing a given grade of service (blocking probability). As discussedin Chapter l, the use of cenmalized control for the network, with common-channelsignaling, provides signiflcant efficiencies of operation in congestednetworks.

7.6.2 FlowGontrol
ln the precedingsection,altematerouting is discussedas one aspectof managingtraffic in a communications netwolk. Routing algorithms are concernedonly with the utilization of paths or directions of travel within a network. Another requirement of netWork management is to control the amount of traffic in a network' Managing the rate at which traffic enters a network is referred to as flow control. A network without effective flow control proceduresbecomesvery inefficient or ceasesto function entirely when presentedwith excessivelyheavy traffic conditions' The generalizedperformanceof a large, uncontrolled network is shown in Figure 7 .34 as a function of the offered traffic. As indicated, when light traffic conditions exhowever, ist, the network caffies all traffic requestspresented.As the load increases, for are available circuits appropriate no because is rejected some of the offered haffic even furload increases input As the exists. particular connections;that is, blocking ther. a network with no flow control eventually begins to carry less traffic than it does even more, the network If the offered load increases when Iighter loads are presented. may even ceaseto carry any tralfic at all. The reason that the volume of carried traffic decreaseswhen the offered traffic exceedssomecritical value is that partially completedrequeststie up network resources while trying to acquire other resourcestied up by other partially completed requests' Thus a form of dynamic deadlockoccurs.Prior to the developmentof centralizednetwork control, this situation would often arise on busy calling days (e.g., Mother's Day). In a network with distributed control all sourcesof traff,rcare serviced by successively seizing trunks to intermediate switching nodes until the destination is reached.If heavy traffic exists, request$emanating from all sidesof the network en-

,9

E
I

Figure 7.34

Traffic caffied versus traffic offered for a network with no flow contol.

378

NETWoRKsYNcHRoNIzATIoNcoNTRoLANDMANAGEMENT

counter congestionsomewherenear the middle. At that time, the partially completed connections are tying up facilities neededby other requests.In the limit, when extremely heavy traffic exists, all network resourcesare held by partially completedrequestsand no complete connectionscan be established! Another exampleof the needfor flow control is automobilehaffic at a metropolitan intersection' Have you ever encounteredan intersection in which your lane of traffic was blocked by cross traffic backed up into the intersection?In essence. the driver blocking your direction of travel seizeda cornmon resource(the middle of the intersection) without being able to obtain the next resourcerequired (the other side ofthe intersection).Bumper-to-bumpertraffic in one direction can significantly degradethe throughput in other directions. With heavy traffic in all directions, total throughput can grind to a halt until the congestionis relieved from the periphery inward. The fundamentalprinciple demonstratedby theseexamplesis th;t efficient use of the common resourcesof a heavily loaded network requires some form of flow control. In the automobile example, smooth operation of an inter$ectiondepends on each driver looking ahead and not entering an intersection unless he can g*t ull tt * *uy across.A telecommunicationsnetwork must use the samebasic principle (it is hoped with more discipline). The control elementsat the periphery or ihe networt must be aware of the intemal status of the network and conhol the flow of haffic from its sources. More than one level of flow control is sometimesimplemented within a network. In a data communicationslink, some form of flow conhol is required to keep a source terminal from overloading the terminal at the other end of the link. The receiving terminal usesa reversechannel (sometimeswith a lower bit rate) to inform the source when to ceaseand when to begin transmissions. This level of flow control in a circuitswitched network involves the terminals themselvesand is of no concern to the network since the traffic flows within an establishedconnection. of more concem ro a circuit-switched network is how to control the flow of connectionrequestsinto the interior of the network. In setting up a long-distanceconnection, the first few circuits required should not be seizedunlessthere is a reasonable chancethat all ofthe circuits necessaryto complete the connection can be obtained. Partially completed circuits only degradethe network capacity by increasingcongestionwithout satisfying a serv_ ice request.Network flow control i$ greatly simplified with common-channel signal_ ing support for cenffalizednetwork control. The following paragraphs describebasic, uncentralizedflow control techniquesand how cenhalized conffol simplifies their implementation.

one-way trunks, on the other hand, can be seizedonly at one end. (Notice that this has nothing to do with the direction of message transferon established connections.which is always in both directions.) when one-way trunking is used,the trunk group is usually partitioned into one group that can be seizedat one end and one group that can be

Trunk Directional ization Theoperation of tuunl< circuits canbeclassified according to two different ways of controlling seizures for particular calls. Two-way trunks canbeseized at either end.

379 7.6 NETwoRKMANAGEMFNT seizedat the other end. Two-way trunk gfoups areobviously more flexible in servicing fluctuating traffic patterns, but they are more difficult to control since the possibility of simultaneousseizures(called glare) at both ends must be resolved' A useful feature to incorporate into two-way trunks is the ability to directionalize them by marking them busy at one end and effectively creating one-way trunks. With this mechanism,a distant,overloadedswitching node can be relieved of additional incoming traffic while providing it sole accessto the trunk group for outgoing traffic' Thus the overloadednode relieves its congestionwhile inhibiting new anjvals. When the network as a whole experiences heavy haffic loads, trunk directionalization can be used to reduce the flow of connect requestsinto the interior of the network while establishing one-way trunks from the interior to the periphery. Thus connect requests that manage to get to the interior have a much better chance of obtaining all facilities required for the complete connection'

Cancellation ol Alternate Routing by transferringtraffic localizedoverloads Alternaterouting of traffic accommodates routingis altemate however, overloads, routes. networkwide During underutilized to First, alternateroutesimply that a greaternumberof for two reasons. undesirable facilisame If these for a connection. areneeded facilities and switching transmission per links of number the total connections, more direct two or to be a.rsigned tiescould more traffic. carry could network the reduced and be call could routedcall canacquireall the necessary the probability that an alternately Second, with a largenumberof faa connection set Trying up to low. relatively is resources is low (particularly facilities ofthe all probability ofgetting ifthe cilitiesis undesirable alepending)' requests less demanding while up tied are fruitlessly facilities so,if some Code Blocking for specificdestination Codeblockingrbf"rt to artificially blockingcalls intended they acquireinternal before offltces codes.If the calls areblockedat originatingend withouttying up traffic of incoming arerelieved networkfacilities,the destinations areas. specified from the for outgoing requests facilitiesthatmaybe needed disasters, of natural in times The methodof flow conhol is particularlyuseful of the the area out of into and both which typically stimulatelarge numbersof calls all, or for blocking code caninitiate a networkcontrolcenter events [n these disaster. preference to the giving principle of The of thecallsinto thearea. a largepercentage, there unless seized are First,no networkfacilities two pufposes. callsserves outgoing out of into or runks It is the of obtainingall facilities necessary. chance is a reasonable fiunks one of these Once thatarethefocalpoint of networkcongestion. arrea thedisaster codeblockingis Second, beestablished. canprobably therestof theconnection is seized, calls. incoming callsareprobablymoreimpoftantthan outgoing usefulbecause Centralized Connectlon Eontrol sei to eliminate previously aredesigned described All of theflow controlprocedures probability. completion has a low connection the desired if resoulces of common zures

380

NETwoRKsyNcHHoNtzATtoNcoNTRoLANDMANAGEMENT

Becauseof the distributed natureof network control implied by theseoperations, these control proceduresare necessarilyprobabilistic. To maintain a certainamount of network efficiency, the network is purposely operatedat less than maximum capacity. A more desirablemode of operation,from a throughputpoint of view, is to allocate network facilities from a single centralized conhol node. Since this central node has accessto the statusof all network resources,no facilities are assignedto a pafiicular requestunlessall facilities neededfor the completeconnectionare available. Network hansmission links are assignedin a manner that is analogousto the assignment of in_ temal links of common control switches. Complete centralizecl confrol of a network as large as the public telephonenetwork is obviously infeasible from the point of view of maintaining statusoi all interstage links within end office switchesand from the point of view ofiurvivability of the ne1work when the control node tails. However, many aspectsof centralizedcontrol have beenimplementedin North America and around the world with common-channel sig_ naling (CCS)' For example, INWATS call requestsare routed ro a cenrral node that determinesif the destination is busy or not. If the destinationis busy, the originating end office is instructedto return the busy tone without any of the int#al mansmission links ever being seized'This mode of operationis particularly useful for 800 numbers oNwATS) that occasionally experiencevery heavy traffic flow becauseof national television announcemenrs. without ccs, the previous mode of operation was to return a busy tone ail the way through the network from the place at which the busy circuit or subscriber is located. Thus the path through the network was tied up during the time the busy tone was being returned' CCS allows the originating office to return the busy tone so internal network facilities can be releasedand reassignedimmediately upon detecting the busy condi_ tion.

REFERENCES
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 M. Decinaand U- deJulio,"International Activitieson NetworkSynchronization for Digital communication," IEEE Intematiotutl communications conference,lg7g, "synchronizing J. R, Pierce, Digiral Networks," Bel/ system Techntual rournal, Mar. 1969, pp.615-636. "systematic c. J' Byrne,B. J. Karafin,andD. B, Robinson, Jitterin a chain of Digitar Repeaters," Bell System Technical Journal,Nov. 1963,pp.2679_27 14. "Digitally Dejirtering LaserDiscplayers,"IEEE Spectrum,Feb. 1990, p. 14. F. M. Gardner, PhaselockTechniques,2nd york, ed.,Wiley, New 1979. E. D. sunde,"self-Timing Regenerative Repeaterc,,, Bell system Technical rournal, July 1957, pp.891-938. D. L. Duttweiler,"The Jitterperformance of phase-Locked t oopsExtractrng Timing from Baseband Data waveforms,"BerI system TechnicalJournal, Jan. 1976,pp, 37-58. "carrier-to-customer Installation-DSlMetallic Interface," ANSI Tl. 403_l9gg, American NationalStandards Institute, New york, 19g9.

381 REFERENCES "synchronizationFailuresin a chain of PLL 9 H. Meyer, L. Popken,andH. R. Mueller, pp' 436-445' May 1986, on Communicatiazs, Synchronizers ," IEEE Transadions Artech House, Systems, 1 0 P. R. TrischittaandE. L. Varma,finer in Digital Transmission Norwood,MA, 1989. "The Accumulationof Pattern-Dependent Jitter for e l l P, R. Trischitta and P. Sannuti, June Communications, on Transattions IEEE Regenerators," Fiber Optic Chain of "No' 4ESS: B' J' Karafin,and H' Mann, 12 J, F. Boyle, J. R. Colton,C. L' Dammann, Interfacesand Toll Terminal Equipment,"Bell System Transmission/Switching Jountal,Sept.1977 Technical , pp' 1057-1097 C' D' Near' A' M. Montenegro, P. Greendyk, R. A. Carley, r3 J.E. Abate,E. W. Butterline, "AT&T's of Synchronieation to the Approach New andG. P.Zampetti, S.H. Richman, pp. 1989' April Magazine, IEEE Communications Networks," Telecommunication 35-45. "The Effects of Slips on Data Modems," IEEE H. Drucker and A. C. Morton, 1987,pp. 12'4.I-12'4'3' on Communitations, International Conference ..Identification in a voicebandchannel,"IEEE of Digital Impairments t 5 J. F. Ingle, 1989,pp. I 2'3'I - I 2'3'5' nce on Communicarions, InternationalConfere "The Effect of slips on Facsimile IEEE Transmission," l 6 J. E. Abateand H. Drucker, -32'3'4' 1988,pp' 32'3.1 e on Communicalions, Intemational Conferenc "The switchedDigital andw. L, Ross, J. c. Lawson, t7 J. E. Abate,L. H. Brandenburg, pp. 1297-1320' Joumal,Sept.1977, NetworkPlan,"Bell SystemTechnital ..Digital Network Plan," Bellcore TA-M1,000436, Issue 1, Bell synchronization l8 NJ' Nov' 1986. Morristown, Research, Communications ,.synchronization for Interfacestandards Digital Networks,"ANSI Tl. 101*1987' 19 New York, 1987. Institute, NationalStandards American Technical staff, Bell Telephone Laboratories, Transmission systems for NC' 197I' Winston-Salem' Laboratories, Bell Telephone Communications, ,,Impact of Jitter on the second order Digital Multiplex at 6312 kbit/s," AT&T zl to CCITT studygrouponjitter, GreenBook,Vol. 3, pp. 861*869' Submittal ..waitingTime Jitter,"Bell systemTechnical pp. Joumal,Jan.1972, 22 D. L. Dutrweiler, 165*207. Operationof InternationalDigital Links," CCftT Recommendation 23 "Plesiochronous 1976. Switzerland' Eook,Geneva, G.LLI, Orange "Performance Clocks," Bell of a Systemof Mutually Synchronized 24 J. P. Moreland, -MM' stem Tethnical Joumal, Sept.197l, pp. 2449 Sy "synchronization of theDigitalNetworkin theUnited ZS p, A. MitchellandR. A. Bourler, on communications, 1979, conferences Intemational Kingdom," IEEE pp.l1.2.1-11.2.4. in a SwitchedDigital 26 C. A. Cooper, "synchronizationfor Telecommunications pp' 1028-1033' I9?9, July on Communications, Network."IEEE Transactions "AT&T Synchroniaadon Network Architectureand Operations," 2':. C. Olszewski, hesentation to 1999 NIST-TD{I Workshop on Synchronization in CO, March9-ll' 1999' Boulder, Systems, Telecommunications pp.76r-765. 1988,

382

NETWoRKsYNcHRoNIzATIoNcoNTHoLANDMANAGEMENT

PROBLEIT,IS
7.1 Determine thesizeof anelastic storeneeded to accommodate a velocityshift of *10fi) km/hrthatlastsfor l0 secif thedatarateis l0 Mbps.(Thespeed of light is3xl08m/sec.) 7.2 How manybitsareneeded in anelastic store designed to interface theEl digital signalof ITU-T to a digital switch?what is rhemaximumslip rateif the line clock andswitchclock differ by +50 to -50 ppm (themaximum recommended offsets)? 7.3 what is the maximum(ggvoprobability)phase offset(in signalintervals) pro_ duced by ajitter powerof + I 0 dB relativeto I radz? 7.4 Determine the rateat which DSr signals in a DS2 multiplexloseframingbe_ cause stuff codes of a DS2 signalareincorrectly interpreted. Assume thechan_ nel BER is l0-3.Assume theBER is 10-6 7'5 What wouldthe rateof incorrect DSZstuff codeoccurrences be if a 5-bit stuff codewereusedinstead of the3-bit stuffcode? Assume thechannel BER is l0-3. 7.6 A digitaltransmission link is to beused to hansmit blocks(packets) of datawithout slips.If thetransmission link is autonomously timedwith,"spe"t to there_ ceivingterminal, whatis themaximum allowable blocklengthif theclocksvary by +50ppmeachandan elastic storeof 16bits existsin thereceiving terminal? Assume theelasticstoreis initializedto half full between eachblock. 7.7 Assume jitter from a single thesystematic repeater produces a symmeffic, worst casephase slopeof 300 rad/sec for I msec.what is the peak-to-peak jitter in decibels relativeto a unit intervalat theendof a line with 200 suchrepeaters? 7.8 Repeat Example 7.j for DSZsignals in a DS3. 7.9 A jiuer powerof 20 dB relativeto I radzis observed at the receiving end of a digitalmicrowave link. Whatis theprobabilitythatthephase offsetwill exceed 14.0 symbolintervals? 7.10 Determine theamount of phase shift injected into a 2400-Hz carier signalby a slip of onePCM sample. 7.tl Determine the TIE and the MTIE at the end of a 10-secinterval produced

by a DS3 signal that has a constantoffset of one part in 106. 7.12 RepeatProblem 7. I I but assumea l -MHz jitter component is added that has a peak-to-peakamplitude of 8 uls. Assume the starting phaseof thejitter component is 0o.

7.13 Compare the slip rateof $tratum 3E with stratum3 clocksin holdoverconditions. 7.14 what is theoscillator accuracy (in ppm)impliedby theholdover requiremenr of a stratum 3 clock?

OPTIC FIBER SYSTEMS TRANSMISSION

network portionsof the public telephone The evolutionof the commonequipment with digitaltransmisandended began to digitaltechnology technology from analog for long-haul trunksandfiber optic systems for short-haul Tl systems sionsystems: digitizationof thelongextensive hadnot emerged, kunks.If fiber optic technology coaxialcable asrapidly.High-bandwidth networkwould not haveoccurred distance andanaradiosystems, replace to universally aretoo expensive systems transmission log radiosare more efficient than digital radiosin termsof voice circuitsper pretechniques digitalmodulation Eventhough high-density bandwidth. viouslyavailable algorithmscanmakeup for the bandwidthinefvoice compression and sophisticated raof digital radiosoveranalog of digitizedvoice,anyultimateadvantage ficiencies radio of the analog replacement wholesale to walTant diosis not nearlygreatenough savon theotherhand,providesuchdramatic systems, Fibertransmission backbone. of high-density deployment coststhat wholesale and operational ings in equipment justified' waseconomically routeswith fiber systems patof a "photophone," a diagram Figure8.1shows interest, As a noteof historical for severaltechniques entedby AlexanderGrahamBeIl in 1880.BeIl developed of a selenium (thesun)so asto directlyvary theresistance a light source modulating Themoduandtherebycreateananalogelectricalcurrentfor the speakercell detector energy by acoustic shownin Figure8.1 is a mirror thatis vibrated lation mechanism laterthat It wasalmostexacfly100years to deflectmoreor lesslight to thereceiver. practicalmadeopticaltransmission sources mediumandsuitable uansmission a suitable of optical fibers that makethem so useful for franscharacteristics The par"ticular EMI imcrosssection, smallphysical arelow loss,high bandwidth, missionsy$tems security. and munity, Fiber Attenuation begansearching scientists As a resultof the inventionof the laserin 1960,materials sysas a communication applied usefully could be that media for opticaltransmission years in 1970 later l0 announced fiber was practical optical of a tem.Thefirst instance 383

384

FIBEHOPTICTRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

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Figure 8.1 Alexander Graham Bell's photophone. [l]. This announcementdescribeda silica-basedfiber with .,only" 20 dB/km attenu_ ation. In just a little less than l0 more years!commercially viable optical fibers with 0.2 dB/km attenuationhad been developed [2]. such remarkably low attenuation at_ tracted immediate attention becauseit meant intercity transmission links could be traversed with very few repeaters,implying a dramatic savings in equipment and maintenance. As shown in Figure 8.2, the attenuationof an optical fiber is very dependenton the wavelength of the light signal in use. Two wavelengthsthat experienceparticularly low attenuationin contemporaryfibers are 1300 and 1550 nm. Rlpresentative attenu_ ations at these wavelengths are 0.35 and 0.2 dB/km, respectively. with an easily achievablenet loss of 20 dB the latter attenuation value allows 100 km between re_ peatersor amplifiers. Because0.2 dB/km is close to the minimum theoretical attenuation at 1550 nm, additional reductions in attenuation cannot be realized without going to higher wavelengths.If fibers and associatedelectronicscan be developedto operateat higher wavelengths,much lower levels of attenuationmay be achieved in the future. The main application of such systemswould be in submarinecables where the avoidanceof repeatersis most desirable.

SYSTEMS 385 TRANSMIS$ION OPTIC FIBER

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18oo

Fiber attenuationver$uswavelength.

of an optical media,thebandwidth transmission to elechomagnetic Whencompared at 1300or 1550nm of wavefiber is mind boggling:a singleopticalfiber operating for 312 of 20 THz (20 x totz Hz), which is enough bandwidth lengthhasa potential are sy$tems Bandwidthlimits of fiber optic transmission million 64-kbpschannels. by the electro-opticdrivers and receiversor the electronicinter* mostly determined fibershaveaninher8.I . l, multimode in Section As described devices. to these faces limitationis avoided limitation,but this particular bandwidth ent distance-dependent also have a distance-dependent fiber systems fibers. Single-mode in single-mode limitation.but this limitationis asmucha limitationof theopticalsources bandwidth asit is a limitation of the fiber. Small Physical Croee Sectlon is their ability to relieve overof Tl systems One of the most beneficialfeatures to two-wireanapairscompared of copper I savings with a 12+ocable ducts crowded with respectto Tl provide the sameadvantage Fiber systems log transmission. thesame cablehasapproximately A 25-paircopper degree. only to a greater $ystems, line-powered pairsfor asa fiber cablewith 24 fibersand somecopper crosssection voice circuits.FurtherThe latter can easilycarry 100,000 or amplifiers. repeaters for morecapacity by merelyinstalling beupgraded cansometimes more,fibersy$tems or wavelength division multiplexing(WDM). Thus, after elecrronics higher speed is unlikely to reappear by a fiber cable,duct congestion coppercableis replaced greatlyexpands the needfor fiber faservices use of broadband unlessextensive cilities. Electromagnetic lnterference lmmunity pick up itself cannot the f,rber to electricity, glasshasa very high resistance Because personnel to transients harmful or damaging interferingsignalsor noiseor propagate crosstalkis alsomeans The immunity to interference at the endpoints. andequipment

Bandwidth

386

FIBER oPTIcTRANSMIssIoN SY$TEMS

nota problem between multiple-fiber cables. In systems utilizingline-powered repeaters,however,someamountof copperis includedin the cableto carry power,implying that the immunity, particularlywith respectto hazardous voltages,is compromised. Theimmunityof fibersto external interference suchasnoiseandcrosstalk implies thereis no crosstalk-induced limit from high powered transmitters or moresensitive receivers' Receiver sensitivity is ultimatelylimited by internalnoisein thephotodetectors, and transmitpowerhastechnology limits due to spectrum spreading in the sources andnonlinearities in thefiber.Until these limits arereached, however, theabsence of crosstalk between fibersallowsthecapacity or transmission distance of a fiber systemto be increased by merely upgradingthe electronics, not the fiber. Althoughcrosstalk from one fiber to another is nonexistent, crosstalk canarisebetweenseparate channels within WDM channels of a singlefiber. Security Because opticalfibersradiate no energy, noninvasive eavesdropping ofthe signalis impossible. Furthermore, invasivetapsaremorediffrcult to implementthanarewirelinetaps,whichmerelyrequire bridgingacross theconductors with a sufficiently high impedance to removea usable but unnoticeable amountof signalenergy. A similar process is possible with opticalfibers,but it requires bending thefiber a veryprecise amount to allow a smallamountof energyto escape andbe amplifiedby a tap.Not only does this process allow passively tappinga fiber,but alsosignals canbeinjected into thefiber throughsucha bend. This technique hasbeen usedasa means of locally testingthe effectiveness of a fiber spliceandhasbeenconsidered asa means of implementing distributed, passive tapsfor fiber distribution to thehome[3]. 8.1 FIBEROPTICTRAN$MISSION SYSTEMELEMENTS As shown in Figure8.3,thebasicelements of a fiber optictransmission system arethe electrical-to-optical transducer in thetransmitting terminal, theopticalfiter itself,the optical-to-electrical transducer in thereceiver, andsignalprocessing circuitryfor am_ plifitcation, clockrecovery, anddatadetection. Regenerative repeaters require opticalto-elechical conversion for the signalprocessing functionsand conversion back to opticalfor transmission. Direct optical amplificationwith erbium-doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs) areusedin lieu of repeaters, particularlyfor wDlftransmission links.

Flgure 8.3 Fiberoptictransmission system elements.

ELEMENTS SYSTEM TRANSMISSION OPTIC 8.1 FIBEH Jsket

387

Figure 8.4 Opticalfiber construction. The systemdepicted in Figure 8.3 is not necessarilya digital one. Although all of the fiber applications for telephony have utilized digital signals,analog hansmission is possible.Analog FM modulation of optical signalshas been successfullyapplied to feeder applicationsof CATV systems[4]. Furthermore, sy$temsthat carry 80 channels of AM video on fiber to residenceshave been developed, a capability that allows analog television set$to receive fiber-based cable TV without a digital video decoder.

8.1.1 OpticalFiberFundamentals in Figure 8.4.Boththecoreand fiberis shown of anoptical Thebasic construction

to the desiredlight signal but the cladding is designedwith the cladding aretran$parent a lower index of refraction, which causesmost light waves in the core to be reflected back into the core. As shown in Figure 8.5, whether or not a ray is reflected back into the core is dependenton the angle at which it strikes the sore-cladding boundary. If the angle is too sharp, the ray is not reflected but passesthrough the cladding and is absorbed by the opaque, protective jacket. The sharp angles can occur at two places; (l) near the sourcewhere all of the source'$output is not focusedinto the center of the fiber and (2) at bends, splices, or other imperfections in the fiber.

tllultimode Flbere to thereaspossible signal energy asmuch to deliver desirable it is usually Although
ceiver. waves that reflect back and forth before reaching the receiver may be undesirable if they experiencetoo much delay with respectto the primary ray traveling down ttre center of the frber. An optical fiber that allows rays to arrive at the receiver via multiple paths is referred to as a multimode fiber. Multimode fibers have core diameters

Jack6t Chdding Core

Figure 8;5

Fiber with multimode propagation.

388

FTBER oplc rRANSMtsstoN sysrEMs

that are large comparedto the wavelengthof the signal.A typical multimode fiber will have a 50-pm core diameter and a 125-pm cladding diameter (such a fiber is designated as a 5oll25 fiber). The delayedrays causepulse spreadingreferred to as multimode dispersion.The significanceof the spreadingdependson the width of the pulse or, conversely,the datarate being used.Multimode dispersionthereforecreatesan inherent operationallimit defined as a bandwidth-di$tance product (BDp). The BDp of a typical step-indexmultimode fiber is 13 Mbps-km [5]. The previously describedmultimode fiber is referred to as a step-index fiber becausethe index of refraction in the core is constantwith a stepchangein the index occurring at the core-cladding boundary. Multimode dispersion can be significantly reducedby varying the index of refraction within the core so that a high value occurs in the center and a low value occurs at the edge.Becausethe speedof propagationof light is higher in lower indices of refraction, rays that reflect back and forth within the core ffavel at an average speed that is greater than a primary ray that remains entirely within the center. Thus, if the index of refraction is carefully graded wirhin the core, all rays can be made to arrive at the receiver with the same amount of delay. such a fiber is refened to as a graded-indexfiber. A representativeBDp of a graded-index fiber is 2 Gbps-km [6]. Notice that this is an improvement of more than two orders of magnitude over typical step-indexmultimode fibers. Example 8.1. Derermine the loss limir and the multimode dispersion limit of a graded-indexmultimode fiber systemoperatingat 820 nm and providing a bandwidth of 90 Mbps (enough ro carry two DS3 signals). Assume that the difference between the available output power from the source and the input power required by the receiver for an acceptablemaximum error rate is 42 dB. solution. From Figure 8.2, the attenuationof a multimode fiber operatingat g20 nm is approximately 3 dB/km. Thus,

.. 42 Losshmit=8.0=t+ttt't Using2 Gbps-km asa typicalBDP of a graded-index multimode fiber,themultimode dispersion distance limit is determined as

Dispersion limit =

= ZZ.2 km

Theresults of Example 8.I arerepresentative capabilities of first-generation fiber systems suchastheFT3c system of AT&T [7]. In actual practice, repeater spacing wouldbe lessthanthe l4-km losslimit to allow marginfor, for example, componenttolerances, splicing,andaging.The first FT3c system, which beganservice between New York city andwashington, DC in February 19g3, hadrepeater spac-

SYSTEMELEMENTS 8.1 FIBEROPTICTRANSMISSION

389

ing of 7 km-the system.

location of repeatersin a coaxial cable system replaced by the fiber

Slngle-Mode Fibars in thelonginto service beingbtought were fiber systems As thefirst-generation

to the point that deployadvanced hadalready network,opticaltechnology distance of thesecond Onekey technology systems wasunderway. mentof second-generation fibers(SMFs)thatprovidetwo distinctadvangeneration wastheuseof single-mode cores(8 pm typically)thatrestrictpropagadiameter First,SMFshavesmaller tages. Second, eliminatemultimodedispersion. modeandtherefore tion to a fundamental by about attenuation the (Rayleigh) which reduces internal scattering, SMFshaveless 2 nm is about at 820 operating an SMF the of For example, attenuation 50Vo16,81. fiber. to 3 dB/kmfor a multimode dB/km,asopposed involvedtheuseof longer $ystems of second-generation Another key development less significantly (1300nm), which,asshownin Figure8.2,experience wavelengths Use systems. usedin first-generation thanthe 800-900-nmwavelengths attenuation asdescribed andreceivers, for sources newtechnology required ofthesewavelengths and8.1.3. 8.1.2 in Sections

with andusinga wavelength multimodedispersion of eliminating The combination limitation referredto as anotherffansmission revealed muchlower signalattenuation ariseswhen a photonicsignalcontains dispersion Chromatic dispersion. chromatic propagate at different and the individual wavelengths more than one wavelength (also distortion photonic ofphase equivalent is the dispersion Thus,chromatic speeds. levels Dispersion (wireline) propagation. in electromagnetic calleddelaydistortion) perkilometer' pernanometer of picoseconds by a dispersion coefficient arequantified psec/nm km. is 16 nanometers A representative valuefor the SMF at 1550 is minimized by usingoneor moretechniques. dispersion Theeffectof chromatic abouta wavelengththat exhibits a small amountof First, operationcan be centerecl 15 produceapproximately Typical silica fibers,for example, dispersion. chromatic anopticalsource nm.Second, at 13fi) nm thanat 1550 dispersion timeslesschromatic (e.g.,hasa naffow spread of pureas possible that is as $pectrally shouldbe chosen (RZ) pulsescan be usedto preventinwavelengths). Third, nalrow retum-to-zero in the fibercanbeincluded Fourth,a dispersion-compensating interference. tersymbol just fiber. the When main to in opposition slope path has a dispersion transmission that possible are of 250 GHz-km BDPs areused, [6]' thefirst two techniques limit of a Exampte8.2. Determinethe loss limit and the chromaticdispersion 1300 nm and at operating system fiansmission SMF optical high-performance a (enough DS3 Assume signals). nine to carry 417 Mbps providinga bandwidth of gteater the 42 than power dB that is an output $ourceis usedwith narrowband gainto be 42 dB). power(i'e., assume the system receive minimumacceptable

ChromaticDlsperaion

390

FIBEH oPTIc TRANSMISSIoN $YSTEMS

solution. As indicated in Figure 8.2, the attenuation of a single-mode fiber operating at 1300 nm is approximately 0.35 dB/km. Thus, .. 42 = 120km Lossllmit = 0j5 Using 250 Gbps-km as the BDp of a silica, single-modefiber,

Chromatic dispersion limit =

#:600

km

Whenthedispersion limit is muchhigherthanthelosslimit, asis thecase in Exunple 8.2,it indicates thattheopticalsources areprovidinga niurowerspecffum thanis nece$sary. Thus,the system design couldbe changed to uselessexpensive sources or the poweroutputof the source couldbe increased to get a longerlosslimit. (Increasing thepoweroutputof the$ource may widenits spectrum andthereby reduce theBDp.) Thesystem parameters of Example 8.2arerepresentative of thesecond-generation FT series G systems deployed by AT&T [9]. ttre Fr series G systems hadmaximum repearer spacing of 48 km (29 miles),indicating that theinitial systems couldbe installed with significant marginfor reliabilityandfutureupgrades. Many of theroutes were,in fact, upgraded to 1.7Gbpswithoutchanging the fiber tIO, I il. Evenat the higherdatarates, the FT series G routeshadsignificant lossmarginfor splicingand the insertion of wavelength divisionmultiplexers asanother means of upgrading the system. wavelength divisionmultiplexing is described in section9.3. Example 8.2 shows thatattenuation is thelimiting distance factorin 1300-nm systemsoperating at low andintermediate datarates.To operate with evenlongerdistances, Figure8.2 indicates that 1550nm shouldbe used.with typical silica fibers, thelimiting factorat 1550 nm wouldbechromatic dispersion. To ouirco-" this limitation,two othertypesof fiber havebeendeveloped; a dispersion-shifted singlemodefiber (DS-SMF)that hasminimal dispersion ar 1550nm and a dispersionflattened single-mode fiber (DF-sMF) that haslessdispersion across a rangeof wavelengths. Figure8.6contrasts thedispersion of bothof these typesof fiberswith a conventional SMF' EventhoughFigure8.6indicates zerodispersion existsat 1300 nm on thesMF andat 1550nm on theDS-SMF,some affountof dispersion hasto be assumed due to fiber manufacturing variations and uncertainty of the actualcenter wavelength produced by a source. valuesof l-3.5 psec/km nm aretypicallyusedas thedispersion coefficient at the "zero"dispersion points. 8.1.2 Electrical.to.Optlcal Transducers Two basictypesof semiconductor devices convertelectrical signals into opticalsignalsandcanhavetheoutputcoupled into anopticalfiber:laser (LDs)andlightdiodes emittingdiodes (LEDs).LDs generally providebefterperformance in termsof higher outputpower'Breater bandwidth, andnarrower signalspectrum. LEDs, on the other

ELEMENTS391 sYsrEM oprc rHANsMlsstoN 8.1 FIBER

20
E t
J

Ero

.E 0
-to .t a
-20

(nml Wrydength Figure 8.6 Dispersion of SMF and DS-SMF fibers.

requireonly simpleinterfacecircuitry, afe moretolerantof hand,arelessexpensive, for long ThusLDs areused morereliable. andaregenerally conditions, environmental are and co$ts andLEDs areusedwhenruggedness interface distances transmission moreimportantthanperformance. to minimize it is necessary repeater$, between To achievemaximumdistances LDs forms havebeen of Various sources. by usingnarrowband dispersion chromatic the 8.7 pureoutput.Figure shows a spectrally thatcomecloseto achieving developed "single-ftequency" devices: of onethemostpopulartypesof typicaloutputspectrum is a laserdiode.Anothertype of diodewith a very nalrow spectrum a Fabry-Perot of a Fabrythe dominantmode LD (DFB-LD). As indicated, diskibuted-feedback thespecTo maintain modes. tltantheadjacent Perotdiodeis typically10dB stronger environment to tightly confol the operational trum indicated,it is generallynece$sary modulation-dependent Otherwise, (biaspoints,modulation level, and temperature). modes shiftsthatprovery shoftduration the spectrum or evencause broaden effects

$
-2
D
d

E .E

l o + t + lrom Cenurwarbltngth (nml Wwsler|g8h Representative laser output $pectrum.

Ftgrrre 8.7

392

FIBEROPTICTRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

parameters TABLE8.1 Repreeentatlve of VarloueOpticalSources Device Type Si LED Ge LED InGaAsP LED DFBLD DFBLD IUDFB LD (nm) Wavelength 850 1300 1300 1300 1550 1550 Launched Output (dBm) Power -16 -19 -10 -5 -5 +2 FWHM Spectrum Width'(nm) 50 70 120 1.0 0.4 0.8

ducea dominant modeat oneof theadjacent wavelengths. This latterphenomenon is referred to asmodepartitionnoise[12], which cancause a halvingof the BDp of a system width of an opticalsource [6]. Thespectral is commonlyspecified asthefullwidth at half-maximum(FWHM), which represents the spreadbetweenthe wavelengths at whichthe specrrum is arhalf themagnitude of thepeak. To achieve greaterdistances in loss-limited systems, eithera more sensitive receiveror a higherpoweredsourceis necessary.* Laserdiodesprovidethe highest available powers, asindicated in Table8. l, which listsrepresentative parameters of various LD andLED source$. Systems thataredispersion limitedcannoibeimproved by higher output powersbecause the intersymbolinterference dominates the imperfections in thereceived signal. The effectivetransmitpower depends on the couplingefficiencybetween the source andthe fiber. The couplingefficiencymay be aslow as l%o in thecase of an unfocused LED connecred to a single-mode fiber. High-efficiency couplings of 6ovo arepossible with focused sources. The launched powervalues providedin Tableg.I includethecouplingefficiencies. Bandwi dth-Dlstance Prod ucte Thebandwidth-distance factorof a fiber system resulting from chromatic dispersion is determined from thefiberdispersion coefficient andthespectral widthof thesource. Themaximumacceptable amount of pulsespreading with an NRZ line codeis typically specified to be one-foufth ofa bit intervalT. Thus. DL AL!0.257 whereD = Z= A.l,= 7= dispersion coefficient of fiber (psec/km nm) (km) distance spectrum width of source(nm) duration of a bit interval(psec) (8.1)

Transmit power cannot tle increased arbitrarily without encountering nonlinear phenomena in the fiber itself. The optical power threshold where nonlinear effects begin to occur may bJas low as l0 mW [6],

THANSMISSION ELEMENTS 393 OPTIC SYSTEM 8.1 FIBER

Using the relationshipthat the bandwidth(B) is the reciprocalof the bit interval, the as BDP is determined NRZ-BDP=Bi

< 250 DAl.

Gbps-km

(8.21

because in oneinenergy A50VoRZ line codeallowstwiceasmuchpulsespreading interval. Thus tervalis half a bit periodfrom energyin the next

RZ-BDP. #

Gbps-km

(8.3)

but areinfeprefened in dispersion-limited sy$tems TheRZ line codes areobviously pulse because mustdetect systems thereceiver in loss-limited rior to NRZ line codes poweris heldconstant). (assuming with half asmuchenergy thepeaktransmit Example8.3. Determinethe BDP of a 1550-nmSMF systemand a 1550-nm DFB LD source identifiedin Table8.1.Assume DS-SMF$ystem usingthe 1550-nm nm to allow relaxed valueof 3.5psec/km an NRZ line codeanda "zero" dispersion tolerances for the fiber andthe sourceoperatingwavelength. of an SMF fiber at 1550nm coefficient Solution, From Figure8.6,the dispersion is 0.4 nm. Thus, spectral of the source Table width psecflrm nm. From 8.1, the is 16

NRZ-BDP=ffi=39GbPs-km
Using the given mined as "zero" dispersion is detervalue,the BDP of the DS-SMFsystem

?qn

Gbns-km NRZ-BDP=5ft= 179

8.1.3 Optical-to-ElectrlcalTransducers to convertthe optical are availableas transducers Two basicfypesof photodetectors such energyat the receiverto electricalenergyfor amplificationandotherprocessing p-i-n diodes werethefirst photodeanddatadetection. Siliconbased asclockrecovery diof 800-900nm. These in systems usingwavelengths tector$ operating to be used, Their major and reliable and provide good performance. odes are inexpensive wherefiber loss is minidrawbackis that they do not operateat higher wavelengths

394

FIBEROPTICTHANSMISSION SYSTEMS

TABLE8.2 Rspresentative Parameters of OptlcalDetectors(BER= 1g-tt1a Device Type SipFn Si APD pr:n InGaAs InGaAs APD InGaAs APD InGaAs APD pr-n InGaAs InGaAs APD Wavelength (nm) 850 850 1310 1310 13 1 0 1550 1550 1550 (dBm) Receive Power -48.0 -58.0 -35.0 -43.0 -26.0 -37.5 -37.0 -33.0 DataRate(Mbps) 50 50 420 420 8000 678 1200 4000

aThedetectorsensitivities assume an NF|Zline code. The sonsitivities decrBaseby g dB for (S0%)BZ codes.

mized. Germanium devicesfunction at the higher wavelengthsand are more sensitive but are more temperaturedependentand less reliable. The secondbasic type of photoderectoris an avalanchephoto diode (ApD), which enhances the receiver sensitivity because it operateswith internal gain. (A p-f-n diode does not have internal gain and therefore requires all amplification to be externally applied, which raisesthe noise level.) The amplification inherent in the ApD's conversion from an optical signal to an electrical signal is useful becauseit meansthe ApD can be 10-15 dB more sensitivein detectinglow-level signals at a given error rate. A major drawback of an APD is ttrat it needsa high supply voltage to operateand is very sensitiveto temperature.APDs tend to have somewhatlower GBps thanp-i-n diodes, which restricts their use in very high data rate systems.Table g.2 lists various types of photodetectorsand provides representative performanceparameters for each.

6 E

,E

.E 6

-60L .001

.01

.1 .2.4 OEtrR{te (Gbm}

Figure 8.t

Receiver sensitivity versus datarate.

oPTICTHANSMISSIoN 395 8.2 LINE coDESFORFIBER

Bothtypes utilizedirectdetection, whichmeans thattheymerelymea$of receivers Because of opticalenergy to detect higherdatarates urethepresence or ab$ence data. per bit, the sensitivity imply lessenergy decreases with datarate.As a first approxi3 dB lesssensitive. mation,a doublingof the datarateimpliesthereceiver becomes (in decibels) of sensitivity Thegeneral formulafor determining thechange asa function of a change in thedatarateis Ro+ Sensitivity R = Sensitivity
where R = new data rate Ro = data rate at given sensitivity

tot"*,.[ftJ

(8.4)

Figure 8.8 plots the receiver sensitivity ofrepresentativep-i-n diode detectorsand APD detectorsas a function of the data rate for both NRZ and RZ line codes.

8-2 LINE CODESFOR FIEEROPTICTRANSMISSION (FOT)systems mustsatisfy basicrethe same Line codes for fiber optictransmission quirements (wireline)transmission in described in electrical sy$tems astheline codes previously. A few line 4. Somefiber systems Chapter usethe line codesdescribed fbr fiber applications here.Opticalsources codes specifically aredescribed developed gain modes with significant anddetectors areprimarilyused in nonlinear of operation in only two andthreshold variations, which impliestheyarebestsuitedto operating Constates: on or off. Hence, a two-levelline code(on-off keying)is mostnatural. available, areusuallyunnecessary sidering multilevelline codes the wide bandwidth pencanbe includedin theline codewithoutsignificant andextratiming transitions systems in submarine alty.An exception to theavailabilityof "free"bandwidth occurs where repeater is achieved of theopmaximum spacing by minimizingthebandwidth theneedfor ultratical signal. systems limitedbecause aretypicallydispersion These longevity. high reliabilityprecludes lasers with unproven the latestsingle-frequency is particularly property receivers the absence detection of useful ofdirect optical A any polarity ambiguity,which means the transmitter andreceiverare inherentlydc sodifferentialencoding Eventhoughthe opticalsignalis incoupled is unnecessary. beof the may still be a consideration dc balance line code herentlydc coupled, the (particularly on APDs)is sometimes dependent the gain of somephotodiodes cause Furthermore, it is usuallydesirable to accoupleamplifier thedc levelof theline code. pulseamplitudes electrical stages at thedetecting in thereceivers [3], which means pulse these aretypi constraints comparator$ aredependent optical In all, on densities. in so for cally easier deal with counterparts wireline sy$tems, line codes thantheir to in generally of Notice fiber fiber systems amounts dc variation. that, tolerate Breater dc levelsequalto both a Manchester and a CMI line codehaveunvarying systems, pulse A number line codes amplitude. of other usedin fiber systems one-halfof the level. these arecontrolled, in theaverage Because variations allow some variation dc

396

FIBER opTtc rRANsMtsstoN sysTEMS

theline codes aresometimes refemed to as"dc-constrained" line codes asopposed to "dc-balanced" beingperfect or near-petfect line codes. Thedc variations thatdo exist in these line codes eitheraretoo smallto cause problems or areaccommodated by providing someform of dc restoration [14]. For applications thatdo notrequire maximum repeater spacing or maximum data ratestypically useManchester (diphase) or cMI line codesbecause both of these providestrongtiming content codes anda completely constrained dc level (502o on). An early example of the useof cMI is a high-speed intraofficelink developed by NTT of Japan [5]. Manchester andCMI line codes experience theworstcase of boththelosslimit and thedispersion limit. The worst-case losslimit arises because thereceiver mustdetect opticalpulses with duration equalto half thebit interval(i.e.,with a sensitivity of an RZ code).The dispersion limit of a Manchester or CMI line codeis actuallyhalf of theNRZ dispersion limit because thesymbolrateis essentially (Each doubled. bit intervalis dividedin half, with the needto derecr a pulseor no pulsein both halves.) Thus,theManchester or CMI BDP canbe determined as

=# MC-BDP

Gbps

(8.s)

Fromtheprevious discussion it canbe seen thatwhenperformance is moreimpoftant thanlow cost,someotherline codeis needed. Threebasicline codes arecommonly used:scrambled NRZ, scrambled RZ, or somevariationof a codereferred to as an mBnB line code,described below.Thechoice of anNRZ or RZ line codeis primarily based on whether the system is losslimited or dispersion limited.Loss-limited systemsuseNRZ line codes whereas dispersion-limited systems useRZ codes. A scrambleris typicallyusedto enhance timingrecovery andcontroldc wander in a statistical (but not in an absolute sense sense). Often,overhead datapatterns in thedatastream provides someassurance thatthedatastream cannot exactlymatchthe scrambler sequence so a ceftainminimumnumberof transitions are assured. This is the casein SONET transmission systems described in Section 8.5. 8.2.1 mBnB Line Codee As an alternative to relying on scramblers for ensuring timing transitions, a classof line codes hasbeendeveloped thatencodes rn binarydatabits into blocksofn binary line bits (mBnB),wherenr < n. Because only 2* datacodes mustbe selected from 2, codes in eachblock,thereis codingflexibility for conhollingtiming anddc wander. For example, if m = 4 andn = 5, sixteen datacodes mustbe chosen from the setof thirtytwo 5-bit line codes. A specific choiceof these codes is providedin Tableg.3, whichdepicts the datacodes andcontrolcodes selected fbr thefiber-distributed data (FDDD standard interface [6]. The significant a$pects of thecodingassignments in Table8.3 are:

g,z LINE oFTrc 397 coDEsFoRFIBEH TRANSMtssroN TABLE8.3 FDDI4BSB LlneCodee LineGode Decimal 0
1

Binary 00000 00001 0001 0 1 0001 00 001 01 001 00110 00111 01000 01001 01010 01011 01100 01101 01 110 01111 10000 10001 10010 10011 '101 00 10101 10110 10111 11000 11001 11 0 1 0 11011 11100 101 11 11110 11111

Symbol

Name
Quiet Violation Violation Violation Halt Violation Re$et Violation

Assignment Functional Linestatesymbol Oisallowed Disallowed Disallowed Linestate symbol Start delimiter Disallowed indicator Control Disallowed 0001 Datasymbol 0100 Datasymbol Datasymbol 0101 Disallowed Enddelimiter Datasymbol 0110 Data symbol 0111 Disallowed Start delimiter 1000 Datasymbol 1001 Dalasymbol Datasymbol 001 0 1 Datasymbol 001 1010 Datasymbol 1 Datasymbol 101 Start delimiter indicator Control 1100 Datasymbol Datasymbol 1101 1110 Data symbol 1111 Data symbol Datasymbol 0000 Linestate symbol

o
V V V H L V R V
1 4 5 V T
E -l

2 3 4 5 6 7
E

I 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

Violation

Violation

K B
q

2 3 A B J S

Set Set

c
D E F

o
I
ldle

L The code spaceis used for control as well as data. 2. When transmitting data,the minimum pulse density is 40Voand there can never tre more than three intervals without a pulse. 3. The dc componentis constrainedto fall between a minimumof 40Vopulsesand a manimum af 60Vopulses, a range that is one-fifth of an unconstrained random data stream.

398

FIBER oPTIcTHANSMISSIoN SYSTEMS TABLE 8.4 Digital Blphaee (Manchester)lB2B Line Code

LineCode Binary 0
1

Functional Assignment
Disallowed Data symbol 0 Data symbol 1 Disallowed

2
e

00 01 10 11

The featuresofthe 4B5B line code describedabove are achievedat the expenseof a25vo inweasein the line data rate. By way of comparison,a digital biphase (Manchester)line code and the cMI line code describedin chapter 4 can both be representedas lB2B line codeswirh the coding assignments provided in Tables 8.4 and g.5, respectively.Notice that both of thesecodescome at the expenseof a lfi)7o increase in the line datq rate. Because the 4B5B line codedefined for FDDI is intendedfor a specific application, it contains codes for control as well as for data. The 5B68 codes given in Table 8.6 areintendedfor transmissiononly and thereforedo not allocatecode spacefor control. Notice that the 5B68 code assignmentsare made in such a way that the dc level is fixed at 507opulsesbut the maximum run length of no pulsesis 6. Thus, tighter control of the dc level comes at the expenseof increasing the worst-caseduration between pulses.5868 and TBBB line codeshave been used exten$ively in Europe. Examples of 7B8B usageare a 565-Mbps rerrestrial system developedby British Telecom [17] and a 280-Mbps NLI submarinesysremdevelopedby src of Great Britain [18]. The 4B5B and 5B6B examples use output blocks that are only I bit greater than the input blocks. considerably more coding flexibility is achieved when the ourput block is more than I bit longer than the input block. As an example, a 6B88 code allows all 64 input codesto be encodedwith an output code containing exactly four I's in every code. (The number of combinations of four I's in 8 bits is 70.) Thus dc wander can be maintained without having to altemate between low-density and high-density codesbut coding efficiency is sacrificed.

TABLE8.5 CodedMarkInversion (CMl)1B2BLineCode LineCode Binary 0 1 2 3 00 01 10 11 Functional Assignment Datasymbol 1 (if 11 previously sent) Data symbol 0 Disallowed Datasymbol 1 (if00 previously sent)

THANSMISSIoN 399 8.2 LINE OPTI0 coDE$ FoB FIBEH TABLE 8.6 5868 Line Code Aesignrnentss

58 lnput 00000 00001 0001 0 1 0001 00100 001 01 10 001 0011'l 01000 01 001 01010 01011 0 11 0 0 01101 01110 111 01

68 Output 011101/100010 101110/01 0001 000 01 0111/1 01 11 0001 101 011/01 01 00 011 001 101 001 001110 110101/001010 01 001 1 01 01 01 010110 011001 1010 01 011100 110110/001 001

5B Input 10000 10001 10010 10011 10100 10101 10110 1 0 11 1 11000 11001 11010 1 1 01 1 11100 11 1 0 1 ' t1 0 11 11111

68 Output 01 111010/0001 1 10001 1001 01 100110 101001 101010 101100 0l1011/100100 110001 110010 110100 101101/010010 111000 110011/001 100 101101/0't0010 100111/01 1000

aA code 1/code0 output must alternatebetweenthe code with four 1's and the code wlth two 1's to mainlain dc balanc.

An 8B 108 coding affangementfl 9, 201hasbeen defined asthe fiber channeltransmission standard(ANSI X3.230-1994). As indicated in Table 8.7, each input byte is separated into a 5-bit field and a 3-bit field that are respectivelyencodedusing a 5B68 and 3B4B algorithm. In some cases,two codewords are provided for encoding particular input data. The choice of one code in a pair (which are complementsof each other) is made to maintain dc balance.[f the previously transmitted unbalancedcode had more I 's than 0's, the code with fewer 1's is chosen.If the previously transmitted unbalancedcode had more 0's than I's. the code with fewer 0's is chosen.*

8.2.2 Bit InsertionCodes

The mBnB block codes in theprevious haveonesignificant disaddescribed section (In lower vantage: They aredifficult to implement on very high speed datastreams. speed decode memoryis trivapplications, logic or tablelookupin a smallread-only ial.) Very high speed links therefore typeof codereferred to asbit inseruseanother tion codes. special mBnB codes are actually cases of with These codes n = m + 1 and greatly thecodes sothecoding/decoding simplified. selected logic is Thefirst bit insertion codeto beconsidered is theMB lP code, whichmerelyinserts anoddparitybit aftereveryrz bitsof source data.Oddparityensures thatat leastone
*Two special cases exist that may alter the rule when 001 I I is 5B6B encoded or 0t I is 3B4B encoded.

400

FIBEBOPTICTHANSMISSION SYSTEMS

I is includedin theparity field of m + I bits.As a point of reference, noticethat the (Manchester) digitalbiphase line codeis a 18lP line code.An example of theuseof a 24BlP line codeis theTransPacificsubmarine (Tpc-3) put into servcable system icein December 1988 by AT&T andKDD of Japan [21]. An evensimplerbit insertion codedescribed by engineers of NTT in Japan [22] is the mB I c code,which merelyinsertsa bit aftereveryru source bits-the valueof whichis thecomplement preceding of theiilrmediately bit. Thus,theadded bit always forces a datatransition andis veryeasyto implement. An obvious disadvantage of the simplicityis thelossof performance monitorability overthefirst rn- 1bitsof a block. Againnoticethata diphase line codeis a degenerate case of an mBlc line codewith ru = L An example of theuseof a l0BlC line codeis theF-1.6G sysrem of NTT in Japan [23].

TABLE8.7 88108 FlberChannet Codtng 58 Input 0 (00000) 1 (00001) 2 (00010) 3 (00011) 4 (001 00) 5 (00101) 6 (001 10) 7 ( 0 01 1 ) I (01ooo) I (01001) 1 0( 0 1 0 1 0 ) 1 1( 0 1 0 1 1 ) 1 2( 0 1 1 0 0 ) 1 3( 0 1 101) 14(01110) 1 5( 0 1 1 1 1 ) 38 Input 0 (000) 1 (001) 2 (010) 3 (01 1) 4 (100) 5 (101) 6 (110) 7(11) 68 Output 100111/011000 011101i1 0001 0 101101/010010 110001 110101/001010 101 001 011001 111000/000111 111001/000110 1001 01 01 01 01 110100 101 001 101100 0 111 0 0 010111/101000 48 Outout 0100/1 011 1001 01 01 1100/001 1 0010/1 101 101 0 01 10 0001/1 110 58 Input 16(10000) 1 7( 1 0 0 0 1 ) 1 B( 1 0 0 1 0 ) 1 9( 1 0 0 1 1 ) 2 0( 1 0 1 0 0 ) 2 1( 1 0 1 0 1 ) 2 2( 1 0 1 1 0 ) 2 3( 1 0 1 1 1 ) 24 (11000) 25(11001) 2 6( 1 1 0 1 0 ) 2 7( 1 101 1) 28(11100) 2e(11101) 3 0( r 1 1 1 0 ) 3 1( 1 1 1 1 1 ) 68 Outpul 011011/100100 10001 1 0 1 0 01 1 110010 001 011 101010 011010 111010/0001 01 11001 1/001 100 100110 010110 110110/001 001 001110 101110/01 0001 011110/100001 101011/010100

DIVISION MULTIPLEXING 401 8.3 WAVELENGTH

8.3 WAVELENGTHDIVISIONMULTIPLEXING usedto establish Wavelength division multiplexing(WDM) is the basictechnique on The channels a single concept of WDM is ilmultiple,independent fiber. optical (multiplexing) of sources into a in Figure8.9 showing separate lustrated thecoupling (demultiplexing) reout of the fiber. Prismatic of the signals fiber andtheseparation fractionis depicted asthebasiccouplingmechanism at bothendsof thelink. Refraction is usable only for channelswith relatively large wavelengthseparations. with channelspacing on the on theotherhand,canoperate Diffractive gratingdevices, of being share the commoncharacteristics orderof 1-2 nm [24]. All WDM devices purelypassive so anyparticular devicecanperformeithermulandbeingreversible tiplexingor demultiplexing Otherthansome opticalinsertion lossandsome functions. are crosstalkfrom imperfectseparation, the multiplexing/demultiplexing operations diffraction channel The losses of the transparent to the individual signals. insertion vs. single gratingdevices on fiber size(multimode canvaryfrom I to 7 dB depending mode)andnumber of channels [24]. a single WDM wa$not usedbecause fiber routeswereinstalled, When the f,rrst pairs thanseparate high-speed wasgenerally lessexpensive transmitter andreceiver Thus, and receivers and accompanying WDM devices. of lower speed transrnitters upgrade thecapacity to increase WDM wouldtypically be installedasa subsequent the original 90-Mbps,820-nm of a system without laying new fiber. For example, in FT3C system corridorwasupgraded in 1983by AT&T in the northeast installed refer1984by addingan additional180Mbpson a 1300-nm carrier[25].In addition, increased how the FT Series G canhaveits capacity by ences[9] and [0] describe multiplexinga 1550-nmsystemonto an existing 1300-nmsystemand/oradding out of service. higherspeed electronics withouttakingtheexistingsystem for someapplicaattraction propertyof WDM devices is a dominant The passive tions suchasfiber to the home.Allocatingindividualfibersfrom a cenffaloffice to form of fiber sharing. Theoutside is expensive, impJying for some each theneed home (-40-70"C) andtheneedfor remote powerfor activecomponents plantenvironment Theuseof WDM in this application imply thatpassive WDM devices areprefened. photonic passive loop (PPL) [26]. is sometimes referred to asthe (copper) FDM or electroidentical asused to on electrical WDM is fundamentally (radio)transmission In fact,usingthefollowingrelationship allows systems. magnetic to frequency: wavelengths to be related v =,fl (8.6)

divisionmultiplexing. Flgure 8.9 Wavelength

4OZ FIBER oplc rHANsMtsstoN sysrEMs where y= velocityoflight,= 3 x 108 m/sec = (Hz) frequency ,f (m) L.= wavelength optical systems aredefinedin termsof wavelength asopposed to frequency because optical$ources aretraditionally specified in termsof thewavelengths of theiroutputs. Nevertheless, systems with extremely closewDM channel (on the orderof spacing 0.04nm) aresometimes referred to asFDM systems [27]. systemsthat useelectronic multiplexingto produced electrical FDM signals for modulationof a singleopticalcarderarereferredto assubcarrier multiplexing systems. Because the individualchannels of thesesystems aretypicallyclosetogether in frequency, andhence in wavelength, passive separation is usuallyinfeasible. Example8,4. Determinethe differencein wavelengthof two optical signals separated by 2GHz andcentered at 1500nm. Solution. The frequency (in freespace) ofa 1500-nm signalis

f=#-=2oo,oooGHz 1500x l0-o Thusthe upperandlower frequencies aredetermined as200,001 and 199,9g9 GHz, respectively. Thecorresponding wavelengths are 3xlOE = 1500.007 nm 199.999 x l0e
3x108

Ir=
^

n':

too.oot ^, ,t

= 1499'992 nm

andthediff'erence in wavelengths is 0.015nm. Example 8.4 shows thatevenwhensubcarriers areseparated by zGHz,the resulting wavelength difference is small-too smallfor passive demultiplexing. Wavelength demultiplexing with passive diffuaction doesnot inherently causea lossof signalpowerin the individualchannels. An altemative approach to demultiplexingis shownin Figure8.10,whichinvolves powersplittingof thereceived signal followedby wavelength filteringto extract individualchannels. This approach is passive and functionallyidenticalto diffractive separation but is wastefulof optical power.Its mainadvantage is thatpowersplittingcanbe implemented aspassive taps distributed alongthefiber roure. Thus,it is a usefultechnique in applications (like local areanetworks) wheredistances arelessimportant thanflexibility in networktopology.

DESIGN 403 8.4 FIBEH SYSTEM

Figure 8.10 WDM with powersplining/filtering.

DenseWavelengthDivisionMultiplexing primarily in WDMtechnology occurred in response Majoradvances in thelate1990s, expand of theirfiber thebandwidth to theneeds carriers of common to dramatically
facilities for high-bandwidth data networking. In contrastto previous systems,which carried a small number of WDM channels,the newer systemscarried a large number of closely spacedwavelengths.Thesesystemsare generallyreferredto as densewavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) systems. An example of a first-generation (1996) DWDM systemis the MultiWave 1600 $ystemfrom Ciena Corporation. This systemprovided 16 channelsspaced0.8 nm apafr in the region of 1550 nm. DWDM systems are enabled by optical amplifiers (EDFAs) that transparently amplify all wavelengthsin the band and by fiber Bragg gratings fabricatedinto glassfiber for demultiplexing and filtering in a receiver. DWDM usefulnessis not confined to retrofitting of existing plant. DWDM may be systemopthe only possibleway to achieveextremely high bandwidths.A 4O-channel erating at 2.488 Gbps (OC-48) per channel provides an aggregatebandwidth of 100 Gbps-a difficult speedfor a single TDM channel,particularly on dispersionlimited fibers and with other high-speedlimitations such as polarization mode dispersion.An additional advantagesof DWDM is the inherent transparencyof individual wavelengths, which allows transmission and interoperability of mixed types of services. Yet another advantageof DWDM is the inherent reliability provided by separateelectronics for each wavelensth interface.

8.4 FIEERSYSTEMDESIGN of fiber in the previous sections highlightonly the mostbasicaspects The examples system-level provides for thedesign of This section considerations optictechnology. practicalFOT systems. the system As is the casewith anytransmission technology, is stronglydependent on system availabilityrequirements andcostof maintedesign f,rber connections to nance. At the low endof these areeasilyaccessible requirements of individualworkstations within a singlebuilding.At theotherendof the spectrum to recables reliabilityrequirements aresubmarine thatareobviouslyveryexpensive subpair. Repairs Even minimized only components. though by using ultrareliable are gophers, must with oceanic contend areimmuneto bacftfioes* they marinecables and
'Some outside plant enginecrsofthe telephoflecompanieswouldprobablynot be too surprisedifabackhoe could somehow get to a submarinecable.

404

FTBER oplc rRANsMtsstoN sy$rEMS

counterparts: fishing trawlersandsharks(which seern attracted to electromagnetic radiation). AT&T developed a "seaplow" for buryingsubmarine cables in areas of largescale fishingactivity[28].Abouttheonly advantage thatsubmarine applications have in their favor is theconstant, relativelylow temperature environment for repeaters/amplifrers. 8.4.1 Fiber Connectors and Sptices Three basic techniques ofjoining fibersareconnectors, mechanical splices, andfusion splices[29]. connector$ areusedfor terminalconnectionrr, patchpanels, or otherinstances whereloss(0.4-l dB) is lessimportant thanease of maintenance andreconfiguration. Mechanical splices involvemechanical alignmeut andclamping of two adjoining fibers.Therearemanydifferenttypesof mechanical splicingequipment thatprovide various levelsof lossdepending on thefiber size(multimode or singlemode)andinstallation time.Splices canbemade on individualfibersor in bulk on fiber bundles or ribbons. Two basicsplicingprocedures passive arepossible: or active. Passive splices arefasterbecause the craftsperson merelyplaces the fibersin the alignment sleeves andclamps thefibersin place.Activealignment involves passing a signalthroughthe spliceandmakingfine mechanical adjustments to minimizethe lossbeforethe final clampis applied. A singlefiber splicedescribed in reference anaverage [30] provides of 0'2 dB losswhenpassively installed and0.05dB losswhenactivelyinstalled. The installation timesare5 and7 min, respectively. Fusionsplices providethelowestlosses because theyessentially form onecontinuousfiber that is almostasgoodas a single-drawn fiber. In fact, submarine fibersare pretested at the factory for tensilestrengthandfusedat the weakpointswherebreaks occur[28].Thisprocess ensures thatthefiberscanwithstand thetensile stress encounteredwhenlayingandrecovering thefiber cablebut introduces slightlyhigherlevels of average attenuation in the fiber. For example, the I 04-kmrepeaterless system installed between Taiwanandtheislandof PengHu has0.24dB/kmar 1550nm including all splices [28]. Fusion splicing equipmenris availablerhar is completely automated with high-resolution TV used to alignthefibersandestimate thespliceloss by measuring themisalignment afterfusion[29].Fusionlosses canvarybetween 0.01 and0.I dB. For undersea applications, only values closeto 0.0I dB areaccepted. 8.4.2 Protection Switchlng Protection switching within an FoT system is basically the $ame asin otherhighcapacity transmission $ystems whereinonespare line, includingtransmitters, repeaters,and receivers, can be switchedinto serviceif one of Nmain lines fails (l : N protection). Thereare,however, a few uniqueconsiderations for protecting fiber systems, arisingprimarilybecause of thehighcapacity of thesy$tems. First,a system can be installed with lower cost(lowerperformance) optoelectronic devices with an upgradefor higher performance anticipatedat a later date.In this case,the protection

DESIGN405 8.4 FIBEH SYSTEM procedures concepts upgrading switching andpackaging shouldallow one-at-a-time withoutdisrupting service of electronics [11]. fiber arises because switching A moresignificant anddifficult aspect of protection of traff,rcthat aggregations routestend to carry large-traffic volumesrepresenting facilitieson $eparate route$. One-for-Nprobe carriedby separate would otherwise Protecis of no usewhena backhoe cutsanentirecable. tectionof mostfiber systems network-level routingdiversity,a facility requires tion from the lossof a complete feature of a networkthattends to disappear whenusingfiber andlargeswitchingsysmaximum advantage-large hubsfed by largetrunk groups. temsto their economic provides is a 1 ; I routediversifyandno hub dependence A networkarchitecture that laterin this chapter. SONETring described

8.4.3 System Galn of an FOT section is to determine The fust stepin determining the repeater spacing and the receive outputpower of a hansmitter the launched between the difTerence fashion term to thesame powerrequired for a designated minimumBER.In analogous gain. Notice is referred to asthe system introduced this parameter for radio systems, gainincludes couplinglosses at theopticalsource andopticaldetector. thatthesystem of gainmustbe greater in thepath.Sources thanthesumof all thelosses The system losses, bending fiber, splicing/connector of the loss include inherentattenuation if any.Splicinglosses thatocandphotonicswitchlosses losses, WDM device losses, into thefiber of thefiber areoftenadded intervals cur atregular duringtheinstallation parameter involvedin determining attenuation sothereis only onedistance-dependent gainandthesumof all thenomispacing. thesy$tem Thedifference between repeater the lossmarginallowsfor installation, is the lossmargin.In anyparticular nal losses powerpenalties unanticipated dueto dispersion, tolerances, manufacturing equipment WDM upgrades. splices, component aging,andpossible gain,theBDP,thedispersionlimited repeater Example8.5. Determine thesystem parameters: data with FOT the following andthe lossmarginfor an system spacing, -5 = = = = dBm rate 565 Mbps, line code 5BdB RZ, wavelength 1550nm, source spacing APD,repeater DFB-LD with 0.4nmFWHM, fiber= SMF,detector=InGaAs = 0.2 dB/km. = 65 km, andsplicinglo$ses = 67t Solutinn, Theuseof the5BdBline codeimpliestheIinedatarateof 565(6/5) from 8.8 or Table Figure for 678Mbps is determined Mbps.Thereceiversensitivity -34.5 8.2as dBm.Thus. gain= -5 - (-34.5)= 29.5dB System an RZ line codeis in use. Because

406

FIBEH oplc rRANSMtsstoN sysTEMS

BDP: :;so?, =73.6Gbps-km BDPspacing =m: 17xO.4

= 26 dB Pathloss= (0.2+ 0.2X65)

l09km

=29.5- 26 = 3.5dB Lossmargin

Example 8.5is representative of the565-Mbps system developed by Fujitsuof Japan for carryinganE5 digital signal(565.148 Mbps)[3 I ]. Thefactthattherepearer spacing is 607o of theBDP limit impliesthatdispersion penalties aresmall(estimated to be 1.2dB).

8.5 SONET/SDH Thefirst generations of fiber opticsystems in thepublictelephone pronetworkused prietaryarchitectures, equipment, line codes, multiplexing formats, andmaintenance procedures. Some commonality with othersystems in thenetworkcamefrom supplierswho alsosupplied digital radio system$. In these cases, the multiplexingformats andmaintenance protocols emulated counterparts in theradio$ystems, whichalsohad proprietary architectures. Theonly thingin common with all of theradioandfiber systemsfrom all of the supplierswasthat the interfaceto the networkwa$$ome number of DS3cross-connect signals. Proprietary multiplexing formats for multipleDS3signalsevolved because therewasno higherlevelstandard compatible with theapplications. A DS4 signal, which is composed of six DS3 signals,requirestoo much bandwidth for radiosystems andcarries a largercross (4032)than section of channels needed in manyapplications. TheRegional Bell operating companies andinterexchange (IXCs),theuscarriers ersof theequipment, naturallywanted standards sotheycouldmix andmatchequipment from different suppliers. This became particularlyimportantas a result of competition among theIXCs who desired fiber interfaces to thelocalexchange carriers(LECs)but did not wantto necessarily buy from the same suppliers astheLECs. (It mightbe necessary for an lxc ro interface with a differentsupplier at eachLEC.) To solvethese problems, andothers, Bellcoreinitiatedan effort that wa$latertaken up by the Tlxl committee of theExchange carriersstandards (ECSA) Association to establish a standard for connecting onefiber system to another at theopticallevel (i.e.,"in the glass").This standard is referred to asthe synchronous opticalnetwork (soNET) t32, 331. In the laresrages of thedevelopment of this srandard, ccITT becameinvolvedso thata singleinternational standard existsfor fiber interconnect between telephone networks of different counties. Internationally, thestandard is known asthe synchronous (sDH) t341. digitalhierarchy ThesoNET srandard addresses rhe following specific issues: l. E$tablishes a standard multiplexingformatusingsomenumber of 5l.84-Mbps (STS-1)signals asbuildingblocks. 2. Establishes an optical signal standard for interconnecting equipmentfrom differentsuppliers,

8.5 SONET/SDH 407

TABLE8.8 SONET $ignal Hlerarchy North Designation American Electrical Signal STS-1 STS-3
OpticalSignal

DataRate(Mbps) 51.84 155.52 622.08 1244.16 2488,32 4976.64 9S53.28

ITU-TDesignation STM.1 STM-4 STM-8 STM-16 STM-Sz STM.64

srs-12
STS.24 STS-48 STS-S6 STS-19?

oc-1 oc-3 oc-12 oc-24 oc-48 oc-96 oc-192

3. Establishes extensive operations, administrations, maintenance, and (OAM&P) capabilities provisioning aspartof thestandard. 4. Defines multiplexing formats for carrying existing digital signals of the (DSl, DSlC, DSz, DS3). asynchronous multiplexinghierarchy (E1,E2, E3, E4). CCITT (ITU-T) digitalsignalhierarchy 5. Supports mapping formatfor DSI signals. 6. Definesa DSOidentifiable of accommodating otherapplications capable 7. Establishes a flexiblearchitecture of transmission rates. Wide-bandwidth with a variety suchasbroadband ISDN (greater by multiple signals than5l.84 Mbps)areaccommodated concatenating is an 155.52-Mbps signalthat is STS-1signals. A STS-3c signal,for example, treatedby the networkasa singleentity. of the SONEThierarchyareprovidedin Table The dataratesandsignaldesignations trans* referred to asthesynchronous 8.8.At thelowestlevelis thebasicSONETsignal arereferred to asSTS-Nsignals. An port signallevel I (STS-I).Higherlevel signals STS-1signals. TheopticalcounterSTS-Nsignalis composed of Nbyte-interleaved partof eachSTS-Nsignalis atropticalcarrierlevel N signal(OC-N).Table8.8 also transfor the SDH, which refersto signalsassynchronous includesITU nomenclature port modules corlmon applications of theITU signalhierarchy N (STM-N).Because signal,thelowestlevel STM signalis a 155.52cailrot efficientlyusea 51.84-Mbps signal.* Mbps(STS-3c) is primarilyconcerned with OC-Ninterconnect AlthoughtheSONETspecification signalsr areuseful electrical within theSONEThierarchy STS-1 andSTS-3 standards, (e.g.,multiplexers, networkelements within a switchingoffice for interconnecting machines, systems) switching andcross-cormect t35, 361.
.A referred to asa STM-O SDH signal. STS-I SONETsignalis sometimes 51,84-Mbps TAnSTS-1electical signalusesa B3Zs line codeand a STS-3electricalsignalusesa CMI line code.

408

FIBER oPTIcTRANSMISsIoN SYSTEMS

44.738 Mbpe

51,84OMbpB

sTs-t
81"840Mbpl

Byte Interlosrrgd Mux

CEPT'4 139,?64Mhpr

Figure 8.11 Functional block diagram of SONET multiplexing.

8.5.1 SONET Multiplexlng Overview The first stepin the soNET multiplexingprocess (shownin Figureg.ll) involves generation of a 51.840-Mbps sTS-l signalfor eachtributary.The sTS-l signalcontainsthetributary(payload) trafficplustransport overhead. As indicated in rhefigure, a variety of tributary type$areaccommodated; 1. A single DS3 per srs-l that can be a srandard asynchronous DS3 signal generated by anM13 or M23 multiplexer. Asynchronous DS3inputsarepassed transparently throughthe systemto a DS3 output.Because this transparent option exists, arry4.736-Mbps signal can be carried within the payload envelope. 2. A groupof lowerratetributaries suchasDSl, DSlc, DS2,or El signals canbe packed into the STS-I payload. 3. A higher rate (wideband)signal can be packedinto a multiple numberof concatenated srs-l signals.Prevalentexamples of higher rate signalsare 139.?64-Mbps fourth-level multiplexes of ITU or a broadband ISDN signalat 150Mbps.Eachof these applications requires threeSTS-1signals concatenared togetherto form an sTS-3c signal.Higher levels of concatenation (to form srs-Nc signals) are possible for higherratetributaries. concatenared srs-l signals containintemalcontrolbytesthatidentifythe signalasa component of

8.5 soNET/$Dn tt09 data can be a higher speed channel so the integrity of the concatenated througha network. asit passes maintained l signals from N STSthataremuAn STS-Nsignal is created bytes by interleaving (frequency) generating in is done eachof All timing adjustment tually synchronized. SONET node that originatein another STS-I signals the individualSTS-I signals. with theequivalent ofbyte stuffdifferentfrequency arerateadjusted with a possibly ing (described to theclockof thelocalnode.No matter later)to become synchronized is, in a STS-Nsignalhave of thetributarytraffic all STS-I kibutaries whatthenature rate. high-levelformatanddata the same by first scrambling the STS-Nsignal aregenerated Opticalcarrierlevel-Nsignals signal (except theelectrical for framingbytesandSTS-IDbytes)andthenconverting generated with direct the OC-N signalis to an opticalsignal.Otherthanscrambling, the STSThus,thedatarates, formats, andframingof to anopticalsignal. conversion N andOC-N signals areidentical. of threelevels-sections,lines,and A SONET$ystem is definedas a hierarchy dedilevels paths-as indicated hasoverheadbandwidth in Figure8.12.Eachof these level. in Figure As indicated catedto administering and maintaining the respective provided functions within an STS-Nsignalinvolvescalcu* 8.11, oneof theoverhead Parityis alsodelationandtransmission of a paritybytefor theentireSTS-Nsignal. in the following section. asdescribed fined for theotherlevelsofthe architecture 8.5.2 SONET Frame Formats frame each in Figure8.13.As indicated, signalis shown Theframeformatof anSTS-1 to transThefirst 3 bytes ofeachrow areallocated of9 rowsof90 byteseach. consists poft overhead with thebalance availablefor pathoverhead andpayloadmapping.The

Path Terminating Equipment

Line Terminating Equipment

Scction Torminatirg Equipment

Sction Terminating Equipfiont

Line TBrminsting Equipment

PEth Terminating Equipment

Figure 8.12 SONETsystem hierarchy.

410

FIBER oPTIcTRANSMIsSIoN SYSTEMS

Tranrpon Ovshord Sction O\rrrhrld

sTs-l
lnformstionPayload

At 81 Dt
Hl 82 D4 07 D10 z1

ta. El 02
HZ K1 D6 D8 Dlt t2

c1 FT D3
H3 K2 D6 D9 D12 E2

J1 B3 c2
Gl Path F2 Owrhear H4 B
I Rowe

Llno Owrheld

z4 z5
87 Columns

3 Columns

Figure 8.13 STS-I frameformat. tran$port overhead is itself composed of section overhead and line overhead. Path overheadis contained within the information payload as indicated. The 9 rows of 87 bytes (783 bytes in all) in the information payload block is referred to as the envelopecapacity.Becausethe frame rate is 8 kHz, the compositedata rate of each STS-I signal can be represented as the sum of the transportoverheadrate and the information envelopecapacity: STS-1 rate = overheadrate + information enveloperate = 9 x 3 x I x 8000+9 x 87 x 8 x 8000

= I-728 x 106 + 50.112 x 106 (8.7) The internalformatof theenvelope capacityis dependent on thetype of tributarytraffic beingcanied.one aspect of theenvelope formatthatis common to all types of traffic is the 9 bytesof pathoverhead indicated in Figure8.13.The actuallocationand purpose of this overhead aredescribed in thenexttwo sections. As a specific example of a higherlevel(srs-N) signal, Figure8.14depicts thedetailsof an srs-3 signalthatalsorepresents theSTM-I signalformatin rru terminology. Transmission of the bytesoccursrow by row andleft to right. Thus,the first 3 bytesof an srs-3 framearethethreeframingbytesAl, Al, Al. Most of thesecrion andline overhead functions within an sTS-3 signalarecarriedin the srs-l number I overhead. Thusmanyof thecorresponding bytesof theothersrs-l signals areunused andaresodesignated with anasterisk. Notice,however, thatpathoverheacl is includedin theinformation envelope for eachof theSTS-I signals. After a frameof an srs-N signalis scrambled, a paritybyte (BIp-8) is generated thatprovides evenparityovercorresponding bitsin all bytes of thesTS-Nframe.This paritybyte is inserted into the section overhead of the first STS-I signalof the next STS-Nframe. = 51.840 Mbps

8,5 SONET/SDH 411

Trunsport Overhead \ l A r A r A 2 A 2 A e C l C l C l 81 El FI D l * r D 2 D 3
HI 82 D 07 D 1 Hl 82 4 H2 H2 H2 r + t(1 S r r D D8 0 " D l l r * p 1 2 Hl 82 D H3 l(2 e D9 t H3

ST$"3 lnformrtlon Payload

Jl 83 c2 Gl F2 H4 z3 z4

Jl 83 c2 Gl F2 H4 z3 7A

Jl 83 c2 Gl F2 H4 23 24

H3

21
:1)

z1
(2)

21
(3)

zt
(1)

z2

22

E2
(1) (2) (3)

z5

z5

z5

(2) (3) I Columns

(1) (2) (3) (1) 261 Columns

(2)

Flgure 8.14 STS-3frameformat.

Adminietratlon, and Malntenance 8.5.3 SONET Operations,

The SONET standaldplacessignificant emphasison the need for operations,adminishation, and maintenance(OAM) of an end-to-endsystem.As shown in Figure 8.15, the OAM architecture is based on the section, Iine, and path Iayers described previously. OAM standardizationis a requirementfor mixing equipment from multiple vendors and easeof managementof all levels of a system(an individual repeatersection or an end-to-endpath).

SectlonOverhead in eachSTS-1frame overhead of the 9 bytesof section Thefunctional allocation

in Figure8.13are; shown Al Framing byte= Fd hex(l1110110) A2 Framingbyte= 28 hex (00101000) (1, . . . ,1f)for each STS-lwithin theSTS-lnumber Cl STS-l ID identifies an STS-Nmultiplex parity byteprovidingevenparity overprevious STS-N B I Bit-interleaved frame after scrambling (localorderwire) PCM orderwire El SectionJevel64-kbps Fl A 64-kbps channel for userpurposes setaside D1-D3 An 192-kbps channelfor alarms,maintenance, daia communications sections control,andadministration between level (from at thesection Thefactthatthereis sucha richness of maintenance support needfor extensive to another) OAM faonerepeater is indicativeof therecognized technologyto provideit. cilities andthe availability of economical

a? $ (t

E
p u
h G

o F
rrl

ts

z,
(n ln od P
AD ll

412

8.5 sONEr/SDn 413

Llne Overhead Thefunctional in eachSTS-I frameshown of the l8 bytesof line overhead allocation in Figure8.13areasfollows: of Hl*H3 Pointerbytes usedin frame alignmentand frequencyadjustment payload of these bytes in detailin Section data;thefunctions aredefined 8.5.4 82 Bit-interleavedparity for line-level error monitoring Kl, K2 Two bytes allocated for signaling between line-level automatic protectionswitchingequipment D4*D12 A 576-kbpsdata communications channelfor alarms,maintenance, conffol, monitoring,andadministration at the line level ZI.ZZ Reserved for futureuse for linelevel orderwire E2 A 64-kbps PCM voicechannel Notice that the line-level OAM facilities are similar to thoseavailableat the section levelwith the additionof theprotection switchingsignaling andHl, H2, and channel H3 pointerbytesusefor payloadframing andfrequencyadjustment. Path Ovarhead includedin everyblock As indicatedin Figure8.I 3, thereare9 bytesof pathoverhead (9 x 87 bytes)of information payload. is thatit Theimportant aspect of thisoverhead payloadenvelope is insertedwhenthe tributary dataarepackedinto the synchronous (SPE)andnotremoved (processed) Thus,it prountil thetributarydataareunpacked. netofthe paththrough thesynchronous videsend-to-end OAM support independent work, which may involve numerousintermediatemultiplexers,cross-connect Theexact of these location 9 byteswithin thepayswitches, or add-dropmultiplexers. in thenextsectron. Thefunctions onpointervalues defined loadenvelope is dependent of the path overhead bytesare: Jl A 6a-kbpschannelusedto repetitivelysenda 64-bytefixed-length verify the integdtyof a terminalcancontinuously stringso a receiving path;thecontents areuserprogrammable of themessage parityat thepathlevel 83 Bit-interleaved versusunequipped STS equipped CZ STS path signallabel to designate mapping thespecif,tc that and,for equipped signals, STSpayload signals in receiving thepayloads to interpret terminals mightbe needed Gl Status byte sent from path-terminating equipment back to equipment path-originating equipment to conveystatus of terminating (received BIP error counts) andpathenor performance for pathuser F2 A 64-kbps channel needingframesthat arelongerthana H4 Multiframe indicatorfor payloads single STSftame; multiframe indicatorsare usedwhen packinglower (virtualtributaries) into the SPE ratechannels Z3-ZS Reserved for future use

414

FIBEROPTICTRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

8.5,4 PayloadFramlngand Frequency Ju$tification

Payload Framing The locationofthe 9 bytesofpath overhead in the sTS-l envelope is not definedin termsof the srs-l transport framing.Instead, thepathoverhead is considered to be thefirst columnof a frameof datareferred to asthespE, whichcanbeginin anybyte positionwithin the sTS-l payload (seeFigure8.16).Theexactlocationof envelope the beginning of the sPE (byteJl of the pathoverhead) is specified by a pointerin bytesHl andH2 of theSTSline overhead. Noticethatthismeans thatanSPE typically overlaps two STS-1frames. Theuseof a pointerto definethelocationof the SPEframelocationprovides two significant features. First,SPEframes do nothaveto bealigned with higherlevelmultiplexframes. It maybethatwhenfirst generated, anSPEis aligned with theline overheadat the originatingnode (i,e., the poinrervalue is 0). As the frame is carried througha network,however,it ardvesat intermediate nodes(e.g.,multiplexers or crossconnects) havingan arbitraryphase with respect to the outgoinghansportframing. If the sPE hadto be framealigned with theoutgoingsignal, a full spE frameof storage anddelaywouldbe necessary. Thus,theavoidance of framealignment allows SPEs on incominglinks to be immediately relayed to outgoing links withoutartificial delay. Thelocation ofthe sPEin theoutgoing payload envelope is specified by setting theHl, H2 pointerto thepropervalue(0-782). The second advantage of the pointerapproach to framingspE signals is realized whendirectaccess to subchannels suchasDSls is desired. Because thepointerprovidesimmediate access to the startof an SPEframe,any otherpositionor time slot within theSPEis alsoimmediately accessible. If thetributaryuses a byte-synchronous mapping format,individualchannel byteshave fixedpositions with respect to thestart of thesPE.This capabilityshould be compared to theprocedures required to demultiplex a DS3 signal.In a DS3 signalthereis no relationship between thehigherlevel framingandthe lower level DS2 and DSI framingpositions. In essence, two more framerecovery processes areneeded to identifya DSOtime slot.Theuseof pointers
87 Columnr--+
.fl H;

Frame0 9 Row*

{ h
'Psth Overherd

Frame I I Eowe

=
87 Columnr

],".-

Figure 8.16 Representative locationof SPE.

415 8.5 SONET/SDH in the SONET architecture eliminates the need for more than one frame recovery procbyte-synchronouslower level signals. esswhen accessing

on FrequencyJ uetiflcatl to each it is generally intended equipment be synchronieed Although thatSONET

mustbe madefor theinterworkingof SONET otheror to a cofilmonclock,allowances offsetsimply that an that operates with slighfly differentclocks.Frequency equipment SPEmay be generated with oneclock ratebut be carriedby a SONETtransportruna frequency offsetis to accept ning at a differentrate.Themeans of accommodating in the SPEpointers. Pointeradvariable SPEframeratesusingdynamicadjustments justments to maintain to float with respect to thetransport overhead allow SPEframes Figure 8.17 showsthe basic in interfaceelasticstores. a nominallevel of storage to empty, of accommodating a slow incomingSPE.If the elasticstorebegins means positivebyte stuffingis invokedto skip oneinformation time slot (the slot immediincrementing thepointertodelaythe atelyfollowingtheH3 byte)andsimultaneously SPEframeby onebyte. anextra sending bytestuffing,to accommodate a fastSPEclock,requires Negative in Figure8.18,theH3 to fitl. As indicated SPEbytewhenever theelasticstorebegins dethepointerto be simultaneously theextrabyteof data,whichrequires slotcarries the SPEframeby I byte. To protectagainsterrorsin therebyadvancing cremented, operations, theneed or decrement a pointer misinterpreting to increment byte-stuffing for a minimumof andthe new pointervalueis transmiffed is redundantly encoded,* This implies occurs. followingtheframein whichthepointeradjustment threeframes that a l-byte adjustment canbe madeonceeveryfour frames(onceevery500 psec). pointers, seereferrorson SONETpayload For an analysis of the effectsof channel erence [37]. by Example 8.6. Determinetherangeof SPEdataratesthat canbe accommodated above. described thebyte-stuffing operation 4 x 9 x 87= 3132bytesof data. Thus, nominallycontain Solution. FourSPEframes Mbps.Whenpositivebytestuff,rng thenominalSPErateis 8 x 3132x 2000= 50.112 a slowincomingSPErate,313I bytesof dataaretransmitted is usedto accommodate rateis Thus,the lowest,slip-free in four frames. Mbps Minimum sPE rate= 8 x 3131x 2000= 50.096 a fast SPErate,3133bytesof Whennegative byte stuffingis usedto accommodate in four frames.Thus,the highest,slip-freerateis dataaretransmitted Mbps SPErate= 8 x 3133x 2000= 50.128 Maximum
.During the a jusrnent frame only, 5 even-numbered bits of the pointet value are invefied to indicate a negative stuff (data in byte H3). When a positive stuff occurs, 5 odd-numbercd bits of the pointer arc inverted,

416

FIBER oplc rBANSMtsstoN sysrEMS

STS-Frsme
-----l*-I I -

Strn of ST*t SynchronourEmretope

0p

Frlme z

FredGn + |

Pwlth 1 bi$ invtrted

Fromen + 2

Pffi

-P+

Ftlme n * 3

50Orr

Figure8.17 Positive justifi STSI pointer cation operation. Example8.6 demonstrates that the SONETclock accuracy required for maintaining sPE datais 50.112 t 0.016Mbps-a very wide torerance of f320 ppm.In comparison,a soNET nodeis specified to maintain a minimumtimingaccuracy of z0 ppmif it loses its reference. Thus, the frequencyof timing adjustments was chosen more from a desireto simplify theprocess thanfrom just assuring a marginfor slip-free operations. The useof byte stuffingto accommodate timing differences introduces waiting timejitter into SPE just asbit stuffingintroduces payloads, waitingtimejitter intoDSI signals beingasynchronously multiplexed into DS2or DS3 signals. If thespE is carDSl traffic, the effect of byte sruffingat the spE rateis aboutone-fourrh rying of a bit intervalattheDS1rate.(Because theSPJE rateis 32timestheDSI rate, theduration of an sPE byte is one-fourth the durationof a DSI bit.) Noticethat this amountof

B.s $oNET/SDH
STS-l Framd

417

Poimgr V r l u e( P |

-l*

I Start of $TS-l

0rtg
Synchronous

Fremea

Frame il + I

Pwith D bits ifiYErtd

Fremea * 2

Frerne r + 3

500 gr

justification I pointer operation. Figure8.18 Negative STSjitter is comparable phase by bit stuffinga DS2 signalinto to the amount introduced a DS3 signal. 8.5.5 Virtual Trlbutaries usessubthe SONETstandard of lowerratedigital signals, To facilitatethetransport asshownin to asvirtual tributary(VT) structures, referred STS-I payload mappings or subframes dividestheSPEframeinto seven equal-sized Figure8.19.Thismapping (108bytes)in each. for account Thus,the subframes VT blockswith 12 columns (reserved bytes andtwo unused columns 7 x 12= 84 columns with thepathoverhead in an SPE.The rateof eachVT R) accounting for the remainder of the 87 columns is determined structure as 108x I x 8000= 6.912Mbps.

(\l

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c
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J

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i

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418

S.5 SONET/SDH 419

TABLE8.9 SONET VirtualTributarles Tributary Type DS1 E1 DSlC D52

Numberof VT Designation Columnsper VT Numberin VT Group Maximum Numberin SPE

wl.5 w2.0 VTs.O VT6.O

3 4
b

4 3 2
1

12

28 21 14 7

ofsignals. to carryoneoffour types canbeindividuallyassigned TheVT structures morethanonesignalmaybe caried Depending on thedatarateof a particular signal, within a VT structure within a VT groupmustbe of the as a VT group.All signals samet)?e, but VT groupswithin a singleSPEcanbe differenttypes.The particular lower ratesignals accommodated asVTs arelistedin Table8.9.The lastcolumninVT in a singleSPEif all seven how manyof thelowerrate$ignals arecarried dicates groupsarethe sametype. fashionas VT-SPEpayloads areallowedto float within an STS-I SPEin thesame level. pointers Thus,a second level to SPEpayloads areallowedto float at theSTS-1 for VT payloads. Again,a floatingVT-SPEallowsfor miniof pointerlogic is defined justificationof VT-SPEs at intermediate nodes andfor frequency mal framingdelays VT-SPEs High-rate areaccoillmotransitions between timingboundaries. undergoing areaccomVT-SPEs datedby inserting an information byteinto V3 while slow-rate modatedby stuffing into the informationbyte immediatelyfollowing V3 when necessary. three formatfor a VTl.5 is shownin Figure8.20.EachVTI.5 uses The mapping 108bytesin a VT1.5 payload. Therearefour suchpaycolumns of datato establish havefixed loadsin a l2-columnVT group.TheVl, V2, V3, V4 bytesof thepayload positions within theSTS-I payload. of theVT1.5 signalconTheremaining 104bytes to by Vl andV2. the startof whichis theV5 bytepointed stitutetheVTI.5 payload, payload: a an asynchronous two mappings VTl.5 8.21 different for Figure depicts mapping. anda byte-synchronous mapping Aeynchronous Mapping is identicalin concept deThe asynchronous operation to the bit-stufflngoperation into the information bits (I) with in Chapter is inserted scribed 7. TheDSI bit stream no relationship As indicated, therearetwo to the VT-SPEframeor byteboundaries. (Sr and52)available Thus,the in everyfour-frame superframe. stuffingopporhrnities valueof VTl.5 superframe carries 773 bits depending on the 771,772,or information information in each frame bits the stuff controlbits C1andC2.The nominalnumberof in 52whilestuffing in 51. frames is 193x 4=772. Nominal carryinformation network, is compatible with theasynchronous Because theasynchronous operation of the asynit is the formatusedin mostSONETapplications. The majoradvantage of modeof operation is thatit provides for totallytransparent fransmission chronous

42O

FIBER oPTIcTRANSMISSIoN $YSTEMS

l--fr4.l
rooooffi

eCoUmfiB

ilEeR.un
)offiool

nmootl0

ffil1

l) A Wl.f rm lhreemluffir of m SPE fr f 08 bytcain a j00 Dre. f,perFrffio. ?) Vl , V2, V3, V4 bytcr hsveffrfid locdiilB h I $ptsidmified by tho hf t$o b&BdH4. 3) Vt ed V2 poid' to V5 qftirh is rhe fr* tryteofba flocing WiJ Sff. 4) SEEoncrtod bl,tff V5, .E!,26, Z7 mr h idediaal rd*ive porilima of m SFE. Figure E.20 Superframe sffucture for VTI.S kibutaries.

ffin tr ffin tr

I Rorva

g Rorys

the tributary signal in terms of information and in terms of information rate. The major disadvantageof the asynchronousmode is that 64-kbps DSO charurelsand signaling bits are not readily extracted.

Eyte-Sy nchronous Multip I exlng

In contrastto the asynchronous mapping,the byte-synchronous payloadmapping shownin Figure8.21ballocates specificbytesof rhepayload to specific bytes(channels)of theDSI tributarysignal.Hence, this modeof operation overcomes themain drawback of theasynchronous modein that64-kbps DSOchannels andsignaling bits within the payloadareeasilyidentified.In fact, whenthe DSl tributaryarises from legacyapplications, the signaling bits of a DSI aremovedfrom the leastsignif,rcant bit (LSB) of everysixthframeof respective channels andplacedin dedicated signaling bit positions within rhevr-sPE. Thusbyte-synchronous multiplexingoffersan additional featureof converting from in-slot signaling to out-slotsignaling for DSI signals. Al important aspect of thebyte-synchronous formatshownin Figure8.21bis the absence of timingadjustments for thesource DSI signal. Thus,theDSI interface necessarily requires a slip bufferto accommodate a DSI source thatmaybe unsynchronized to the local soNET clock.Althoughslipsin byte synchronously mapped DSI

s.5 soNET/sDn421

v5
R R R R R R I R lffi I htts (246) J2

t"24 Eyteg 2 Byte8 24 BytEs 2 Eyteg 24 BytB 2 B!,toB 24q,tss 1(}{Bytee

\15 R P n$ S " S n $ r F R ClS0clHnneh (1-24) J2

c.Go o o o I R
lga I bftB (246)

R P ^s r s " s " g , F R
DSOchannels (1-24

c.Go o o o I R
194 | bltl

z6

ze
eP"S'S"9"$rF R DSo channl8 (1-24't

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c . c ' RR R q S R lm I bfts (24d)

z7

z7
F. P" Sr Sr8.g, F R

DSOchsnnolB

(r.24)

No, oflixod informdim bils = 4(19?) +3(1, = 77 I $1,$1- Surfflinfrnuatim bitr Cr, c! -Sutrmgor*rot bits R bitc ffe SxEdrtlfftte (uupdcifiod) O bits arsrctcrved fm futurupurpo*e

Sr, Sr" $r, 8r - Chmel-asso+iEtrd sigtalingbiB P1,Ps= Si8nrlingphuc indicdsr bits F=DSl *aftinebit R bih $e ItuEdsrtrbitr (uspociffed)

(a)

(b)

Figure 8.21 DSI mappings in VTl.5 SPE: (a) asynchronous;(b) byte synchronous.

(e.g.,SONETgateway), slipscansignals mayoccurattheSONETnetworkinterface VT1.5 adjust the nodes rate internal network because not occurwithin the SONET payloads with pointeradjustments.-

El Mappinge for DSls. used basicprocedures with thesame intoVT2 signals El signals aremapped of bytesin an of four columns As shownin Figure8.22,the VT2 signalis composed theVl, V2, V3, andV4 bytes, After removing l thatproduce a totalof 144bytes. STSEIs andbytesynmapped for asynchronously Formats has140bytes. theVT2 payload mapped Els areshownin Figure8.23.Noticethat thebyte-synchronous chronously signalingin slot 16-the El carrieschannel-associated mappingfor a 30-channel The same basic at theirinception. into El signals designed form of out-slotsignaling referredto as a signaling,which is sometimes format supportscommon-channel
' The original specifications for SONET included a locked timing format for VT-SPEs that eliminated the VT pointers so DSO channels could be identified directly within the STS-1. This mode of operation has since been abandoned,

422

FIBEROPTICTHANSMISSION SYSTEMS

I H{-l
toooootr

4Columne

I Rorrs

noom0l

EoomdO

)ffi|1

Ndcr:

n tr ffin il E ffiI n H
Figure 8.22

gRUfYE

9RsrYs

eRorw

l) A VTz'|H fo|f oolumr o,fm $pE fu 144bytesitr r Jfi) rxe, speftfi. 2) Vl, VA V3, V4 byta havefi xedlocd,iqs in r SPEi.ft'niffd by th lrd two tfrs of H4. 3) Vl sd V2 psid' to Vi wtid is the fir* byAa ofihe f,o*hg Vfit $fB 4) SFEovcrfad b]ics V5, J2,26, Z7 ooon h iders,icnl rddilo porttime of m SpE . Superframe skucture for VTZ tributaries.

3l-channelEl format.In this case channel 16is theccs channel andchannels l-15 and 17-31 arethebearer channels. Thus,themultiplexmapping just is not changed, the nomenclature of the channels andthe spE typedesignation in the vr pathoverheadbyte V5. 8.5.6 DS3 Payload Mapping Theprevious section describes several alternatives for packingvirtualtributaries into an sTS-l envelope. when all seven vrs in an envelope arevrl.Ss, a total capacity of 28 DSls is provided-rhe same as a DS3 signal.Thusonemethodof carryinga DS3 signalinvolvesdemultiplexing it into its consrituent DSI (or DSZ signals) and packing the constituents as virtual fributaries.This approach is attractivein that the virtual tributaries are individually accessible for cross-connect or add-dropmultiplexersystems. If theapplication doesnot needto access theindividualtributaries. it is simplerto packtheDS3 signaldirectlyinro an sTS-1,asindicated in Figureg.24. The payload mapping in Figure8.24treatsthe DS3 signalsimplyasa 44.736-Mbps datastream with no impliedintemalstructure. Thus,this mapping provides transparent transport of DS3-rate datastreams. Eachrow ofa nine-rowsPE envelope contains 87 x 8 = 696bits, whichcancarry 621or 622DS3databits depending on thevalueof theC bits.Noticerhatthisformat

8.5 SONET/SDH 423

v5
R R R R R R R R 256| btts @6) R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R

t** Saqfs
SByt

\,8

H B R R R R R R Unused elotO
Chahnels1-31 R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R

c.Go o o o R R
258I blt$

R R R R R R R R Unusd sk*O

(sa6)

R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R

T
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Chanreb l-31

R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R
E P ^ R R R R R R

c.Go o o o R R
256 | blte (ffi|
R R R R R R R R

alot0 Unusd SaBytes t.91 Chanrtels R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R

R R R R R R R R
C.GR R R R R q $tt I I I | | |

4Bytee

Unu*dstoto
flqB Channcls 1+1 R R R R R R R R

248| bltE (31)) R R R R R R R R

lgE1/0 B!/t68

No.offixed informdim btc : 4t256) -l - 1023 $r, Sr - Strffinfqfidiqr bits odrol bit$ Cr, Q = Stuffhrg R bits arcfillcd friffbiu (uspecificd) fm finm PuPocee O bits arerBffved

CA$bitgindund 16 bdiodor bits Pl, Po: SiEnrlinEFa$E R biteffcfixed *uffbttc (lE+Eifiod)

(a)

(b)

(b)bytesynchronous' (a)synchronous; in VT2SPE; Figure8.23 El mappings Thepathoverhasfive C bits,whichallowsfor singleanddoublebit errorcorrection. 8.5.3. in Section head(POH)bytescarrythe9 bytesof POH asdefined at the DS3rates is left asanexercise of theminimumandmaximum Determination endof thechapter. 8.5.7 E4 Payload Mapping is shownin Figure8.25for a 139.264mapping of a soNET supenate one example (E4). into a 155-52-Mbps This signalis packed ITU-T signal Mbps fourth-level payload envelope only the (or 8.25 synchronous shows Figure STS-3c STM-I) signal.

424

FIBEROPTICTRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

87(8) -096 Bit$

POH

8 R

c c

1
I

1 1 1 1 1 111 CCRBRRRR

l 11rr11 R

ccRRooRs I

POH POH: R; C: l: S; O;

CCRRRRRR

ccRRooRs I

Path overheadh^e I Fixed etuff bit (realed) 69 Stutf controt bit s lnformstion (paytoad) bit 621 Stuff opportunity bit l Ovsrheadcommunications bit 2 Totalbie 6S

NotF: $ contains information when CCCCC - 00000. S is a stuff bit whn CCCCC= fl 111. Figure 8.24 Asynchronous 44.736-Mbps (DS3) payload mapping.

l+87(3)=261

Bytes
Y

121

r2l

t2l

121

\
1 POH 131

121

12r

z z

tzl

FOH

131
l 241 5 13 1 IEI

t2l

121

121

POH: Prth ovrhead bVte t : Information (payload) byte X: CRRRRROO Y; R R R R R R R R Z: iiiiiisR

Toral bytec

o;

C: Stuft control blt R: Fixd stuff bit

Overheadcommunlcationsbir S; Stuff opportunity bit i: Infomation bit

Noto: S contslne informstion when CCCCC:00000. $ ie s atuff bit whon CCCCC* t1 tlt. Figure 8.25 Asynchronous 139.264-Mbps (E4) payload mapping.

B,s soNET/sDu 425 in eachrow. Noticethat there (SPE-3c), andline overhead not the 9 bytesof section ThePOH bytescarrythe 9 envelope. is only onecolumnof POH within the SPE-3c in Section 8.5.3. bytesof overhead asdefined signala$a transpar* the 139.264-Mbps Thepayload mapping in Figure8.25treats enEachrow of a nine-rowSPE-3c with no impliedinternalstructure. entdatasfteam or 1935databits depending whichcancarry 1934 87 x 3 =261 bytes, velope contains on the valueof the C bits. Noticethatthis formatalsohasfive C bits, which allows for singleanddoublebit errorcolrection.

8.5.8 SONETOpticalStandards "mid-span-meet" of $ONET equipThe optical interface standard [36Jdefinedfor of the fibers.Generation on single-mode mentallowsfor eitherNRZ or RZ line codes inFigure8.26.The shown a scrambleras OC-N signalfromtheSTS-Nsignalrequires the shift register to all to eachSTS-Nframeby presetting is synchronized scrambler the lastCl byte of the STS-Nsectionoverhead. I's immediately after transmitting A miniThus,the framecodes(A1,A?) andSTS-I ID (Cl) codearenot scrambled. by the Al, A2, andCl bytesalongwith the is assured mum level of timing content sewith thescrambler bits of theSTS-Nframethatareanticoincident staticoverhead pointof everyframe, everybit poatthe$ame quence. is preset thescrambler Because value.Thus,when static the samescrambler sition in successive framesexperience the samedatavaluesarise.(The is "exclusiveored" with the scrambler, overhead datainto a different patternof fixed data.) merelyconvertsfixed overhead scrambler of 40 km or less.Equipment is I x l0-I0 fbr opticalsections The BER objective with disfor applications manufacturers can be freely interchanged from separate joint engineering. (Transmitters and mayrequire up to 25 km. Longerdistances tances suppliersmust be jointly specifiedto supportlonger disfrom separate receivers tancefr.) nm with at 1310 wavelengths with central to operate SONETsystems arespecified sMF fibersor at 1550nm with Ds-sMF fibers.operationat l3l0 nm with Ds-sMF butmustbejoinfly engineered. fibersor at 1550nm with SMFfibersis not disallowed widthsis and maximumallowablespectral tolerances A rangeof laserwavelength
DEIEIn

Figure t.26 SONETscrambler.

4?;6

FIBEHOPTICTRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

TABLE8.10 Fepreeentative MaximumSpectrat Widthsof SONET Sources",0 SONET Source

Bate (Mbp$)

<25km 30nm 1Snm 1Onm Bnm

<40km 25.0 nm 1 0 . 0n m 7.5 nm 6.0 nm

oc-1 oc-3 oc-9 oc-12

51.84 155.5? 466.56 622.08

eThe spectral width of a $ource is determinedas the wavelBngthdif{erencebetweenth6 p6ak mod and the farthBstmode thet iB 10 dB b6low the peak. DThese specificationsare for lasBrsopratingwithin 10 nm of th6 cntral wavlBngths(1310 end 1550 nm). Lasef,swith greater deviation lrom the cntral wavelength - are allowed but haG nariower spcrratwldth spcifications to compensatetor oraterfibr di8perslon.

specified for both 1310and1550nm.Table8.l0 provides representative values of the specifications. 8.5.9 SONET Networks A basicblock diagram of a soNET networkis shownin Figureg.27.Gateway network elements (GNEs)provideinterfaces (asynchronous) to external digital signals. Thesesignalsare mapped(synchronized) and unmapped (desynchronized) by the gateway usingtheappropriate mapping formar.At this point only bit stuffingis used to synchronize theasynchronous tributaries to SONET.No pointera-djustments occur in theGNE.As thesTS-Nsignals propagate tluoughthenetwork, pointeradjustmenrs in pointerprocessing (PP) interfaces nury be appliedat internalnetworkelements (NEs),but thelower level interface mappings thatoccurat theGNEsareuntouched. If a particular NE accesses vr payloads, vr payloads in rhesame vr grouprharpass throughthenodemayexperience vT pointeradjustments. otherwise, vlr pointeradjustments do not occur(onlythesTS-l levelsignals arerateadjusred). Thefottowing paragraphs summarize pointerprocessing aspects of a SONETnetwork: justificationevents I' Pointer (pJEs)neveroccurin an originating GNE. 2. A desynchronizer experiences continuouspJEs only as a result of a synchronization difference between the originatingGNE and the terminating

Figure t.27 soNET network elements:s, synchronizer;pp, pointer processor;D, desynchronizer,

8.5 soNEr/sDn 427 at intemal nodesof a SONET differenceVfailures GNE.* Synchronization getremoved when pointer but these adjustments, continuous networkproduce source GNE. to the througha nodethatis synchronized the SPEpasses The first is a resultof a reference reasons. 3. PJEburstsoccurfor two possible localclockto alignit with of a node's phase adjustment switchanda subsequent Burstscanalsooccurasa resultof clocknoise of the newreference. the phase In orderfor pointeradjustments. producing near-simultaneous in multiplenodes gateway, all of the propagate a desynchronizing to these to adjustments all of This can only threshold. path appropriate be must at the elastic storesin the produced behavior some abnormal if the source GNE haspreviously happen of wander. a ratherlargeamount or sustained suchasa lossof a reference VT it is signal unless affect a does not SPE pointer level A at the adjustment 4. haPpens adjustment to particular VT and that the passed node that to a accesses VT the when this level. occurs, the Even movement VT at causea pointer to the pointeradjustment mustpassthroughthe network(withoutabsorption) On average' outgoing signal. gateway tributary to affectthe desynchronizing a PJEat theVTl.5 level. at the STS-1levelproduces oneof every30 PJEs circuit (PP)depictof anSPEsynchronization Figure8.28showsa blockdiagram (desynchronizes) theSPEpayexhacts processing: one half ing two halves of pointer to the localSTS-I the SPE loadfrom a received signalandtheotherhalf synchronizes payload from the redata block extractsthe frame rate. The RX pointer processing blockmonistore. TheTX pointerprocessing it to theelastic ceivedsignalandpasses to maintain a tors the fill level of the elastic store and makespointer adjustments to be on theorderof The sizeof theelasticstoreonly needs nominallevelof storage. 8 bytesin length,not a full frame.Theability to usea relativelysmallelasticstore(as network)is oneof thefeain theasynchronous elasticstores to frame-length compared are allowedto The payloads architecture: synchronization turesof a pointer-based frame boundaries' the STS-l respect to float with Frequency of Palnter Justlllcation Events prito a common thatis traceable If all NEsof a SONETislandusea timingreference clock (PRS), occuronly asa resultof distribution-induced PJEs source maryreference offset.Thus,whenall NEs aresynchrofrequency no sustained thatproduces wander of PJEsoccurat randomtimesandhaveequalnumbers nizedto the same reference, values positiveandnegative overthelongrun. NEs within failureat some PJEsoccuronly whenthereis a reference Continuous plesiochronous in a to operate designed a SONETislandor theislandis intentionally at someinternalnodeof the SONETisland,the failureoccurs mode.If thereference resultingPJHs areremovedat the next nodein the paththat is still lockedto the same at a GNE mustdeal NE. Thus,a tributarydesynchronizef reference as the gateway
*This statement assumesthat the terminating GNE synchronizes incoming SPEs to a local clock before they urrive at the desynchronizer.

428

FIBEH oPTIcTRANSMIsSIoN SYSTEMS Odrr SPEe

Ovtrterd datr

Flgure t.28 Block diagram of SPEsynchronizing equipment: RX, receiver; TX, transmitter. with continuous PJEs only when there is a referencefailure in either the originating GNE or in the rerminating GNE.

widths to smooththe effects of (l) isolatedpointer adjustments,(2) continuouspointer adjustments,(3) pointer adjustment bursts, or (4) combinations of the latter two. A pointer burst is defined as the occurrenceof multiple pointer adjustmentsof one polarity occurring within the decaytime of the desynchronizercircuit (i.e., the reciprocal of the desynchronizerclosed-loop PLL bandwidth). Thus. it is ironic rhat as the clock recovery bandwidth is narrowed to smooth the effect of a burst, the probability of a burst occurrenceis increased(by definition only). Extremely nrurow pLL bandwidths are easiestto implement using digital filtering techniquescommonly referredto as bit leaking. Bit leaking is essentiallya mechanismfor converting byte-sizedpointer adjustments into bit- (or fractional-bit-) sized timing adjustmenrs. Figure 8.29 shows a block diagram of a microprocessor-controlledDSl desynchronizer. The microprocessoris used to perform long-term averaging ofphase ad-

SONETDetynchronizers soNETdesynchronizers are necessarily designed withverylowclock recovery band-

DSI ertrrctlon

Ml3 multlplerer

Figure 8.29 VTl.5 desynchronizer hardware functional components.

RINGS 8.6 SONET

425

largecounters andwide word sizes justments logic thatrequires in lieu of dedicated is to deterDSPfiltering.Thefirst functionof thernicroprocessor for low-bandwidth adjustby all frequency offsetrepresented DSI payload frequency mine theaverage After andsTs pointeradjustments). (bit stuffs,vT pointeradjustments, mentevents that a stuff ratio valueis calculated is determined, adjustment frequency the average (TheM12 stage is embedded in theM13 into a DS3signalasshown. allowsinsertion in the The elasticstorefill level is usedfor very long term adjustments multiplexer.) andfor limits of theDSPcalculations thatarisefrom finite precision outputfrequency to the in theDS3clock,whichis typicallynotsynchronized variations accommodating line clock. SONET

8.6 SONETHINGS of largeswitchingmaearlierin this book,the development As hasbeenmentioned hasimpacted large sections cross with extremely systems transmission chinesand leva trend fewerhierarchical toward with architectures network telecommunications on the operadependence is increased of this trend consequence els.An undesirable paths.A SONET and fiansmission tional statusof individual switchingmachines thatspecifinetwork architecture ring, or moresimplya SONETring,is a self-healing rings areshown of self-healing Two basictypes networksurvivability. cally addresses bering. Themaindifference ring anda bidirectional in Figure8.30:a unidirectional aree$of a duplexconnection tweenthetwo typesof ringsis how thetwo directions tablished. to bothhalves ring a singletimeslotof theentirering is assigned In a unidirectional As indicated in Figure8.304,traffic is normallycarriedonly on the of a connection. In the pathusedfor protection. (unidirectional) workingpathwith thecounterrotating the A to B, but from directly (out be carried of an might OC-48) an STS-1 example, ring, A. A bidirectional C and D to B through from be carried would returning STS-1 overthe shortest ofthe duplexconnection both halves on the otherhand,establishes asa pure fiber andanother working as a identified pathin the ring. Thus,no fiber is trip for provide delays round shorter rings pureprotection fiber.Because bidirectional prefened mode of it of time slotson thering, is the andallowreuse mostconnections do not applications access for interofficenetworks.Rings for subscriber operation carry muchtraffic betweenADM nodesand thereforearemore suitedto a unidirectionalmodeof operation. 8.6.1 Unidirectlonal Path-Switched RIng path-switched ring (UPSR)[38] transmits As shownin Figure8.31,a unidirectional the sameinformationfrom A to B in both directionsaroundthe ring. Normally, only a nodecan$enode;If a failureoccurs, by thereceiving theworkingpathis accessed of shownselection Noticethatin theexample channel. lectthedataon theprotection A to B' from path shorter for the connection leads protection path to a the actually

430

FIBEH oPTIcTRANSMISSIoN SY$TEMS

psth Protc{ion

(*)

(b)

Figure 8.30 (a) Unidirectionaland(b) bidirectionalrings.

8.6.2 Bldirectlonat Line-$witched Ring Bellcoredefinesrwo versions of bidirectional line-switched rings (BLSRs)I39l: a two-fiberBLSR anda four-fiberBLSR.on a two-fiberBLSRprotecrion is provided by reserving bandwidth in eachof two counterrotating fiber paths(Figureg.32).If all trafficis to beprotected, only 507o ofthe totalsystem capacity canbeused. Undernormal conditions connections between two nodes utilize the shortest pathbetween the nodes'If a fault in eitherdirectionof hansmission occurs, the nodes adjacent to the faultperformring switches asindicated. A ring switchinvolves switching trafficfrom working channels of thefailed facility to spare channels of theotherfacility on the side of the nodeon which the fault occurs.The protection-swirched traffic propagate$ all theway around thering,beingignored by intervening nodes, until it is switched back

8.6 SONET RINGS

431

Wofting Path

Path Protoction PathTerminatlon

protection swirching. FigureE.31 UPSR (inby the othernodenextto thefault.Noticethatall nodes to theworkingchannels in the same working channels on to the fault) communicate cluding thenodesadjacent mannerasthey did beforethe protectionswitching.That is, the pathterminationsare switchis anincrease path.Themainimpactof theprotection not partof theprotection datawhen the (and of exkaneous insertion a momentary in delay for affectedtraffic switchoccurs). for eachdirecOn a four-fiberBLSR(Figure8.33)two pairsof fibersareprovided pair for protection pair and another tion of kansmission-one bidirectionalworking physion different are carried of the first pair. Thus,working andprotectionchannels of distance shortest to use the arenormallysetup cal facilities.Again,connections

ion Switches

.if:-*-

West nodes

Esst nodes

West nodes

East nodes

Figure 8.32 Two-FiberBLSR protectionswitches

432

FIBEROPTICTHANSMISSION SYSTEMS

Protgdion

*\ \ Prt""tion p"i,

Working Pair/

RlngProtsdlon$rritches

wo*ing e"ii

Figure 8.33 Four-Fiber BLSRprotection switches. Notethata ring switchanda spanswitch cannot coexistwithoutchannel switching anda reduction in capacity, travel for each side of a connection.If a failure occurs on only a working facility, protection switching occurs similar to "span switching" of a point-to-poini system:The traffic is merely switched to and from the protection facility by nodesadjacent to the fault. However, if a fault affects both the working and the proiection facilities, a ring switch is neededas shown. Again, protection-switchedtraffic propagatesall the way around the ring without being accessed by intervening nodes.eil traffic accesses still occur on the working channelseven though the sameinformation is passingthrough the nodesin the protection path. A four-fiber BLSR obviously requires more facilities rhar a two-fiber BLSR but has numerousadvantages. First, the protectedcapacity of the systemis twice as large. second, fiber failures on only the working pair can be accommodated by a spanswitch with minimal disruption to traffic. Third, multiple separate failures can tccur on working pairs and be accommodatedby multiple span switches.Fourth, the presence of a spare pair simplifies maintenancetesting and possible upgrading of facilities. For thesereasons,a four-fiber BLSR is generally favored.

REFERENCES
F' P. Kapron,D. B. Keck, and R. D. Maurer,"RadiationLossesin Glassopticar Waveguides," Applied Physics l*rrers, Nov. I g70,pp. 4Z34ZS. "urtimateLow-Loss T' Miya, Y. Terunuma, T. Hosaka, andT. Miyashita, singleMode Fibreat 1.55pm," Electronic l*tter.r, Feb.1979, pp. 106-10g. D. Large,"The Star-Bus Network:Fiber Opticsto the Home,"CED Magazine,Jan. r989. R. olshansky,v. A. Lanzisera, and p. M. Hil, "subcarrierMurtiplexedLightwave systems for Broadband Distribution," Journalof Lightwave Tethnilogy, sep-t. 19g9, pp. 1329-1342.

430 REFERENoES An HistoricalPerspectle,"IEEE in optical Fibercommunications: 5 T. Li, ,'Advances 1983'pp. 356-372, Apr. in Communicatfons, Areas Joumalon Selected "Lightwave pp' Dec' 1985' himet" IEEElourrutl of QuantumElectronics' 6 P. S.Henry, 1862-1877. 7 J. R. Stauffer, ',FT3C-A Lightwave system for Meffopolitan and Intercity Apr. 1983'pp. Areasin Communications, IEEE Journal on Selected Applications," 413-419. "Introduction in to LightwaveSyst'ems," 8 P. S. Henry,R. A. Linke, andA. H. Gnauck, Press, San Eds.,Academic l l, S.Mitler andI. P. Kaminow; OpticalFiberTransmission pp.781-832. Diego,1988, "TenesnialIntercityTransmission in Optical Systems," Gloge and I. Jacobs, D. C, 9 hess, san Diego, II, s, Miller andI. P. Kaminow,Eds.,Academic Fiber Transmission 1988. D. L. Howells, "High Capacity Lightwave TechnologyComes of Age," AT&T l0 pp.l0*15' No.4, 1988, Technology,Vol.3, "FT Series G Lightwave N. M. Denkin,and K. Ogawa, 1l W. C. Mara, J. S. Linnell, IEEE capability," upgrade Architecture and system Transmission Digital pp. I 9B'3.I - I 98.3'5. ions,1987, InternationalConferenuon Communicat "Analysisof Mode Partition IEEE Systems,* Noisein LaserTransmission l2 K. Ogawa, pp' 1982, 849-855. May Electronrcs, of Joumal Quantum ..An OpticalRepeater InputAmplifrer,"Bell,$ystem with High-Impedance 13 J. E. Goell. pp. 629-&3' Joumal,Apr. 19?4, Technical "mBlC CodeandIts Performance in an Optical 14 N. Yoshikai,K. I. Katagiri,andT. Ito, Feb. 1984,pp. on,communications, system,"IEEE Transactions communications 163-168. "High-speedcMI optical Intraoffice and K. Aida, Y. Kobayashi, 15 K. Hagishima, Areasin IEEE Joumal on Selected DesignandPerformance," System: Transmission 1457' pp. 145 I Dec. 1986, Comtnunications, "Overviewof FDDI: The FiberDistributed IEEE .lournalon DataInterface," 16 F. Ross. pp. 1043-1051. Sept.1989' in Communications, SelectedAreas "A High-Reliability565 Mbit/s Trunk R. Brooks, and R. Dawes, l7 P. Cochrane, Dec. Areasin Communicatiorts, System,"IEEE Joumal on Selected Transmission pp. 1396-1403. 1986, "NLl Submarine /EEEfoumal on Selected System," l8 R. L. WilliamsonandM. Chown, Apr. 1983'pp' 454-458' in Communications, Areas "Byte-orientedDc Balanced(0.4) 88/108 and A. x. widmer, 19 P. A, Franaszek Dec.4' 1984. 4,488,'739, Code,"U.S.Patent Block Transmission Partitioned Networks, and.I/OforComputer Fibre Channel GigabitCommunications 20 A. F. Benner, 1996. McGraw-Hill,New York, "The First Transpacific OpticalFiberSubmarine 21 Y, Niro, Y. Ejiri, andH. Yamamoto, June1989'pp. on Communicafians, IEEE IntemationalConference CableSystem," 50.1.r-50,1.5. "Line CodeandTerminalConfiguration fbr 22 N. Yoshikai.S. Nishi. andJ. L Yamada, Areas IEEE Journalon Selecteil System," OpticalTransmission Very Large-Capacity pp. 1432-1437. Dec. 1986, in Communicafians,

434

FTBEH oplc rRANSMtsstoN sysrEMs

"F-1.6G 23 H. Kimura and K. Nakagawa, systemoverview," Review of the Electrical Communications LaboratoriesNTTJapan,Vol. 35,No. 3, I 9g7, pp. ZIV_ZZS. 24 s' s. wagner and H. Kobrinski, "wDM Apprications in Broadband Telecommunications Networks,"IEEE communications Magazine,Mar. 19g9,pp. 22_30. "Terrestrial 25 R. J. sanferrare, Lightwavesystems," Ar& T Technical Journal, Jan7qeb. 1987. 26 S. S. Wagner, H. L, Lemberg, H. Kobrinski,L. S. Smoot,andT. J. Robe,,.A passive PhotonicLnop ArchitectureEmployingwavelength-Division Multiplexing,',IEEE Globecom Proceedings, l gSS, pp.48.l, t -48.1.5. 27 N. K. Dutra, "[I-v Device Technologies for Lightwave Applications,l'AT&z Technical Joumal,Jan./Feb. 1989, pp. 5-l g. 28 P. R. Trischitta andD. T. s. chen, "Repeaterless undersea Lightwave systems ,- IEEE Communications Magafine,Mar. I 989,pp. I 6_2l. 29 s. c. Mettlerandc. M, Miller, "optical Fibersplicing,,,in optical Fiber Transmission I I ' s' Mller andI. P. Kaminow,Eds.,Academic hess, sanDiego,r 9gg,pp.263-300. ..Fiberin rhe 30 J. B, HaberandJ. W. Rogers, Loop," AT&T Technology, Vol. 3, No. 4, 1988, pp.2-9. 31 N. Yamaguchi, K. Yarnane, and T. Kihara,"565-Mbit/soptical Fiber Transmission System," Fujitsu Science and Technology Journal,Mar. 19g9, pp. 60_63. 32 "Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)-Basic DescriptionIncluding Multiplex Structure, Rates andFormats," Tl.l05-lgg5, ANSI, New york, 1995. 33 "synchronousoptical Network (soNET)-payload Mappings,"T1,105.02-1995, ANSI, New York. 1995. 34 Recommendation G.707, "Network Node Interfacefor the synchronousDigital Hierarchy (SDH),"ITU-T, Geneva, Switzerland, Mar. 19g6. ..soNET Intra-office 35 N. B. sandesara, T. H. Jones, and A. G. Edwards, Interconnecr p Signal,"IEEE Glob g g, ecom roce gs, I 9 pp. 30.5. edin I _30.5.7. 36 "synchronousoptical Network (soNET) Transportsystems:common Generic Criteria,"GR-ZS3-Core, Bellcore, Morristown, NJ. Dec. 1995. 37 N. Zhang, K,-H. Liu, and E. c. posner,"Reriablepayroadpointer protocol for Synchronous Optical Network," IEEE InternationalCommunicatittns Conference Proceedings, I 989,pp. l4.Z.l-l 4.2.j. 38 "soNET Dual-Fedundirectionalpath swirchedRing (upsR) EquipmentGenedc Criteria,"GR-1400-Core, Bellcore, Jan.1999. 39 "soNET Bidirectional Line-swirched Ring Equipment Genenc criteria," GR-l230-Core, Bellcore, Dec.1993.

PROBLEMS
8.1 Determine tle attenuationg, in decibelsper kilometer such that the loss limit of a Sfi)-Mbps fiber system is exactly equal to the dispersion limit. Assume the transmitteroutput is 30 dB abovethe receiverthresholdfor the desirederror rate and that the systemhas a BDp of g0 Gbps-km.

PROBLEMS 435

with 2 dB/kmloss fiber system So-Mbps graded-index, multimode, 8.2 An 850-nm, the area Assume bus network. in thefiber is to beusedfor a token-passing local pair. If a source-detector in Tables8.1 and 8.2 as system usesthe first entries of loss passive with 0.4 dB many taps how theBDPof thefiberis 500Mbps-km, transmitters between thedistance perkilometer withoutaffecting canbeinserted andreceivers. in hoblem 8.2if thedata limit (withouttaps)of thesystem 8.3 Whatis thedistance to l0 MbPs? rateis reduced at 8.4 A graded,multimodefiber exhibits 100psec/kmnm of chromaticdispersion nm of usingan LED having40 the BDP of a NRZ system 850nm. Determine width. specrral limited at both using 1300and 1550nm is dispersion 8.5 A WDM SMF system be related? of the two $ources bandwidths How mustthe spectral wavelengths. = nm') psec/kmnm at 1550 = 3.5pseclkm (AssumeD nm at 1300nmandD 17'5 and mBlC line 8.6 What is the minimum and maximumpulsedensityof mBlp codes? that canoccurin mBlP andmBlC line 8.7 What is the longeststringof no pulses codes? havdatawith 6-bit line codes all4 bitsof source 8.8 A 486B line codecanencode codesare left ing exactlythreepulsesin everycode.How manydc-balanced overfor link control? mapped theminimumandmaximumdatarateof an asynchronously 8.9 Determine DSI signalthatcanbe caried within a VTI-5 envelope. mapped of anasynchronously datarates theminimumandmaximum 8.10 Determine within a VT2 envelope. El signalthatcanbe carried DS3payof anasynchronous datarates theminimumandmaximum 8.11 Determine within an STS-1envelope. loadthatcanbe carried the minimumandmaximumB[ dataratesthat canbe accommodated 8.12 Determine envelope. within an STS-3c all time of an STS-1signalassuming frameacquisition the average 8.13 Determine of 0 or 1' bits haveequallylikely randomvalues nonframing signal' L13 for an STS-3c 8.14 Repeat Problem (STM-1)signal. of a STS-3c capacity thepayload 8.15 Determine

TELEPHONY MOBILE DIGITAL

by dividing capacity is to provideever-increasing ofa cellularsystem A basicconcept thecell reuse. frequency Unfortunately, sizes to increase andsmaller cellsinto smaller for locations in termsof findingsuitable to be impractical hasproven divisionconcept from govconstructionauthorizations andfor gettingrepeated basestationantennas in theearly1990s for mobiletelephones demand Theexplosive erningorganizations. thedevelopment helped stirnulate world in elsewhere the States the and United within havebeenpurapproaches Two basic the demand. to of new Sy$tems accommodate new freand allocating of $y$tems existing capacity channel the sued:expanding digital utilize new All systems of the phone service. mobile quency to cellular bands systems cellular by analog transmission used FDM of the analog in lieu transmission TAcs in GreatBritain,andNMT in scandinavia. suchasAMPS in North America, of lowtheavailability areenabledby systems cellular digital viable Commercially problems in several to provide solutions processing to technology signal costdigital low enough into a signal speech a digital to compress necessary it is First, key areas. penalty with respect a spectrum notimpose does bit ratethatdigitalvoicetransmission haveadalgorithms compression speech 3, in Chapter As discussed system$. to analog efspectrum provide cases, can, point in some thatdigitization vanced to the Sreater to a transmission of digital the application Second, ficiency than analogsy$tems. of dyeffects the to overcome equalizer a sophisticated requires mobileenvironment of the speech Third, the susceptibility impairment$. namic multipathtransmission and conection sophisticated error requires errors to channel algorithms compression archisystem digital and the voice coders low-bit-rate Lastly,the controlmeasures. the whichimposes artificialdelayinto thevoicechannel, significant introduce tectures quality' voice for acceptable needfor echocancelers

9.1 NORTHAMERICANDIGITALCELLULAR Digital Cellular(NADC),alsoknownasUS Digital Cellular(USDC) NorthAmerican from the previouslydea digital upgrade or Digital-AMPS(D-AMPS),repre$ents Advanced Mobile Phone Service to as referred ployed analog cellular system 437

438

DIGITAL MoBILE TELEPHoNY

(AMPS).The D-AMPS sysrem is designed to be compatible with AMps. In fact. a D-AMPS $ystem installation cancoexistwith an AMPS installation, thusallowinga gracefulmigrationfrom an all-analog service to an all-digitalservice. An analog_todigital migrationis supported by a dual-mode phonethat can operate as an AMps phonein onecall andasa D-AMPSphoneon thenextcall. D-AMpS is standardized by EIA/TIA asInterimStandards IS-54and15-136. 9.1.1 D.AMPSTransmlssion Format The most significanr aspect of maintaining compatibilitywith AMps is the needto adhere to theAMPSFDM channel structure. Thischannel structure uses 30-kHz-wide channels in therange 824-8g4MHz.within each 30-kHzFDM channel IS-s4defines six digitalchannels operating in a timedivisionmultiple-access (TDMA) modeof op_ eration, asshown in Figure9.1.Transmission from a base station to themobiles is accomplished with a continuous TDM stream with six time slots.Transmission from eachof themobiles occurs in databursts thataretimedto arriveat thebasestation in separate, nonoverlapping time slotssynchronized to theoutgoing time slots.Associ_ atedwith eachburstfrom a mobileis a guardtime to prevent overlapandprovidea traxsmitter ramp-uppreceding the data.The guardtime between time slotsis minimizedby adjusting thetransmittime of the mobileswith controlmessages from the basestation. These adjustments aredynamicto accommodate mobility. The TDMA digital transmission frameformat within each30-kHzchannel containssix time slotswith a total of l9zl4 bits. The repetition rateof eachframeis 25 frames per second, whichleads to an aggregate bit rateof 49.6kbpsin the30 kHz of bandwidth.The modulationformat is r/4 shifted,differentially encoded, quadrarure phase shift keying.This formatis essentially 4-psK modulation with two four-point constellations offsetfrom eachotherby nl4 radians. By alternating between constellations,a symboltransition of at leastn/4 radians is alwaysassured-a property that helpsin symbolclockrecovery. Full-ratevoicecodingutilizestwo time slotsin eachframefor the voiceinformation. Thus,the system capacity with full-ratevoicecodingis threetimesthat of an AMPS system sincetherearethreeTDM voicechannels within eachFDM channel.

Baee

station *-

ilrobiles

fJ

ff

f-J

+-

*-Fig're 9.1

r-f

f-r

l+E

TDMA transmission format of NorJh American dieital cellular.

CELLULAR 439 OIGITAL 9.1 NORTH AMERICAN

expansion will in the future,the capacity voicecodinggetsimplemented If half-rate be sixfold. 9.1.2 D-AMFS$peech Godlng (VSELP)coding linearpredictive is vectorsumexcited Thespeech-coding algorithm processes the VSELP D-AMPS algorithm 3. The is in Chapter described which [], is represegment Eachspeech of 20 msecduration. waveformin segments speech in eachTDMA frame,theraw by 159bits.Sincetherearetwo VSELPframes senred 5050 datarateof the voiceis 2 x 159x 25 = 7950bps.To the raw bit dateis added a composite, anddetection to produce for errorcorrection encoding bpsofredundancy As shownin Figure9.2, thereare datarateof 13 kbpsfor a voicechannel. aggregate the bits in eachtime slot.Table9.1 describes 260 datachannel bits and64 overhead basicuseof eachdatafield within thetime slots, 9.1.3 D-AMPSControlGhannel thedigitalnature of D-AMPS expansion, capacity to providinga threefold In addition in ananaor atleastdifficult to achieve provides thatarenotpossible otheradvantages to ensure is useof theCDVCC channel suchasAMPS.The first of these log system mobiles.AMPS utilizes a with intended connections that a basestationmaintains with supervisory audiotones(SATs).A SAT is a toneat 5970,6000' similarfeature for detectfrom theaudiosignalspecifically andremoved or 6030Hz thatis inserted integrity.The availabilityof only threetones connection ing fadesand ascertaining these tonesare significalt andrepeating detecting, and the complexityof inserting, limitationsof AMPS. the provided of D-AMPSinvolves by thedigitalnature advance A moresignificant is always thischannel in each time slot.Because embedded useof theSACCHchannel information conkol and supervision present, it is quite useful for communicating uses ofthis contol chanadvantageous Specific, while speech is activelyin progress. It0

rs0
CDYCC

t2
HFVD

sYl{c

EACG}I

DATA

DATA

Brrt thtlon to Mobl|t

tt

n
DATA

t2
SACCH

12

lfr DATA

F G DATA 8YI{G

eDvcg

MobllotoBrrt sftd|on of NorthAmerican digitalcellular. f igure9.2 Timeslotformat

440

DtctrAL MoBtLE rELEpHoNy

TABLE9.1 DataFietdFunctions of D-AMPS TImeStots

CDVCC DATA

G R BSVD SACCH SYNC

codeddigilalv9rifhation colorcode.A unique codesentby a basestation and returned by eachmobile for basestation conlirmation of connection intogrity. Application bearer channel bit$(voice or data).can alsobe usedfor a fast associated control (FAcc) whenthereis no activeapplication channe_l or a situation arises whenapplication transmission needs to be usurped. Guard time.Mobile transmitter is off. Ramp tim.Mobile transmitter ramps up to assigned power level. (unused). Reserved slowassociated control channel. A continuous channel usedto sendconhol andsuperuisory information. synchronization channel. Used for synchronization, equalizer training, andtime slotidentification.

nel involve authentication, additional connection integrity, transmit power control, channelquality mea$urement reports,handoffs to a new cell, keypad depressions, and calling number identification. The SACCH control channelis also usedfor timing adjustments specific to the TDMA operation. A particular example of the usefulnessof the SACCH channelis its supportof mobile assistedhand off (MAHO). If a mobile with an establishedconnection moves from one cell to another,the processof handing the mobile off is performed with much more control and reliability than is possible in AMps. The MAHO processbegins by the base station telling the mobile to make channel quality mea$urements on the current chatrneland on candidatechannelsfor a potential handoff. Channel quality measurementsinvolve received signal power levels and bit error rates(BERs). The TDMA nature of D-AMPS facilitates measurements of candidatechannelsby tuning to the candidatefrequency during an inactive time slot. After each set of measurements the mobile sendsthe results to the basestation (via SACCH) whereuponthe basestation can determine if a handoff is justified.

9.1.4 D.AMPS ErrorControl

There are three mechanismsincorporated into D-AMPS for mitigating the effects of channelserrors: elror correction, error detection,and interleaving. Enor correction is implemented with a half-rate convolution coder for the perceptually most significant bits of the voice. There are 77 such bits out of a frame size of 159 bits. The half-rate convolution coding processthereforeadds77 more bits to the channel.Of the 77 bits, 12 are particularly important. A 7-bit CRC check sum is addedfor rhesebits to determine if any of these 12 bits are received in error. when a cRC enor occur$.certain critical parametersfrom the previous error-free frame are used to reconsg.uctspeech to avoid use of aberrant values. If several CRC errors are received in successive frames,the reconstructed speechis muted. The generalterm for theseoperationsis bad frame masking. The third error control mechanism involves separatingthe data in a single speech frame, interleaving it with datafrom adjacentspeech frames,and transmitting it in two

FoRMoBtLE sysTEM s.a GLoBAL coMMUNtcATloNS441 time slots. This processreducesthe possibility that a burst of errors will circumvent the error corection capabilitiesofthe convolutional coding. A drawback to interleaving is the delay it addsto the channel,which must be accountedfor in echo cancelers.

9.2 GLOBAL SYSTEMFOR MOBILECOMMUNICATION$ (GSM) [2] is a cellularmobilecommufor Mobile Communications GlobalSystem Teleconrmustandardized by theEuropean system afld nications developed in Europe worldwide (ETSI). adopted been Institute GSM hassubsequently nicationStandards standardization beon Initial work GSM astheintemational digitalmobilestandard. occuffed in 1991. ganin 1982. Thefirst field trial of a GSM system frequency spectrum Union (ITU) allocated Telecommunication The International (base station to mobile)and890-915MHz for the at 935-960MHz for thedownlink by wa$beingused Eventhoughsome of thisspectrum station). uplink (mobileto base with the existing to be compatible therewasno attempt established analogsystems, countries analogsystems in the variousEuropean plan. (The incumbent frequency a coflrmon otherandamaingoalof GSMwasto establish with each wereincompatible sobackward compatibilitywasnot a consideration.) standard 9.2.1 G$MChannelStructure with morefreeprovided designers GSM system with anopen-spectrumplan Starting most significant The to designers. was available D-AMPS system than domin design the 200-kHz-wide digital RF use of to is with respect D-AMPS difference in GSM GSM Each RF chanD-AMPS RF channels. as to the channels opposed 30-kHz-wide in 6, mentioned Chapter As modulation. Mbps GMSK nel operates at 270.833 using in as D-AMPS. modulation used to 4-PSK fairly related closely is GMSK modulation thantightly filtered4-PSIE however, requiremorebandwidttr GMSK modulation does, = 1.35bps/Hzfor GSM and of density 270.8831200 information asevidenced by an = modulation formatof GSMprovides The GMSK D-AMPS. for 48.6/30 1.6?bps/Hz power generation thanis RF is more for that efficient RF signal a constant-envelope important efficiency is most by This D-AMPS. filtered modulation used tightly 4-PSK for hand-held batterylife.. utilizesdigitalTDMA with eightfullAs shownin Figure9.3,a GSM RF channel by a single voicechannels suppor.ted full-rate in contrastto three rate voicechannels, on channels a single more TDMA D-AMPS RF channel.The ability to terminate (The of a 270'833stations. cost provides for GSM base a costadvantage transceiver TDMA transkbps TDMA transceiver is no differentthan the cost of a 48.6-kbps ceiver.) in 200 kHz of bandwidth, eightfull-ratevoicechannels The GSM system carries to Euroefficiencyidentical a specffum whichamounts to 25 kHz per voicechannel,
*As discussed below, GSM uses Iess speech compression than does D-AMPS, which Ieads to a higher rate digital channel for voice and in tum requites more ftansmit power.

442

DIGITALMOBILETELEPHONY

Baee

r-l ff

+-

G l{-

Mobilee

Figure 9.3 TDMA transmission formatof GSM. pean analog FDM systemsof the time. Thus, the introduction of the GSM systemdid not provide spectrumefficiency improvementsas D-AMps did. A GSM systemdoes, however, provide cellular systemefficiencies in that digital transmission,in general, and strong error correction, in particular, allow operation at lower signal-to-noiseratios' Greater noise or interference tolerance leads to longer transmission distances and/or greateramounts offrequency reuse. The burst period of a GSM systemis l?0/26/8 = 15126 ms. This burst period is derived from a 120-ms superframe consisting of 26 TDMA frames and g bursts per TDMA frame' Twenty-four frames of a 26-friune super frame are allocated to traffic (e.g.' voice) transmission while one of the frames is allocated to a SACCH control channel for each traffic channel. The last TDMA frame of a superframe is reserved. A unique aspectof GSM, with respecrro D-AMps, is that a TDMA burst format is usedin both directions of transmission,as opposedto only on the uplink from the mobile to the basestation.The format of thesebursts is shown in Figuie 9.4, where it can be seenthat there are 148 bits ofdata and an idle guard time correspondingto the period of 8'25 bits. The burst transmissionrate of a taffrc channel can now be determined as 156.25/r5D6= 270.833kbps.The fields within the burst areidentified in Table 9.2. The use of multiple bursts in the downlink direction, as opposed to continuous ffansmission,is advantageous in that it inherently allows tuming off the base station transmitterduring idle channels,which in turn reducesthe total amount of interference betweencells in a widespreadand congestedinstallation. An advantageof continuous transmission,as used in D-AMPS, is the relative easeof implementation and greater performanceof the digital receiver in the mobile.

15/26=0.577msec

Figure 9.4 Time slotformatof GSM burst.

FORMOBILE 9,2 GLOBAL SYSTEM COMMUNICATIONS443 TABLE 9.2 Data Field Functlons of G$M Tlme Slot Flag Guard Tail TCH Train

A single bitusedto signify voice or FACCH content in an associated TCHfield timing ldleperiod margin bursts of 8.25bitsinteruals between 3 "0"bitsfor equalizer training Fieldfor transporting dataor FACCH data bearer Fieldof fixeddatapattern usedto trainequalizers andacquire a dataclockfor theentire burst

9.2.2 GSM Speech Coding predictivecodingwith a long-term predictor regularpulseexcited-linear GSM uses in Chapter is described is diloop (RPE-LTP) 3. Speech [3]. TheRPE-LTPalgorithm eachof which is encoded vided into 2O-msec samples, as260 bits, giving a total bit rateof 13kbps.This is the original,full-ratespeech-coding An enhanced algorithm. full-rate (EFR) speech-coding algorithm has been implemented by some North qualityusing American operators. EFRis saidto provide improved GSM 1900 speech theexistingl3-kbpsbit rate. 9.2.3 GSM ChannelCoding and Modulation similarto D-AMPS.First of a]l. the 260 bits GSM utilizeserrorcontrolmechanisms frameatedividedinto threeclasses: of a speech ClassIa, 50 bits-most sensitive to bit errors Classlb, 132bits-moderately sensitive to bit errors ClassII, 78 bits-least sensitive to bit errors the Class for errordetection. Ia bits havea 3-bit CRCadded If anerroris detected, correctlyreceived versionof the previous frameis replaced by a slighfly attenuated (a total of 189 Ia, 3 CRC, 132ClassIb, anda 4-bit tail sequence frame.The50 Class for errorcorrection. The outencoder bits) areprocessed by a half-rate convolutional put of theconvolutional is added encoder to the 78 Class II bits to produce an aggregatespeech rate is frame of 456 bits. Thus, the redundantlyencodedspeech = 22.8kbps. 456tO.OZ0 To furtherprotectagainst is interleaved. The456bits thebursterrors, each sample aredividedinto eightblocksof 57 bits, and encoder of outputby the convolutional eightconsecutive time slotbursts. Since these a timeslotburst blocksarespread across samples. raf,fic from two differentspeech carries two 57-bitblocks,eachburstcontains 9.2.4 G$M Mobile Station (theterminal)anda of themobileequipment The GSM mobilestation(MS) consists personal smartcardcalledthe Subscriber IdentityModule(SIM). The SIM provides of a speto subscribed irrespective mobility,sothattheusercanhaveaccess services theuseris able the SIM cardinto another cif,rcterminal. By inserting GSM terminal,

444

DIGITAL MOBILE TELEPHONY

to receive callsat thatterminal, makecallsfrom thatterminal, andreceive othersubscribed services. The mobile equipment is uniquelyidentifiedby the Internarional Mobile Equipment Identity 0MEI). The SIM card containsthe Intemational Mobile Subscriber Identity(IMSI) usedto identifythe subscriber to the system, a secrer key for authentication,andotherinformation. The IMEI andthe IMSI areindependent, thereby allowing personal mobility. The sIM cardmay be protected against unauthorized use by a password or personal identitynumber. 9.2.5 GSM FrequencyHopplng Themobilestation is inherently frequency agile,meaning it canmovebetween a transmit, receive, andmonitortime slotwithin oneTDMA frame,all of whicharenormally on differentfrequencies. GSM makes useof this inherent frequency agility to implementslow frequency hopping-the mobileandBTS transmit eachTDMA frameon a differentcarderfrequency. The frequency-hopping algorithmis broadcast on the broadcast controlchannel. sincemultipathfadingis dependent on carier frequency, slow frequency hoppinghelpsalleviate theproblem. In addition, cochannel interferenceis morerandomthanwhenfixed-frequency allocations exist. 9.2.6 GSM Short Message $ervice (SMS)is an integrated ShortMessage Service bidirectional messaging service thatallows GSM cellularsubscribers, andvariousPCSofferings, to sendandreceive data. Individualmessagerr (with GSM)canbeup ro 160bitsin length. Because thesAccH is usedfor sMS datatransmission, messages canbe received or tran$mitted duringa voicecall. Initial applications of SMSfocused on alphanumeric pagingservices with fundamental differences: SMS is bidirectional and message deliveryis guaranteed. subsequent applications served by sMS arevoicemail notification, e-maildelivery, stockquotes, anddownloading/updating of SIM cards.

9.3 CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE.ACCESS CELLULAR The two digital cellularsystems discussed in the previoussections, D-AMps and GSM,utilizea combination of frequency divisionmultiplexing andtimedivisionmultiplexing+ asa method of partitioning a blockof allocated frequency spectrum into individual communication channels. This section discussessystems with a fundamentally differentapproach to channel definition-code divisionmultiple ac(CDMA)-that belongto a class cess referred to asspread spectrum cornmunications systems The term spread spectrum refers to the fact that [a]. transmission bandwidth
*Within a particular GSM cell it is conceivablethat a single FDM channel supportingeight TDMA channels is sufficient for sufficiently low traffic situations. Irr this case, the particular cell utilizes only TDMA. Nevertheless, the mobiles still suppott FDM operations so they can move to different cells and switch freouencies.

445 9.3 CODE DIVISIoN MULTIPLE.AG0ESS CELLUI.AR required by usedby anindividualchannel is muchwiderthantheinherent bandwidth havetraditionally themessage beingtransmitted. Spread systems beenused $pectrum where of implementation in militaryapplications theincreased complexity isjustified of a by two particularfeatures. First, it is relativelydifficult to detectthe presence is spread a wide bandandis spread signalbecause the signalenergy acro$$ spectrum oftenmasked by background noise.Second, it is moredifficult to jam a spread specjamming must energy be spread a wide trum signalbecause signal across bandas the performance to beingfocused into a relafivelynarrowband.The opposed of a spread to the pelformanceof receiversfor traditional narreceiveris comparable spectrum knowsandcansynchronize rowbandsignals aslong asthe spread receiver spectrum to themethod thespectrum. beingusedto spread Two general categories communications arefrequency-hopping of spread spectrum system systems modulation is one anddirect-sequence systems. A frequency-hopping in whichhansmission is confined at anyparticular instant to a relativelynarow band bandwidth of themessage. Instead of of frequencies commensurate with theinherent particular does, within as a conventional communications system a staying one band jumps large of within frequency-hopping between narrowbands frequencies a system prescribed manner. blockof spectrum in some As mentioned in theprevious section, with frequency hopping(specifically, hastheability to operate a GSM cellularsystem slowfrequency hopping). 9.3.1 CDMA Channel Establishment A contemporary cellular CDMA system,as developed by Qualcommand standrtpectrum in Interim uses ardizedby EIA/TIA Standard IS-95 [5], direct-sequerce spreading. One particularmethod of implementinga direct-sequence spectrum is shownin Figure9.5.In this system system the source datais "exclusive spreading ored"with a relativelylong digital codeword. In essence, the "exclu$ive or" process while a 0 of thesource replaces datais a I of thesource datawith thegivencodeword n bits, with thebitwisecomplement of thecodeword. If a codeword contains replaced signalis n timesaswideasif thesource data theoccupied spectrum of thehansmitted
Chip Rste Clock

Oanier generation of spread signal. Figure 9.5 Direct-sequence spectrum

446

DIGITALMOBILETELEPHONY

were directly transmitted.Signals of other CDMA channelsoccupy the sameband of frequenciesbut do so with different speckum-spreadingcodes,which allows separation of the signals in the signal processingcircuinry of a receiver. The basic processof separatingCDMA channelsin a receiver involves correlating a received signal with each of the various codewords (i.e., channels)assignedto the cell. The correlation processproduces a correlation measurementby subtractingthe number of mismatchesin a codeword from the number of matches.Table 9.3 lists an example set of codewordswith particularly useful correlation properties.As indicated in the table, a codeword has sevenmatcheswith itself and no mismatchesfor a net correlation of +7. A sourcedata value of 0 producesno matchesand sevenmismatches for a net correlation of -7. The measurement weights for all other codewordsareeither + 1 or - I , dependingon the valuesof the sourcedata. If all sevenchannelsdefined in Table 9.3 are active in a single cell, the worst-caseinterferencebetweenthe codesproducesan interferencevalue ofeither +6 or -6. Thus, the desireddata can be recovered with a discrimination threshold of 0 for each channel. (The worst-casenet measurement valuesare +l for a I and *l for a 0.) Notice that samecorrelation propeftiesexist for all channel codeswith respectto the other codesin the table. Example basebandwaveforms for the seven-channel CDMA sy$temof Table 9.3 are shown in Figure 9.6. Notice the channel0 receivermeasurement is positive, which implies a data value of l. In this example interferencefrom the adjacentchannelsactually enhancedthe channel 0 measurement from an expectedvalue of 7 to 9. Discriminating between nominal measurementvalues of +7 for a desired signal and +6 for worst-caseinterferenceis obviously very tenuous,particularly because the individual channels will be received with different power levels. It i$ importanr ro note, however, that an interferencevalue of +6 can arise only if the data values of all intedering channelsdestructively coincide. on average,the composite interference hasan averagevalue of0. The length ofa spectrum-spreading code in IS-95 is actually 64 bits long, which meansthat the example worst-caseinterferencewould be 63 in relation to a desiredchannel value of 64. The chancesof destructiveinterferencefrom all 63 channels,or even a large number of channels,is astronomically small.

TABLE9.3 ExampleDlrect-$aquence Spectrum-Spreading Godesa

ChannelNumber ChannelCode

Number of Matches 7 3 3 3 3 3 3

Numberof Mismatches 0 4 4 4 4 4 4

Net Correlation

0 1 2 3 4
c

111 0 0 1 0 0111001 101 11 0 0 0101110 0 0 1 01 11 10010 1 1 11 0 0 1 0 1

+7 -1
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1

aspectrum-spreading code of dsirBdchannel: 1110010.

9.3 CODEDIVISIoN MULTIPLE-ACCESS CELLUTAR 447

Chf,nnloCdi
Chnffid Numbcr ftti Vf,hr$

(0)

(1) 0 fr) 'l

(3) 0 ({) o
"-.' 1

(5) 0
(6) |

*i--j

Clilnnl0 Mtsrruttffil

Figure 9.6

Example seven-channel CDMA encoding and decoding.

interference of a 64-channel Example9.1. Determine theprobabilityof maximum CDMA system with 64-bit spreadingcodes. Also determine the effective powerratio of the same Assume signal-to-interference CDMA sy$tem. all channels powerlevelatthereceiver andthatall channel have operate effective codes atthesame a cro$s of+l bit. correlation interferers is merelythe probabilityof Solution. The probabilityof 63 destructive = (0.5)63 = of 63 equallylikely binary events:prob(maxinterference) occurrence of a codeword I x 10-1e. receivesignalis the autocorrelation The valueof a desired with itself andcanthereforeberepresented asa valueof 64. The interference level is with equallylikely values the sumof 63 binaryrandom numberrt of tl. Eventhough probabilitydistribution, a singleinterferer doesnot produce the sumof a a Gaussian large numberof independent randomvmiablesapproaches a Gaussian distribution (centrallimit theorem).The meanand varianceof an individual interfererareeasily Themeanandvariance determined to be 0 and l, respectively. of a sumof 63 such ratio is now variables are 0 and 63, respectively.The signal-to-interference determined as

S I R =l 0 t o g r o t i = l s d B

F'42

As presented in Chapter 6, the 18-dBSIR resultof Example 9.1is quitesufficient to supportan acceptable canbe elror rateif the effective powerlevel of all channels

448

DIGITAL MoBILE TELEPHoNY

maintained to be equal. In actual practice, a CDMA deployment does not use all possible codesin a single cell, just as an FDM sy$temdoes not use all frequenciesin one cell. Thus, the amount of interFerence in a cell is limited by the number of codes assigned to the cell and a lesseramount of interferencefrom adjacent cells (assuming the adjacentcells do not use identical, synchronousspectrum-spreading codes).The effect of varying power levels in the interfering channelsis coveredin someproblems at the end of the chapter.

9.3.2 CDMA Multlpath Tolerance A primaryadvantage of a CDMA transmission system is its robustness in thepresence of multipathconditions. The basicreason for multipathtolerance canbe appreciated by examining theexample givenin Table9.3.Noticethateachcodeis a cyclic codes shift of all othercodes in the table.Because the selected codes havelow correlation with eachother,a delayed version of anyparticular codehasthesame low correlation with anundelayed version of itself.Thus,theeffectof a multipath delayof morethan one spread spectrum bit (referredto asa chip) is no morethanthe effect of the interference fiom another cDMA channel, evenif thedelayed version is at the$ame power level astheprimarysignal. Theeffectof a multipath condition on a D-AMPSchannel maybemuchmoredeleterious. Because a D-AMPS system operates at a relativelynEurow bandof frequencies,it is possible that a complete fadeoccurs for a particular channel at a particular physical location. If theusermoves through thephysical location, theeffectof thefade is a momentary dropout. If theuserdwellsat thelocation, theconnection canbe lost unless a handoffoccur$ (to a new frequency and/oran adjacent cell). The slow frequency-hopping feature of GSM ameliorates the effectof a complete multipathfade to a greater degree, but not aseffectivelyasa cDMA system. In GSM theremay be momentary dropouts, but theyarenot longenough to cause a dropped connection and do not requirea handoff,evenif a userdwellsin a physicallocationwhereoneparticularfrequency is totally lost.In essence, thefrequency-hopping process ofGsM is equivalentto repeated andautomatic handoffsto different frequencies. Froma somewhat philosophical pointof view,thebasicintentof a GDMA system is to equalize theperformance of all channels in thesystem. In a FDIvI/TDMAsystem it is likely thatsome channels operate with veryhighperformance whileothers operate at very low performance or cannot be usedat all. Theexistence of high-performance channels doesnot compensate for the existence of low-performance channels. Thus, a system that equalizes the performance of all channels hasa greater total capacity. The primaryreason for variablechannel performance in FDIWTDMA is multipath fading.An FDM/TDMA transmitter typically operates with a certainamountof expowerreferred cess to asfademargin. Theexcess poweris notmuchof aproblem with adjacent-channel intetference because it is relativelyeasyto isolateFDM channels with frequency guard bands andTDM channels with time guard bands. cochannel in* terference from onecell to another is the crux of theproblem. If a particular channel

9.s coDEDrvrsroN MULTTpLE-AccEss cELLUIAR 449 power level, that channel cannot be reusedexcept at a rela' is operating at an exce$$ tively larger distance.

9.3.3 CDMAPowerControl
powercontrolof themobileunitsin a CDMA system is botha reEffectivetransmit quirement anda benefit.It is a requirement because a mobiletransmitter thatis close to a base receiver othermobiles in the same station will obliterate cell thatarefarther powerlevaway.Thisis referred of CDMA. If thetransmit to asthenear-farproblem els of all mobilesin a CDMA sy$tem arecontrolled to be no higherfhanabsolutely necessary, canbe reused moreoften.Althoughpowercontrolis usedin thechannels it is not possible to operate FDM/TDMA systems, with bareminimumpowerlevels thesystem thepowerlevelsfor fastmulbecause respond to adjust cannot fastenough tipathfades. A sidebenefitof usingminimumpowerlevelsin a CDMA mobileis inbatterylife. creased The powerlevelsof a mobile are controlledin two ways;openloop and closed loop.In theopen-loopmode, its transmitpowerlevelby amobilecandetermine measpower its received level assumption uring underthe areequal thattransmission losses in bothdirections. This assumption is reasonable for a CDMA system but not for a FDM/TDMA systembecause the latter aremuchmore$usceptible to independent powercontrolinvolvesbasestafrequency-selective fading(multipath). Closed-loop power tion measures of mobilereceived andadjustments to themobilepowerlevels with thecontrolchannel. in references Powerconftolin IS-95CDMA is described [6*8]. for Table9.4lists thebasicparameters of theIS-95CDMA digitalcellularsystem the 800-MHzcellularband.The speech compression algorithmusesQCELP(Quallinearprediction). Thefirst commercial of CDMA occommcodeexcited installation curredin HongKong in 1995. 9.3.4 CDMA Soft Handoff reA uniquefeature of a CDMA system is the ability of a mobileto simultaneously ceive from more than one source. eachcell in a CDMA cellularnetwork Because
TABLE 9.4 lS-95 CDMA Moblle Telephone Sy8tem Parameters

Channel bandwidth Rate Voice-Coding overhead Errorcontrol Aggregate channel rate Codelength channel $preadspectrum rate format Modulation

1.25 MHz 9.6kbps(maximum) 9.6kbps(downlink) 19.2kbps(uplink) 19.2kbps(downlink) 28.8kbps(uplink) 64 chips 1.2288 Mbp$ to mobile), otfset to base) QPSK(base QPSK(mobile

450

DIGITAL MOBILE TELEPHONY

transmits in a common frequency, a common RF receiver inherently receives the spreadspectrumsignal from all adjacentbase$tations.Signalsfrom multiple basestation$ can then be acquired with multiple baseband code correlatorsor by time sharing a single correlator with the separate codes.In a soft handoff operation the samevoice signal is distributed to selectedcells adjacentto a currently active cell. An active mobile can then comparethe quality of the signals and switch to the best one before disconnecting from the establishedbase station. A "make-before-break" operation is not feasible in an FDIIfITDMA 'rystem wherein adjacentcells utilize separate frequenciesthat require separate RF receivers. FDIVf/TDMA system$ inherently usehard handoffs, which require disconnectingfrom one basestation before connecting to a new one. Notice, however, that a soft handoff operation in a CDMA system increasesthe background interferencebecauseof the multiple active signals for a single connection.

9.4 PEHSONALCOMMUNICATION SYSTEM A personal communication (PCS)is a cellularsystem system operating in a bandof frequencies at 1.9GHz.Theoriginalconcept for PCSincluded multiple,newfeatures andservices beyond thoseofferedby a basiccellularsystem. Someof theenvisioned features weresingletelephone number for multipleservice$ (voice,data, fax) anduser mobility for homeor office useandlocationdetermination. Althoughsome commercial PCSofferings providesomenew userfeatures, initial North American FCSsystem$afebasically cellularsystems utilizing a newbandof frequencies. when the FCC allocated the PCSfrequencies for the united states,they did so withoutstipulating whichtypeof system should be deployed. Thus,anyorganization that bids for andreceives a franchisefor PCSspectrum is free to choose whatever type of system it want$for providingservice to the public.As a result,North American PCS systems have beendeveloped with threedifferent transmission formats: D*AMPS,GSM,andCDMA. TheD-AMPSimplemenration followsEIA/TIA standard 15-136,which is basicallya revisionof IS-54 that incorporates digital control (IS-54defines channels. the useof an analogcontrolchannel for compatibilitywith AMPS.)

9.5 VOICE PBIVACYAND AUTHENTICATION Ensuring privacyofconversations andpreventing fraudaretwo criticalaspects ofcellular telephone systems thatareaddressed morecompletely in thedigitalsystems than in the originalanalogsystems. An FDM analogsystem is particularlyvulnerable to casual eavesdropping because a relativelysimplescanner canbe usedto identify an activechannel andtune into the conversation. If the scanner hastwo receivers. the eavesdropper canlistento bothsidesofthe conversation, assuming theeavesdropper is in a high enough locationor closeenough to the activemobilethat it canreceive theuplink signal.

e.6 rRtDruM 451 Digital signalsare inherently more complicatedto intercept because an eavesdropper may needto monitor the connectionestablishmentproces$and not just tune in after a conversation has started. Explicit encryption parameters for optional voice privacy is establishedduring call establishment,or pos$ibly during a conversation,by exchanging privacy control messages must in the control channel. An eavesdropper receive the relevant information $entin both directions before eavesdroppingis possible. Even without explicit encryption, an eavesdropper must be located somewhere near the basestation to properly receive both sidesof a TDMA conversafion.At other locationswithin a cell the eavesdropper will encounteroverlapping time slotsthat will inflict bit errors into the eavesdropper'sreceived data. A CDMA system produces a codesfrom two separate mosimilar effect when the phaseof two specffum-spreading biles coincide. in digital sysAuthentication of a valid mobile stationis significantly $trengthened tems. A major problem in analog cellular systemsis the processof cloning, in which disreputable persons monitor call establishment handshakeprocedures to acquire valid mobile equipment electronic serial numbers (ESNs) and program them into counterfeit mobile units that are then used to place calls. Part of the improved fraud prevention involves maintaining a more up-to-date databaseof valid mobile ESNs. The strongestpnrt of the fiaud prevention involves determining authorization codes basedon past call history in both the base station and the mobile. The authorization code determined by the mobile and sent to the base station must coincide with the authorizationcode calculatedby the basestationbefore serviceis allowed. Additional stepsmay require entry of accesscodesby the user or, in the caseof GSM, the magnetic data card called the SubscriberIdentification Module (SIM).

9.6 lRlDlUM
Iridium is a satellite-basedsystem for telephone and two-way paging services.The satellitesystemis a Low Earth Orbit Satellite (LEOS) $ystem,which meansthat signal powers and antennasizescan be reducedwith respectto conventional geostationary satellites.(The Iridium sy$temorbits are less than 500 miles, versusthe 23,000 miles for geostationary satellites.) In addition to enabling lower power ffansmission, a LEOS avoids the propagationdelay of a geostationarysatellite, which is a minimum of 500 msec.A basic disadvantage of a LEOS systemis the continuousmovement of the satelliteswith respectto ground locations.Becauseof this, Iridium provides a large number of satellites(66) so continuous coveragefrom at least one satellite is always available. Iridium phones are dual-mode phones. A phone first makes an attempt to place a call over a terresffial cellular system*but will default to the satellite network if local cellular coverageis not available. When communicating through the Iridium system, a user first gets connectedto the nearestavailable satellite. From there the communication might retum to the ground or be relayed through multiple satellitesbefore re.Multiple versions of hanclhelds are available to operate on mMA, GSM, or CDMA cellular networks,

452

DIGITAL MoBILE TELEPHoNY

TABLE9.5 lrldlum SystemParameters Number of satellites Satellite orbit Orbitperiod Transmission protocol RFmodulation Speech datarate Radio frequency
66 485 miles (780 km) 1 0 0m i n FDMA/TDMA QPSK 2,4 kbps 1.6 MHz handheldto satellite 23 GHz satellite to $atellite 19 GHz uplinkto satellite 29 GHz downlinkfrom $atellite

turningto theground. groundlink mightbe directto another Thesecond Iridium user or it may involvea basestationwith interconnection to a public telephone network. System aspects of theIridium system areprovided in Table9.5.

9.7 TRUNKEDRADIO The term trunkedradio generally refersto PrivateMobile Radio(pMR) communicationsnetworks. Originally,users of PMR equipment wereallocated specific operating frequencies dedicated to each user(or organization). Suchallocations wereobviously inefficientin termsof bandwidth utilizationwhenthe users did not havecontinuous needfor radiocommunications. Significant improvements in efficiencyareachieved whenthe$eparate channels areplacedin a groupandshared by a largergroupofusers on anas-needed basis. Whena userof a trunked radiosy$tem needs service, theradio equipment accesses anidle channel thatbecomes temporarily assigned to thatuser. As soonastheusers of a particular channel cease to transmit, thechannel becomes availablefor otherusers. Access to a communications channel utilizesa controlchannel anda centralized controller for resource allocation. A trunkedradiosystem is not a cellularsystem but doesutilize a centralnodereferredto asa repeater. Therepeater receives a signalon onefrequency, shiftsit to anotherfrequency, andtransmits thesignalon thenewfrequency. Thus,endu$ers do not communicate directlywith each other.* Transmission through therepeater is moreeffectivebecause thetoweris located at a highpointin thecoverage area utilizinga relapowerthatfacilitates tively high transmit communications between endusers who are likely to not havean adequate pathbetween them. In a general sense, trunked radiosystems arePMR systems thatprovideradiocommunications directly betweenuserswithout use of the public telephone network. However, thedistinction between a trunked radiosystem anda cellularsystem hasbe*$ome ffunked radio equipment does support a (special) two-way mode of operation in which the users cofiununicate directly with each other. This mode of operation is generally reserved for communication s in outlying areas where the rcpeater cannot prbvide seryice.

HEFERENCES 453

comeblunedwith U.S.offerings fromcompanies like NextelandOeotek. These companies utilize technology developed the useof spectrum by Motorolathat augments previouslyusedfor privateradio servicereferredto as Specialized Mobile Radio (SMR).SMR applications typicallyinvolvefleetoperations suchastaxi cabsanddelivery vehicles in needof dispatch services wherein multiplemobilessimultaneously heartransmissions on a courmon channel. SMRradiosutilizeanalog FM/FDM transmissionwith 25-kHzchannels. generically Thenewequipment, refened MobileRadio to asEnhanced Specialized (ESMR),upgrades analog SMR transmission to digitalTDM transmission in thesame protocols manner AMPS. ESMR transmission that D-AMPS upgrades allow for six in each25-kHzchannel. conventional digital TDM channels ESMR systems suppor"t applications dispatch suchasprivategroupcallandothersimilarspecialized $ervices ing. Most importantly, canprovideconnections for this chapter, an ESMR system to the public telephone feature.With this feanetwork-referred to as an interconnect canfunctionasa cellulartelephone ture,anESMR system system. 9.8 CELLULAR DIGITAL PACKET DATA CellularDigital Packet Data(CDPD)[9] is a system designed to providedataservices The primaryservice up to 19.2kbpsasan overlayof an AMPS installation. concept fixedandmobiledataservices independent of theneed is to ofTer to upgrade anAMPS to a D-AMPS system. sy$tem CDPD usesAMPS channels that are not being used it is a packet-oriented multipleusers share for voice.Because dataservice, a single 30-kHzchannel-a significant savings in spectrum usage artcompared to the use of connection-oriented voicechamelsfor data.Principalapplications for CDPDare mobileInternetaccess andcreditcardverification. Access is accomplished with Digital Sense to the shared channel Multiple Access (DSMA/CD) which is similarto CSMA/CDof otherradio with CollisionDetection andEthernet LANs. CDPDuses GMSK modulation systems with RS(63,47) forward errorconection.

REFERENCES
"Vector SumExcitedLinearPrediction (VSELP)7950Bit PerSecond Voice Coding Description, Illinois, Nov, 14,1989. Algorithm,"Technical Motorola,Schaumburg, "Overview of the GSM Systemand Protocol Architecture," IEEE M. Rahnema, Communications Magazine, pp. 92-100. Apr. 1993, "Speech Codec P.Vary, K. Hellwig,C, Galland, M. Russo, J. Petit,andD. Massaloux, in IEEE GLOBECOM pp. for the European Mobile RadioSystem," 1989,Nov, 1989, 29.8.2. R. Dixon,Spread with Commercial Applications, Systemt Spectrum Wiley, New York, 1994. "Mobile Station-Base Station Compatibility Standardfor Dual-Mode Wideband EIA/TIA./IS-95, Spectrum Spread CellularSystem," Washington, DC, July 1993.

454

DIGITAL MOBILE TELEPHONY "On the System A. Salamasi and K. S. Gilhousen, DesignAspects of CodeDivision (cDMA) Applied to Digital cellular andpersonal Multiple Access communications Networks," Praceeding of the Forty-First IEE VehicularTechnology Conference, May 1991, pp.57-62. A, J. Viterbi and A. M, Viterbi, "Erlang Capacityof a Power Conrolled CDMA System,"IEEE Journal on Selected Areas of Comtnunitations, Nov. lgg3, pp. 882-890, K. S. Gilhousen, L M. Jacobs, R. Padovani, A. J. Viterbi, L. A. Weaver,and C. E. Wheatley,"On the Capacityof a CellularCDMA System," IEEE Transactions on Vehitular Technology,May pp. 303-312. 1991, "PacketData A. K. Salkintzis, overCellularNerworks: The CDpD Approach," IEEE Communications Magazine, June1999, pp. 152-159,

PROBLEMS 9-1 what is theavailable bearer rareof a half-rate digiralchannel in a D-AMps system? 9.2 what is thedatarateof the slow associated controlchannel in a D-AMps system? 9.3 what is theavailable bearer rarea full-ratedigitalchannel in a GSM sy$tem? 9.4 what is thedatarateof the slowassociated controlchannel in a GSM system? 9.5 Determine thereceiver outputmeasurements for channels I and2 for theGDMA example of Figure9.6. 9.6 what is theeffective signal-to-interference ratioof a singlecDMA uplinkchan nel operatingat a distance that is twice asfar from the basestationas62 other channels? Assume a codelengthof 64, crosscorrelations of +1, andall transmitters operateat identicalpower levels. (a) Assumeall interferersare active. (b) Assume half theinterferers operate with a,25qo dataratebecause of no voice activity. 9.7 In a CDMA system with a codelengthof 64 determine thesignal-to-interference ratioof a single uplinkCDMA channel if thereare16active interfering channels operating at aneffective receive powerlevelthatis 12dB higherthatthedesired channel.

10
DATA ANDASYNCHRONOUS TRANSFER MODENETWORKS
Theprimaryfocusof this bookis to describe how andwhy digitalelectronic technolNaturally, digicommunicate voice, signal. the is used a fundamentally analog ogy to (data), butonly inherently tal telephone networkcanaccommodate digitalinformation for voice.This if datacanaccept to service characteristics established or be adapted to supporting chapter digitaltechnology directed discusses andnetworks specifically part of describes how Ironically, the later this chapter communications seruices. data networks voice. to the data-oriented areadapted carry (data) practice. In early messages is actually anancient of discrete Communication greater range human thanthe of the voicewas over distances timescommunication (e.g., flags, signals, provided smoke by sightor sound signals heliographs, of discrete use system electricity, the first practical to andhorns). Furthermore, communication evolved from theoriginal,manually thetelegraph, is inherently digital.As telegraphy rebased to fully automated systems, theydeveloped into whatarecommonly systems message is in networks. Modem switching discussed ferredto asme$sage-switching the first sectionof this chapter. it wasonly natural arose, As theneedfor modemelectronic datacommunications services. The that thepublictelephone networkwouldbe usedfor datakansmission shortcomings of a networkdesigned technical availabilityovershadowed numerous primarilyfor voicecommunications Themaindeficiencies services. of a conventional are: telephone networkfor datatransmission (modems) access on analog lines 1. Needfor signalhansducers 2. Limited datarates network) 3. High errorrates(in the olderanalog 4. Inefficientcircuitutilizations so did thejustificationfor more requirements increased, As datacommunications datatransmisOnesolution to reducing solutions. cost-effective datacommunications 455

456

DATAANDASYNcHHoNoUSTFANSFERMoDENETWoRKS

sion costswas to improve circuit utilizations through the use of packet-switchingnetworks. The technology of packet switching was pioneeredby the Advanced Research Projects Agency of the u.s. government. This agency developeda network referred to as the ARPANET []. In addition to ARPANET, which was used only by government, educational, and industrial research institutions, a number of public packetswitching networks were also developedin the United Statesand around the world. ARPANET developmentseventually evolved into what is now known as the Internet. A secondapproachto improving data communicationsinvolves developing separate networks specifically designedfor digital ffansmission (no analog circuits with modems).The first major enterpriseof this type in the United Stateswas a nationwide digital microwave network developed by Digital rransmission corporation (DATRAN). Becausethe data communicationsmarketplaceof the time could not support a separate, dedicatednetwork for data, DATRAN ran into financial difficulty and declared bankruptcy in 1977. Another, more successful,data-networking approach was the Dataphone Digitat Service (DDS) offering of AT&T. This serviceutilizes digital technology of the telephone network for strictly data applications.DDS circuits are dedicatedto data services, but the facilities and routes are sharedwith telephonenetwork facilities. A major hurdle for DDS is achieving digital accessto DDS circuits. If a subscriberis ourside the range of digital transmissionfacilities of a DDS serving office, a voiceband modem over an analog line is required. A fourth approachto satisfying datacommunicationsservicesinvolved developing meansfor directly accessingthe digital ffansmissionand switching equipment of the telephonenetwork. The first widespreadapproachof the telephonecompaniesfor providing universal digital accessis the Inregrated services Digital Nerwork (ISDN). ISDN provides digital access to the digital facilities of the telephonenerwork for voice or data services on a call-by-call basis. ISDN digital subscriber lines and other methods of digital accessto digital networks such as the Internet are described in Chapter I L

10.1 MESSAGE SWITCHING

As one telegraphsystemafter anotherwas installed in the countriesaround the world, nationwide communications networks evolved. A messagecould be sent from one point to anothereven if the two points were not servicedby a common telegraphline. In this case,telegraphoperatorsat intermediatepoints would receive a message on one line and retransmit it on another.When a telegraphoffice had severallines emanating from it, the processof hansferring a message from one line to anotherwas, in essence, a switching function. The processof relaying, or switching, a message from one telegraphline to another becamesemiautomated when teletypeswith paper tape punchesand readerswere developed. An incoming messagecould be punched automatically onto a paper tape by one teletypeand subsequentlyreadby anotherteletype for transmissionon the appro-

10.1 MESSAGESWITCHING457

priateoutgoing in line.Theprocess of transferring a message from oneline to another message systems switches. this manner led to these beingreferred to astorn-tape in 1963 switches automated wascompletely One of the world's largestme$sage when Collins Radio Companyof CedarRapids,Iowa, installeda computer-based This system switchfor theairlinecompanies of NorthAmerica. andthemore me$$age direcfly paper incoming messages recent eliminate tapetransfers by storing successors into a computermemory(disk file) andforwarding themautomaticallyto the appropriateoutputline whenavailable. is oftenrefenedto as Hence this modeof operation -and-forward message store switching. is a header andpossibly routing Included anaddress with eachmessage containing proce$sor nodecandetermine to whichoutputline at each information sothemessage As indicated in Figure10.1,theprocessor in eachnodemainto $witchthemessage. queues queues on arenormallyserviced for eachoutgoinglink. These tainsmessage priority informationcan$ometimes first-served be inbasis.However, a first-come, or grades cludedin eachheader of service, therebyalto establish differentclasses, to be placed at theheadof a queue. messages lowing tirne-critical A message-switching networkis fundamentally differentfrom a circuit-switching networkin that the source anddestination do not interactin real time. In fact, most on a delayed basisif a destinamessage-switching coulddelivera message networks nettion nodeis busyor otherwise unableto accept traffic. In a message-switching a of thedestination nodebeforesendins thestatus work thereis no needto determine message, asthereis in circuit switching.

Figure 10.1 Message-switching network.

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DATAAND ASyNcHHoNous THANSFER MoDE NETwoRKS

Message-switchingnetworks are also fundamentatly different from circuit-switching networks in their responseto traffic overloads.A circuit-switching network blocks or rejects excesstraffic while a message-switching network normally acceptsall traffic but provides longer delivery times as a result ofincreased queuelengths. Another importaxt distinction of a message-switching network is that the transmission links are never idle while traffic is waiting to use them. In a circuit-switching network, a circuit may be assignedto a particular connection but not actually carrying traffic. Thus, some of the transmissioncapacity may be idle while someuser$are denied service.In contrast,utilization of the transmissionlinks of a message-switching network is directly related to the actual flow of information. Arbitrarily high utilization efficiencies are possible if increased store-and-forwardqueuing delays are acceptable' Chapter 12 provides basic results of queuing theory that relate utilization efficiency to queuing delay.

10.2 PACKET SWITCHING

The circuit-switched telephonenetwork is ill-suited to interactive data traff,rcbecause it is fundamentally designed for less frequent service requests with comparatively long holding times (3-4 min on average).Neither the control elementsin the switches nor the capacity of the signaling channelsare capableof accommodatingfrequent requestsfor very short messages. The result is that connection setuptime may be many times greaterthan the holding time of a data message. Obviously, more efficient utilization of the network requires greater control channel bandwidth and increasedcall processingcapacitiesin the switches. Beyond this, however, interactive data traffic with low-activity factor$ requires a network operation that is fundamenta-lly different from a conventional circuit-switched network, The most appropriatemode of operation for traffic that comesin bursts is more closely related to a message-switched network than to a circuit-switched network. Figure 10.2 depicts both the conceptualstructure and the conceptualoperation of a packet-switchednetwork. A single message at the sourceis broken up into ..packets" for transmissionthrough the network. Included in each packet is a headercontaining addressand other control information. Each packet is relayed through the network in a store-and-forwardfashion similar to a message-switching network. At the destination node, the packetsare reassembled into the original contiguous messageand delivered. The main feature of a packet-switchingoperationis the marurerin which the tran$mission links are sharedon an as-needed basis.Each packet is transmitted as soon as the appropriate link is available, but no transmission facilities are held by a source when it has nothing to send. In this manner, a large number of relatively inactive sourcescan sharethe transmissionlinks. In essence, link utilization is improved at the exPenseof storageand control complexity in the nodes. A circuit-switched network ha$ conffol overheadassociated with connection setup but very little control thereafter' In contrast,packet-switching nodes must processthe headerinformation in each packet as it arrives. Thus a long message in a packet-switchednetwork requires more

459 ro,? PAoKETSWTToHTNG

fonsrrd nod*r

10.2 Packet-switching Flgure network. conhol overhead in a circuit-switched network.Considering thanif it wereserviced thedeclining costof digitalmemoryandprocessing, theincreased controlcomplexity As discussed laterin asdigitaltechnology advances. becomes lessandlesssignificant Transfer this chapter, one particularvariationof packetswitching,Asynchronous of conhardware to specifically support implementations Mode (ATM), is designed thereby with low delay. trol intensive functions, supporting very hightraffic volumes networkincreases, the average transmisAs the traffic load in a packet-switched correspondingly. ln contrast, a circuit-switched networkeither sion delayincreases grantsservice Conversely, or rejectsit. Thereis no gracefuldegradation in service. circuit-switched network, network much transwhenonly a few circuitsarein usein a network,the missioncapaciry is idle.Whenthereis a light loadon a packet-switched benefitby shorter thanusualdelaytimes.Hencefrom a user'sgrade-ofactiveusers servicepoint of view, the two networktypesarefundamentally different. (ARQ error control,packet-switching networks request Using automatic repeat (e.g.,ARPANET)traditionallyprovidedessentially for each error-free transmission Thisprocess requires transfer. thereceiving nodes to monitorredundant node-to-node if the packetwasreceivedcorrectly. checkbits appended to eachpacketto determine (message transeruors NAK). Hence aredetected, a retransmission is requested When packets positive musthold all transmitted in memoryuntil a response mitting nodes (message ACK) is retumedby the receivingterminal.Fufihermore,an entire packet is usuallyreceived for errorsbeforeforwarding it to another node. andchecked packet by way of leased linesor dial-upconCustomers networks typicallyaccess nections. by infrequent users, linesarepreDial-upconnections areused while leased to achieve higherdararates, andpossibly ferredby heavyusers availability, constant lower errorrates. a Despitethe similarityto a me$sage-switching operation, work is differentin two impodantre$pects:

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DATAANDASYNCHRoNoUSTHANSFERMoDENETWORKS

l. The store-and-forwarddelay through a packet-switcheclnetwork is relatively short. Thus interactive communicationscan occur in much the samemanner as if a dedicated,end-to-endcircuit is established. 2. A packet-switchednetwork doe$not provide $torageof messages, except in an incidental manner while relaying packets from one node to another. The network is designedto provide switched communication between two nodes. both of which are actively involved in the communications process. A packet-switching network does not normally store a me$sage for later delivery to an inactive or busv terminal. One reasonfor breaking messages into packetsis to allow transmissionof the first segmentof a long messagewhile other segmentsare in transit. If the entire me$$age had to be received at each node befbre forwarding it to the next node (as in message switching), the delaysthrough the notlesmight be too large. Another reasonfor breaking the mes$ages into packets arises from operational simplifications derived from storing, processing,and transmitting smaller and possibly fixedJength blocks of data. In addition, if long message$ are transmittedintact, short messages experienceexcessive delays when queuedbehind long messages. Packetizationallows shon messages to get through a transmissionlink without waiting behind long messages. This same principle occursin multiprogrammed computers,which use time slicing to allow short jobs the opportunity of finishing before previously startedlong jobs. one more motivation for packetizationis that when a ffansmissionblock is too long, it is unlikely that the entire messagewill be received correctly. Packetizationprovides a means of retransmitting only those portions of a message that need to be retransmitted.

10.2.1 PacketFormats
The format of a packet in a packet-switchingnetwork can vary significantly f'rom one network to another. Some formats include numerou$ fields fbr control infbrmation while other system$rely more heavily on special control packetsto transmit control information. Generally speaking,the conffol information associated with a particular message or link is included in the headerof a mes$age packet.Less frequent,networkrelated control information is communicatedtlrough special control packets. As indicated in Figure 10.3, a packet contains three major fields: the header,the message,and the redundancycheck bits. some packet$may not contain a message field if they are being used strictly for control purposes.Although a variery of techniques for generating redundancy checks are possible, the most popular technique usescyclic redundancychecks (cRCs). Basically, a cRC is nothing more than a set of parity bits that cover overlapaing fields of message bits. The fields overlap in such a way that small numbers of errors are always detectedand the probability of not detecting the occurrenceof 2 large number of errors is l in 2M, where M is the number of bits in the check code. A headertypically containsnumeroussubfieldsin addition to the necessarv address field. Additional fields sometimesincluded in a headerare:

IO,2 PACKETSWITCHING /161

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Figure 10.3 Typical packetformat, (text) packet or I , An operationcode to designatewhether the packet is a message pat"t packet. sense field of the address, with the a control this is a destination In a addressspecifying the control element of a switching node.

z. A

source address for recovery purpo$es or identification of packets at a destination node that is capable of simultaneously accepting more than one message.

node,detect at the destination numberto reassemble messages 3. A sequence faults,andfacilitaterecoveryprocedures. size 4. A lengthcodeto indicate thelengthof a packetwhenlessthana standard packetis transmitted. Someprotocolsinsertspecialdelimiters(flags)at the end of a packetandthereforedo not usea lengthcount. 10.2.2 Statittical Multiplexlng chapters in theprevious The digital time divisionmultiplexingtechniques described The a time slot to eachchannel. providemultiplechannels assigning by periodically sources haveanythingto send. or not the respective time slotsareassigned whether but for the basis, Channel assignments maybealtered on a connection-by-connection Beto a respective time slotis dedicated connection. duration of a "call" a particular this form of thecontinuous in whichtime slotsoccurfor eachchannel, cause manner time divisionmultiplexing to as synchronous referred of multiplexingis sometimes (STDM).In this section variously referred form of multiplexing, we describe another time division time divisionmultiplexing(ATDM)- or statistical to as asynchronous of its herebecause multiplexing(statmux). This form of multiplexingis mentioned to packet-switching closerelationship techniques. Statmuxes operate with framingformatsthat arebasicallyidenticalto STDM framperiodically the length ing formats. The majordifference redefines is that a statmux of its framesto change the numberof time slotsand,hence,the numberof channels. permanently a Whereas an STDM system a time slot to eachof its sources, assigns
"Here andasynchronous. Il the contextof d igital is alother context-sensitive useof the termssynchronous "synchronous zed telephony, multiplexing" refersto combiningtributary signalsthat havebeensynchroni "asynchronous multiplexing" to each other as in upper layer SONET multiplexing. Corrospondingly, tributaries, refersto the useof pulsestuffing to accofimodateunsynchronized

462

DATAANDASyNcHHoNousTHANSFERMoDENETwoHKs

statmux assignsa time slot only when a sourcebecomesactive. A time slot is eliminated (the frame shoftened)when the respectivelrourcebecomesinactive. statmux $ystemshave been primarily used to provide line sharing for a multiple number of interactive terminals communicating with a host computer. when only a few sources(terminals) are active, each sourcehas a relatively high data rate channel available to it. As the number of active sourcesincreases,the frame length increases so individual channel rates decrease.some systems limited the number of active sourcesto ensurecertain minimum data rates. The purpose and performance of statmux systems are very similar to the purpose and performance of a packet-switching link. The main difference is that a packetswitching link hansmits larger blocks of data with a header included in each block. Each time slot of a statunux$ystem is shorter and contains only source data. Figure 10.4 contraststhe basic operation of messageswitching, packet switching, and statistical time division multiplexing. The message switch transmitseachmessage in its entirety in a f,rrst-come, first-served manner. packet switching breaks messages up to allow interleaving of packets from other sources. Thus short mes$agesnever ger queuedbehind long messages such as file transfers.The statmux system breaks the messages up into even finer blocks (words) of data and addsperiodic frame rlefinition messages so that receiving terminals can properly identify the individual time slots and switch the incoming data accordingly. As indicated in Figure 10.4, a packet-switching operation becomesvery similar to a statmux operationif the size of the packetsis small. In fact, commercially available

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f igure 10.4 comparison of message-switching, packet-switching,and statistical multiplexing.

10,?PACKET swrTcHrNc 463 nettime divisionmultiplexers canbe usedto build up a packet-switching statistical however, nodeneeds suffiwork. In additionto the multiplexers, a packet-switching it, and cient storage to accumulate an entire packet,checkit for errors,process it. Strictlyspeaking, doesnot accumulate retransmit a statistical multiplexer anentire Error control message It switches the incomingdataasthey arereceived. or packet. (redundancy for retransmission) areimplemented befunctions andrequests checking In summary, a statmux nodes. of a "connection" of between instead tweenendpoints multiplexA packet-switching is strictlya multiplexer/demultiplexer. nodeprovides andnetworklevelconholfunctions. ing functions aswell asmessage-level 10.2.3 Routlng Control proceregarding havebeenundedaken various Muchdiscussion andexperimentation network to sinksthrougha packet-switching duresfor routing packetsfrom sources routing allowfor a certain of adaptation or alternate amount [2]. All routingtechniques in how differ, however, to circumvent line or nodefailures.The varioustechniques networkcongestion fasttheyrespond to failuresandwhether or not theycircumvent arethefollowing: aswell asequipment Thebasictechniques failures. l. Dynamicrouting 2. Virrual circuitrouting 3. Fixed-path routing in a varietyof waysand can assume canbe implemented Eachof thesetechniques someofthe characteristics ofthe otherroutingcontrolprocedures. Dynamlc Routing nodes on a distributed examining basis with network Dynamicroutingis implemented packet outgoing to determine theappropriate ofeachreceived thedestination address processing to deterby locally stored information link. The outgoinglink is selected path provides routing mine which minimum delayto the destination. The criteria are (health) and the routinelyupdated to includeboth the operational sizeof the status enough queues routing rapidly nodes. decisions areadjusted in the neighboring The paths the packets dffirent through netmay follow of a singlemessage thatindividual quickly to changes in networktowork. Dynamicrouting,with its ability to respond for packet pology or traffic conditions,is one of the original featuresespoused inherent in the considered to be switching.In fact, dynamicroutingwas $ometimes network. definitionof a packet-switching in trafto rapidfluctuations attraction ofbeing ableto adjust In spiteofthe obvious Oneimplication routinghasa number fic patterns, dynamic of significant drawbacks. through packets in a message routes thenetof allowingsuccessive to follow different may arriveat a destination out of sequence. Althoughsequence work is thatpackets process properly, is compliareusedto rearrange thereassembly numbers thepackets

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DATAANDASYNCHFIoNoUSTHANSFEFMoDENETwoFKS

cated, particularly since the destination does not know if a missing packet is merely delayedor lost entirely. Another drawback to dynamic routing is the possibility of oscillation occuring in the routing decisions.Ifthe bandwidth assignedto updating the routing control algorithms is too small, a lightly loaded node will attract more traffic than it can handle before neighboring nodes are informed of the change in the traffic flow. In this instance,a packet might even wind up at a node from which it has previously been sent. Purely distributed control, in general,and dynamic routing, in particular, also present difficulties with respect to flow control in a packet network. As mentioned in chapter 7, alternate routing in the switched telephone network is sometimes suspended when the network as a whole becomesoverly conge$ted(alternateroutes require more resources).obviously, the same principle applies to a packet-switching network' Flow control in packet networks is discussedin later sections. Dynamic routing is most appropriatefor small networks or in a military environment where survivability of the network in the presenceof muttiple-node failures is a requirement' A military network i$ typically more concernedwith reliable 4d timely completion of a few important messagesthan with achieving the highest possible throughput from a given amount of resources.

Virtual Circults
A virtual circuit network embodiessome of the basic aspects of both circuit switching and packet switching. The transmissioncapacity is dynamically assignedon an ,.asneeded"basis,but all packetsof a multipacket message follow the sarneroute through the network. Before interactive communication begins, a route is establishedthrough the network, and all participating nodesare informed of the "connection" and how to route the individual packets that follow. From then on, all packets flowing between the two end points follow the sameroute through the network. In essence, a virtual circuit is a logical concept involving addresses and pointers in the nodesofthe network but no dedicatedtransmission facilities. At the end of a connection (or ..session"in datacommunicationsterminology), a virtual circuit is released by a ..disconnect"me$sagepropagating through the network. Except in the caseofpermanent virnral circuits, separate connections,or sessions, involving the sametwo endpoints do not necessarilyuse identical paths thrcugh the network' Each virtual circuit is establishedduring the call establishmentphase depending on the traffic pattern$at the time. Thus a virtual circuit network can respond to network failures or changing traffic patterns,but in a longer time frame than a dynamically routed network. When virtual circuits are changedfrom one connectionto the next, the mode of operation is sometimesreferred to as a switched virtual circuit networkby direct analogy to conventional circuit swirching. Virtual circuits can be establishedusing either distributed or cenffalized conffol. when distributed control is used,the call establishmentmessage propagatesthrough the network with eachnode making a local decision as to which outgoing link should be selected.

10.2 PACKET swtrcHtNc

465

As discussed in Chapter7 concerningconventionalcircuit-switched networks, centralized call establishmenthas the basic advantageof being able to setup circuits with a networkwide view of network statusand traffic patterns.The TYMNET network of the United States[3] and the DATAPAC network of Canada[4] are examplesof virtual circuit, packet-switchednetworks with centralizedconffol. phaseofa virtual circuit represents excessiveoverhead Sincethe call establishment for single-packetme$sages, a virtual circuit mode of operationis obviously most useor ful when a network servicesa relatively large number of multiple-packet messages requiring circuits for longer vittual Thus is suggested a dual-mode network $essions. messages and immediate transmission with dynamic routing for single-packetmessages.In this instance, the single-packetmessagesare usually referred ta as datagrams. One of the main advantagesof a virtual circuit operation is its ability to provide more orderly control of packet delivery. If a node in a virtual circuit never forwards a packet pertaining to a particular connection until the previous packet has been acofa virtual circuit knowledged,packetscannotarrive out oforder. A secondadvantage packets. individual a virtual circuit has Once is the reducedaddressing requirementsof been established, are no longer neededin the packets. complete destinationaddresses virtual circuit identifiers can be used that are local In place of destination addresses, in to each link. In essence, virtual circuit identifier$ are pointers to memory addresses the call processorsof the packet-switching nodesor to look-up tables in ATM nodes. contain the pertinent information conceming the The designatedmemory addresses actual source,destination,and routing of the packets.Another important feature of a viftual circuit operationis its inherent ability to aid in flow control, as discussedin the next section. The main disadvantageof a virtual circuit operation is the possibility of greater transmission delays. When a path for a virtual circuit is established,it is chosen to minimize the delay through the network under the traftic pattems at that time. If the traffic pattems change,packets pertaining to a particular virtual circuit may experiencelong queuing delays on some links while alternatelinks are more lightly loaded. Yum and Schwartz [5] report that analysesof routing techniquesfor severalsmall network configurationsindicate a packetdelay improvement of lA-ZlVa is possiblewhen adaptiverouting is used in lieu of a fixed routing rule. of a virmight seemto be a disadvantage When first considered,call establishment require sometype tual circuit network. Actually, however, flow control considerations mes$ageto determine the statusof the destination nodes before a of query/response $ourceis allowed to begin sendinga packet $trearn.Thus the control overheadand the "connection" is usually a fundamentalrequirement, with settingup a delay associated even in a dynamically routed network.

Fixed-PathRoutlng exbasic circuitnetwork concepts of a virnral Fixed-path routing embodies thesame usethe between always ceptsuccessive anytwoendpoints connections, or sessions,

466

DATAANDAsyNcHRoNousTHANsFEBMoDENETWoRKS

samepath' In essence a fixed-path network is one that assignspemanent virtual circuits to eachpair of endpoints. One attractive f'eatureof a fixed-path network is the absenceof the call establishment phaseof a virtual circuit network. However, unlessthe necessary resources are perrnanently allocated, a "clear-to*transmit" messageis needed before sending packets.Inactive virtual circuits do not tie up network resource$in the samemanner as conventional circuits, but each virtual circuit does require transmission capacity and store-and-forwardbuffers in a probabilistic sense.If minimum gradesof service (delay times) are to be guarauteed, a network mu$t limit the number of virtual circuits existing at any particular time. Hence clear-to-tranrrmitsignals are neededbefbre a fixed-path circuit becomesactive. of course,a network can provide two modesof operation: permanentlyactive (hot line) virtual circuits and virtual circuits activatedand deactivatedas needed. An obvious disadvantage of a purely-fixed-path network, as describedso far, is its vulnerability to node or link failures. To circumvent this problem, a network control centerusually assignssemipennanent pathsthrough the network that arechangedonly when necessaryfor failure survivability or maintenance.Some older message-switching networks were implemented with fixed-path routing in the strict sense.This mode of operationwas more appropriateto merrsage-switching networks becausemessage delivery was less time critical and could be deferred while repairs were undertakenfor inoperative equipment.

10.2.4 Flow Control

As discussed in ChapterT concerningconventionalcircuit-switched networks, routing and flow control are two closely related operationalrequirementsof any communications network. The same basic principlb fbr controlling the flow in circuit-switched networks also appliesto packet-switchednetworks. Namely, wheneverthe network is experiencingexcessivesffess,either from a loss ofcapacity due to failures or from an abnormally heavy demand fbr services,new service requestsmust be blocked at the periphery of the network before they tie up common reriources and compoundthe congestion. In a packet-switchednetwork, the common resourcesare store-and-forward buffers and transmissionlinks. Flow control in a packet network is primarily concernedwith buffer managemenr. For example, if all store-and-forwardbuffers in adjacent nodes become filled with packetsdestinedto eachother, the nodesare unable to receive additional packets,and a deadlockexists.Recall that, in pure packet switching, a node doesnot releasea buffer as soon as it transmits a packet.The buffer is releasecl when an acknowledgmentis returned from the adjacentnode. If a receiving node has no availablebuffers, it cannot accepta new packet and thereforecannot acknowledgeit. (Framerelay anclATM net_ works describedlater do not provide node-by-nodeerror control so they do not save copies of messages in internal nodesof the network.) Flow control requirementsimply that interface nodesin a packet-switchednetwork are aware of overload conditions and refusenew requestsfor service until the conges-

10.2 PACKET SWITCHING467 tion is relieved. A parficularly attractive feature of a virtual circuit network is that the call establishmentphaseprovides an automatic meansof determining whether or not a particular requerttshould be serviced.If no path through the network can be established becausethe interior nodes are too conge$ted,the request is rejected. On the other hand, if a virtual circuit is established,there is reasonableexpectation that the entire requestwill be serviced in a timely manner. Unless network nodes are very conservativein acceptingrequest$for new virtual circuits, the ability to set up a circuit does not guaranteethe avoidanceof excessive congestion or deadlocks.A node acceptsa new virnral circuit based on an expected load and its capacity to service that load. If the tratfic volume and pattems happento exceedthe expectedload, excessivedelay or congestionis possible. Virtual circuits are an effective means of conrolling the flow of multiple-packet mes$ages, but they representtoo much overheadfor single-packetor datagramflow control. If a virtual circuit network must supporta significant number of single-packet and forego the call mes$ages, it can allow immediate transmissionof thesemes$ages is not much overhead, datagram phase. of a In terms transmission establishment greater than a call establitrhmentpacket. Thus, from this point of view, the packet might as well be sent immediately and be consideredits own circuit setup message. is much difIn terms of store-and-forwardbuffers, however, a single-packetmessage ferent from a call establishmentpacket.A call establishmentpacket requiresa certain amount of storage and processing by the call processor of each network node it reaches,but it does not compete for store-and-forward buffers as does a me$sage node, can be ignoredby an overloaded packet. Ifnecessary,a call establishment message and the originating node times out waiting for the network respon$eand reissuesthe request.The time out should be long enough that the network has had a chanceto rela,r. packet is ignored by an overIn confrastto call establishmentpackets,if a message loaded node,congestionmigratesto the node that last transmittedthe packet,sincethis node is holding a copy of the rejectedpacketin a buffer. The buffer cannotbe released cannot be allowed to enter the until an acknowledgmentis received.Hence datagram$ exists.When the network is network unlessa reasonable chancefor complete passage heavily congested,attemptsto set up virtual circuits might also be suspended. A conventional circuit-switched network is unconcerned with flow control bethe activity tween the endpoints of a connection since, once the circuit is established, or inactivity ofthe endpointshas no effect on other connectionsor on the network as a whole. End users necessarily administer flow control between themselves so the sourcedoesnot overrun the receive buffers of a sink. Theseproceduresconcern only the endpoints. In contrast,the very nature of a packet-switching network implies direct involvement with endpoint activity. If a sourcepumps excessivetraffic into a network, other users experiencedegradedperformance.Hence interfacesto a packet-switching network necessarilyinclude flow control for respecfivesources.Source flow control establishesa maximum data rate for a network, If a sink acceptsdata at a lower rate for period of time, this fact must be communicatedto the network node serva sustained ins the sourcein order to slow the sourcedown.

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DATAANDAsyNcHRoNoUsTRANSFEHMoDENETwoRKS

store-and-forward buffers of a packet-switching network are neededfor communications purposesand are not used as a storagemedium for messages. If a packetswitching network also provides message-switching services, message srorage functions should be implemented separatelyfrom the communications buffers. Then. the packet-switching network is used to transfer data to the message$toragefacility. Another implication of maximizing store-and-forwardbuffer utilization is the need to wait until a sink is ready to acceptdata before a sourcebegins sending.Ifa sink is not ready, packetsget stuck in store-and-forwardbuffers at the far end of a network and cause congestion. Thus some form of request-to-transmit/clear-to-transmit sequence is needed before messagetransmission begins. This requirement is independentof the routing algorithms employed in the network. Hence,in actual practice, the setting up of a virtual circuit may not representa time penalty. single-packet meri$ages (datagrams)can be an exception. If they are ffansmitted without a clear-to-transmitsignal, they may be discardedat the destinationnode if the sink is inactive or has no receive buffers available.The destinationnode then needsto return a rejection messageto the sourceindicating the statusof the sink. In this manner, the message itself is a requerrt-to-transmit signal. The ARpANET useda flow conhol strategy wherein single-packetmessagesserye a$ their own requestsfor buffer storagebut multiple-packet messages require preallocatedbuffers in groups of eight at the destination[6, 71. Flow control in TYMNET is implemented in a different mannerbecauseof its exclusive use of virtual circuits for all messages. Before any node in the network can send a packet to a neighboring node, it must receive a clear-to-transmit signal from the neighboring node for the particular virtual circuit. The clear-to-transmit signal is an indication that a specified number of store-and-forwardbuffers are being held in reseryefor that particular virtual circuit. After a node sendsthe specified number of packets,it sendsno more until anotherclear-to-transmitsignal is received (indicating the previous packetshave been forwarded or more buffers have been allocatedto the virtual circuit). By using the samenode-to-nodemethod of flow control at the interface betweenthe network and the users,a very solid end-to-endflow control strategy is established. The TYMNET flow control strategyis somewhatconservativein that it may allocate store-and-forwardbuffers to one virtual circuit while another virtual circuit has more use for them (possibly causinga decrease in line utilization). This conservatism. however, provides a number of useful features: l. Networkwide flow control is established automatically by the flow control within each virtual circuit. 2. Under light traffic conditions, packet flow within each virtual circuit adjusts automatically to the maximum rate that the sourceand sink can support.If only a few virtual circuits exist, a relatively large number ofbuffers can be assigned to each circuit, allowing the retum of more frequent clear-to*transmitsignals. 3. If a sink stopsacceptingpacketsfor somereason,this condition propagates back to the sourceby way of cessationof clear-to-transmit signals. Thus the source

SWITCHING 469 10.2 FACKET

is whenall allocated buffersarefuIl. This principleof operation stopssending to asbackpressure. sometrmes referred its buffers,store-and-forward lockups 4 . As long as a nodeneverovercommits buffers data, the$tore-ard-forward cannot occur.Ifseveralsinksstopaccepting to the particularvirtual circuits get filled and becomeunavailable. assigned throughtheir own can maintaintransmission Othervirtual circuits,however, buffers. assigned 5 . The mechanism is fail-safe in the $ense that positive indications (clear-to-transmit signals) are needed before packets are forwarded to flow controlbandwidth nodes. Whennetworklinksareoverloaded, neighboring packet requirements are minimal. If flow control signals stop altogether, transmission stops.

10.2.5 X.25
a public packetin 1976for accessing protocolestablished X.25 is an ITU standard procedure balanced switchingnetwork.The datalink layer of X.25 is link acce$s protocol (LAPB) usinghigh level datalink control(HDLC). HDLC is a bit-oriented (SDLC)established DataLink Protocol defined Synchronous based on thepreviously (SNA) networks. HDLC hasbeconte NetworkArchitecture by IBM for Synchronous The applications. datacommunications thedatalink protocolof choicefor numerous operationbetween the two endsof aspect balanced of LAPB refersto a peer-oriented thelink for one a primarynodecontrols modeof operation thelink. In anunbalanced nodes. or moresecondary packets As indicated, in Figure10.5. is shown Thebasicformatof anHDLC packet between by a staflingandan endingfiag (01I I I I 10).The datastream aredelimited algoflag by azerobit insertion from includinganinadvertent the flagsis precluded by the source a 0 is inserted rithm. Whenever a stringof five ls occurin thedatastream after a 0 occurringafterfive ls. If a 1 is present node.The receivingnoderemoves not removed. five ls, it mustbe the sixth I of a flag andis therefore of 8 bits. in increments Theaddress field is typically8 bitslongbutcanbeextended typiThe information field canbe anynumberof bits long,but specificapplications in a conhol cally define a maximumlength.The informationfield is nonexistent a l6-bit CRCbut canbe 32 bits long in some packet. Theframecheckfield contains

Fleg

AddruE$

Control

lnformation

I Frums ch6ck

Flag 0 11 11 1

01111110

N(S)

rtf

N(R)

l-forffat mntrol fi6ld

Figure 10.5 HDLC frameformat,

47O

DATAANDASYNCHHoNoUSTFANSFER MoDENETWoRKS

applications.The control field is 8 or 16 bits long. Informarion in the control field is formatted in various ways dependingon whether the packet is an information packet or a control packet.control formats are designatedby a leading l. Figure 10.5 shows the format for a information packet (I-format) as designatedby the leading 0 in the control field. The P/F field is a single bit used for polling. The N(S) and N(R) fields contain sequence numbersusedfor both error conffol and tlow control. The length of N(s) and N(R) is 3 or 7 bits dependingon the size of conhol field in use.* For illusftative purposes,the following discussionassumesthe use of 3-bit fields. Every time a source sendsa packet containing information, it increments N(S) modulo 8. When a destination receives a packet with a valid check sum and the next expectedsequence number, it returns that sequence number to the source in its outgoing N(R) field. Thus, a sourcenode knows that the destinationhascorrectly received every hansmitted packet up to and including the packet with the sequence number N(R) in its incoming packets.If one or more packetshave been received in error, the value of N(R) returnedto a destinationdoesnot changeuntil the sourcetimes out and reffansmits the packets beginning with the last received N(R) value plus I. [All packetsafter a lost or comrpted packet are retransmittedbecausethe destination ignores packetswith an out-of-sequencevalue in the incoming N(S)]. with a 3-bit length for N(s) a sourcecan have a maximum of sevenpacketsoutstanding at any particular time. (A particular sequence number cannot be reuseduntil an acknowledgmentfor the previous one has been received.) Beyond the maximum number of outstandingpackets determinedby the length of the sequence fields, particular applicationsmay be configured for a smaller number of outstandingpacketsfor flow control and reducing the amount of memory neededby a sourceto hold copies of unacknowledgedpackets.Whateverthe value of the maximum number of outstanding packets is, a destination is expectedto be able to receive that number as a burst. The destinationdoesnot have to immediately acknowledgea valid received packet if it is congestedand wants to free up rerrources before receiving more packets.If a system is configured with a maximum number of outrrtanding packetsthat often exceeds the capacity of a receiver,the systemworks but the sourcespendsa lot of time retransmitting packets that were discarded by the destination becauseit had no resources (memory) to store them, x.25 permits a user on an x.25 network to communicatewith a number of remote locations simultaneously. connections occur on logical channels of two types: switched virtual circuits (svcs) or permanentvirtual circuits (pvcs). svcs require a connection establishmentprocessbefore data can be transferred.A PVC is similar to a leasedline in that the connectionis permanently establishedby network administration. Therefbre, data can be sent without connection setup. To establish a connection on an svc, the originator sendsan x.25 call request packet, which includes the addressof the remote destination.The destinationdecides whether or not to acceptthe call (the call requestpacket includes the originator's address and possibly other information that the destination can use to decide to accept
-Use ofHDLC on high-speedfiber links has led to the use ofeven larger sequence numbers becausea large number of frames can be in fiansit on the link.

SWITCHING 471 10.2 PACKET

packetor rejected by returning by returninga call accepted the call). A call is accepted packet. a clearrequest 10.2.6 Frame Relay functions evolvedto providedataprocessing networks andfile $ervers As local area LANs at separate sitesbecame somemeims of interconnecting within a corporation, LAN interconnection threewaysof accomplishing Figure10.6illustrates necessary. utilizesa public network(WAN). Thefust method widearea a colporate to implement between theLANs. This approach (X.25)packet-switching networkto relaymessages interconnectof inter-LANtaffic. It alsofacilitates is a usefulonefor limitedamounts tokenrings,or tokenbuses)LANs (suchasEthernets, ing two or moredissimilar

Public packet network

(a)

LAI{ I

Lsasd digital lire (b)

LA}-I2

Frame relay network

(c)

methods:(a) through x,25 packet-switching Figure 10.6 LAN-Io-LAN interconnectron line; (c) tfuoughframerelaynetwork. leased netowrk;(b) through

472

DATAANDASYNCHRoNoUSTHANSFERMoDENETWoRKS

becausethe X.25 interface of each LAN acts as a data link layer protocol converter. The main drawback is the cost and slow responsefor high-bandwidth ffansfers. The secondapproachof interconnectingthe two LANs is to use a leasedline. obviously this approachis more cost effective if large amountsof dataare transferredbetween the two locations. The LANAVAN interface equipment used to connect to the leased line will vary depending on the nature of the individual LANs and how the LANs and WAN are administered.Functional possibilities for the LAN-WAN interface are bridges, routers, or switches.The speedchosenfor the leasedline inevitably requires compromising performanceobjectives with cost. The third method of interconnectingthe LANs is to use a frame relay service of a common carrier. Framerelay serviceswere developedspecifically to addressLAN in_ terconnection and are available from all major common carriers. Frame relay is a packet-rtwitchingprotocol but is faster than traditional X.25 networks because it does not provide error control. Error control at the data link layer (e.g., HDLC of x.25) requires receipt of an entire packet before it can be forwarded from one link to another. Frame relay also supports shortenedaddressprocessingwith a data link connection identifier (DLCI) field in rhe headerwhich identifies a pvc. The frame relay prorocol is defined by the ANSI Tl.618 standardand ITU Recommendation e.922. The PVC feature of frame relay permits the functional equivalent of a leased-line connection but much more cost effectively for high-rate, bursty traffic. Furthermore, a single frame relay accessdevice (FRAD) can achieve connectivity to multiple remote LANs by using a different DLCI for eachremote LAN. Frame relay nodescan processthe simpler addressformat and switch an incoming messagedirectly to an outgoing line as it is being received. The elimination of error control- at the datalink layer of a network protocol reflects the fact that the underlying transmissionfacility, fiber, is essentiallyerror free. In this environment it is more efficient to move effor control to a higher level (e.g., an application layer). when infrequent errors occur, the application can invoke error control as appropriate to the application. Example 10.1. Determine the amount of transmission capacity required to refransmitframesof1000bitsof datainanetworkwith l0tandemlinkseachof which has bit error probability IO"t. (a) Assume link-by-link enor conrrol. (b) Assume end-to-endenor control. (c) Repeatthe calculationsfor a bit error probability of l0-5. Solution, (a) with link-by-linkerrorcontroltheprobability of abit errorin a frameis 1000 x

10-8= l0*s. Theexpected number of bits of transmission capacity required to rerransmir is l0-5 x 1000= 0.01bit/link. (b) with end-to-end error conffol the probability of a comrpted frame is 10x tO-s = l0+. The expected retransmission capacityrequiredis lO-a x = 0.1biilink. 1000

CRCsareincludedin framesof framerelay data,but a framerelay nodedoesnot request a retransmission if an error is detected.

10.2 PACKET SWITCHING 473

(c) With a bit enor rare of 10-5, the respective calculations are 10 bits/link for link-by-link conffol and 100 bitsflink for end-to-endcontrol. Example 10.I illustrates that with very Iow bit error probabilities both forms of error conffol require insignificant amounts of transmissioncapacity for frame retransmissions.Thus, from a transmissioncapacity point of view there is no reasonto use linkby-link effor control. On transmission links with higher rates, a$ in Tl lines with marginal error perfbrmance,link-bylink error control is obviously desirable,pruticularly in a packet network where packetsmight be larger than 1000 bits. 10.2.7 TCP/IP

The original networking protocol of the ARPANET was designatedNetwork Control the needsof a single network, it could Protocol (NCP). While this protocol addressed from one network to another.The desireto communicating not be usedas a meansof from a node in one network to a communication allow develop a protocol that would of Transmission Control development node in another network led to the eventual in ARPANET hostson (TCP/IP) replaced NCP Protocolflntemet Protocol [8]. TCP/IP I, 1983. January TCP/IP is a protocol that can be used within a network, but more importantly, it hetween two netwOrks'"Thus, the Internet can be used as a prOtocolto Communicate is composedof many networks that communicatewith eachother using TCP/IP. Foremost among these many networks are LANs. The Internet is yet another way for interconnecting LANs. ftr conftast to fhe creafion of a corporate WAN using frame relay, LAN interconnection via ttre Internet is primarily intended to crossco{porateboundaries. As defined by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), TCP/F usesvariablelength packetsthat are processedwith basically one class of service:best-effort routing. A user datagramprotocol (UDP) replacesTCP when real time servicessuch as voice or video are carried. UDP has no reffansmissions.Before Voice on the Infernet (VoIP) can be realized for somethingapproachinguniversal service,the routers must be extencled to support a new class of service: one with controlled delay, delay variA first attempt to addressthe quatity-of-service issue ation, and delivery guarantees. was a propo$edmodification of TCPIP with a Reservation Protocol (RSVP). This was determinedunsatisfactorybecauseit required changing all nodes in a ap-proac:h "differentiated service" network simultaneously [9]. A more practical approachis a (DiffServ) enhancement to TCP/IP. When considering the viability and expected quality of service of packetized between IP telephony and Internet speech,it is worthwhile to consider the difTerence telephony. IP telephony refers to carrying packetizedspeechin an IP network. Ifthis network is wholly containedwithin one organization,commonly referred to as an intranet, it is more likely that a relatively high level quality of service can be provided. Packetizedspeechcarried over the Internet that traverse$multiple, autonomou$net*Th" m,r*t *pp*unt aspectof TCP/IP to a uscr is the Universal ResoutceLocator (URL), with the following The address.tld (.top level.domain) identifies a location on format: filetype://www.address.tld/resource. the web while everything after thc back slash identities a resource(e.g., a frle) inside the location.

474

DATAANDASyNcHRoNousTRAN$FEHMoDENETWoHKS

works is much more difficult to rnanage,particularly when economic considerations for allocation ofcosts and revenuesare considered.For a description ofmany ofthe technical considerationsforpacketized voice seereference [10].

10.3 ASYNCHRONOUS THANSFERMODE NETWORKS In contra$t to TCP/IP,theAsynchronous Transfer Mode(ATM) networkarchitecture incorporated features for supporting real-time traffic suchasvoiceandvideoin theinitial implementation. Theprincipalaspects of ATM directed to real-time$uppofi are short,fixed-sized packets (cells),shortheaders, andno link-byjink errorcontrol.* ATM is a standardized architecture of packet-oriented transmission andswitching originallyproposed for a Broadband Integrared servicesDigital Network(BISDN). ATM hassincebeenexpanded in scope to supporta wide varietyof seruice types; wideband, narrowband, bursty,non-reartime,andrealtime.The synchronous TDM (circuit-switched) networkthatevolved primarilyfor voiceservices supports thesame services with external adaptations, but theadaptations comefrom u u*i"ty of suppliersnecessitating theneed for multiple,nonintegrated, nonsiandardized equipment and support.ATM standardizes thewide rangeof services by definingquality-of-service re_ quirements fbr variousnaffic qrpes. The quality-of-service pu*-rt ru specificallyin_ tended far voiceservices aremaximumdelay,delayvariation, andcell losi probability. 10.3.1 ATM Cells TheATM transmission formatconsists of fixed-size cellsof 53 byteseach. As shown in Figure10.7, therearefive overhead byteswithin eachcell, wtrichteads to 4g bwes of payloadper cell' The useof fixed-sized cells for all applications facilitates hardware-only implementations of switching functions (queuing andtransfer;. Cell Loss Prlority Thecell losspriority (CLP)bit in thecell header is usedto identifyrwo basicclasses of service with respect to discarding of cellswithin a network. when a cell with a cl-p valueof I arrivesat a heavilycongested networkelement, thatcellcanbediscarded to relievecongestion for higherpriority traffic (e.g.,cellswith cl-p = 0). cells with a cl-p valueof 0 areneverdiscarded unless atl cellswith lowerpriority areaheady discarded. 10.3.2 ATM Service Gategoriee ATM services arecategorized (by theATM forum Il l, 121) into thefollowing caregories related to the statistical nature of thedataraterequirements of therespective sources and thequalityof selvice(Qos) thatthenetworkcanprovidefor those$ervices:
-TCP/IP also defets eror control to the application but has variable-sized packets and a relatively complicated header format.

NETWOHKS 476 MODE TRANSFER 10,3 ASYNCHRONOUS

Bits 5 4

Floru Control VirtualPath tdentifier

ldentifier VidualPath

ViduafChar rnelldentifier Type Payload HeaderEnorCheck Payload CLF

3 4 5 I Byr"*

Payload

5S

CLP,cell lossprioriry' FlgureI0.7 ATM cellformat; (CBR) services Constant-bit-rate (VBR) services Variable-bit-rate Availablebit rate(ABR) services bit rate(UBR) services Unspecified Con stant-Bit-Bate Servl cee datarateassuming a specified is guaranteed a CBR service An application requesting (i.e.,ttrenetworkcanpreallocate sufficientresources is accepted request the service TDM service. CBR is similarto a synchronous Thus,a CBR service for therequest). fo emulatecircuit switching.A CBR application are specificallydesigned services send rate(i.e.,thepeakcell rate)but neednot necessarily cannot the specified exceed aredifferentfrom synchronous CBR services rate.In this sense, dataat the specified of time in which thereareno dataavailable, hasperiods TDM services-if a source for otherapplications' may be released capacity the channel Va riable-Eit-Rate Se rulcee realtime (rt-VBR) andnoninto two distinctcategories: VBR services areseparated with tightly conbursty are for applications (fft-VBR). rt-VBR services The realtime or The main QoS as voice video. sqch variation requirements delay strained delayand

476

DATAANDASyNcHRoNousTRANSFEFMoDENETwoRKS

parameter of an rt-vBR service is the maximumcell transfer delay(maxcTD).The nIt-VBR services arefor burstydatatransmission applications with no particular deIay requirements. wheneveran rt-vBR or nrt-vBR service request is accepted, the foltowingthree parameters areagreed uponfor source transmission statistics: Peakcell rate(pCR) Sustainable cell rate(SCR) Maximumburstsize(MBS) As long asthe sourceadheres to the abovestatisticalparameters, the networkis committed to carryingthe traffic. Avallable Blt Rate Serulces ABR services areintended for non-real-time applications thatoperate between a minimum andmaximum dataratespecified by a minimumcell rate(MCR) parameter and a PCRparameter' An essential aspect of ABR services is theneed for feedback signals within thenetworkto controltheflow of datafrom theABR sources. Thenetworkdvnamically allocates additional resources to ABR services (beyond those for MCn,up_ port)whentheadditional resources areavailable andsoinformstheABR sources with thefeedback mechanism. Unspeclfled Blt Rate Seruices UBR services areinherently intended for non-real-time applications whereinno ripecific qualityof service is desired or implied.Neitherdelayparameters nor cell lossratios (cLRs) are specified. If a networkbecomes overly ctngested, cells from uBR applications arediscarded by the network(asopposed to confrollingthe flow of the UBR source)' when a UBR application negotiates a connection, a pcR parameter valuemay be providedby the network,whichprovides the application with an indicationof thethroughput thatcanbe expected. Thefollowinginoicates whicheos pa_ rameters arerelevant to theATM classes of service.

QoSParameter Gelllossratio(CLR) Celltransit (CTD) delay Celldelay (CDV) variation Peak cellrate(PCFI) Sustained cellrate(SCR) Burst (BT) tolerance Flowcontrol

CBH

N-VBH

nrt-VBR

X X X X

X X X X X X

X X X X

477 10.3 ASYNGHHONOUSTRANSFERMODENETWORKS

10.3.3 ATMGonnectlong
mustmakea rewhich means that a source oriented, areconnection ATM networks aroutethrough determines control Network cells. before quest transmitting for service probabilistic in response (in sense) or resources a statistical thenetworkandallocates mode in a LANs typicallyoperate connectionless In cOntrast, reque$t. to eachservice need the arises' whenever datato a destination unconskained sends whereina $ource (VCCs)and connections virtualchannel ATM supports two typesof connections: repretwo user$ (VPCs).A VCC is a virtualcircuitbetween virtualpathconnections two common of cells.WhentherearemultipleVCCsbetween a singlestream senting netasa bundle of VCCs.Theuseof VPCssimplifies a VPC canbecreated endpoints, benetwork ATM of intermediate nodes an of operations the and management work a Thus, VCCs. opposed to individual as processed as entity a single a VFC is cause network' group a circuit-switched in to a trunk VPC is analogous 10.3.4 ATM Switching cellsarrivingon one fabricis to transfer of an ATM switching Thebasicrequirement beforean mustbe processed incomingheaders link. Because physical link to another an outgoinglink is througha switchand because incomingcell can be fiansferred alwaysprovidesomeamountof delayin the switchlikely to bebusy,ATM sffuctures in functions provideboth space andtime switching Thus,ATM switches ing process. 5. Chapter in switches described circuit TDM as manner a similar of an ATM switch servicingstreaffr and complication, A significantdifference, ATM cellscanarTDM channels, to in contrast is that, video traffic suchasvoiceor that a parthe greatly increases likelihood phenomenon rive at irregularintervals.This The network. of a switching link interstage blockingon a shared ticularcell encounters until cells queue for blocked basicsolutionto this problemis to addcell buffersa$a are path is free. Simplefirst-in, first-out (FIFO) queuingoperations the necessary disif theFIFO networkefficiencyoccurs but better in hardware readilyimplemented ablocked with anopenpathto bypass ciplineis modifiedto allow a cell in thequeue aredesirable. implementations hardware Thus,morecomplicated ennl fl3, 141. of an ATM switchthat are differentfrom a TDM circuit The principalaspects switchare: to be needs information incomingtime slot soheader t . Thereis no preassigned incomingcells' to know whereto transfer andprocessed extracted cells so the delay for outgoing slot outgoingtime 2. There is no preassigned with waiting queuing delay associated cellsis a variable involvedin transferring until theoutgoinglink is idle. differentthanwhat is informationin an outgoingcell is generally The header into thetraffic information appropriate header insert sotheswitchmust received stream.

478

DATAANDAsYNcHHoNoUSTHANSFERMoDENETwoRKs

economical design is onein which all traffic is writteninto anareadfrom a cornmon memory.In additionto the switchingfabric,a high-speed ATM switchmustimple_ mentothercell processing functions in hardware. These functions areheader e*t action,header errorchecking, tablelookupfor routeinformation usingreceived virtual pathindicator(VPD or vcc, recording of traffic usage statisti"r,""ll queuing/rejec_ tion, insertion of outgoing vpl/vcc, andoutgoing checksum generation. Example10.?. Determine the memoryspeed requiredfor an ATM switchfabric using a shared-memory archite*urein supportof 12 srs-3 (oc-3) bidirecrional ports' Also determine the numberof voice connections that can-becarriedby this switch.Assume thatanactivevoicesignalrequires 12kbpsandthattheactivityfactor is 40Vo. solution. Exceptforthegbytesofpathoverhead, alrbyres ofan srs-3 payloadcan be usedfor ATM cells. Thus, each srs-3 input rink provides 260 x g/s3 44 cells/frame. (A partialframeis not carriedsocell boundaries canbe alignedwith the startof thesrs-3 payload.) If a S3-byte-wide memory is used for storing thecells,rhe total access ratefor l2 bidirectional porrsis 12x z x,44 xg000 = g.++t rralt. sinceeachATM cell provides 4g bytesofpayload,the numberofvoice connec_ tionsthatcanbe supported by onesTS-3 is a4 x 4g x g x g0fi)/12,000/0.4 = 2g,160 connections. Thetotalcapacity of the switchis 337,g20 voicecalls. It is interesting to compare theresults of Example10.2with a circuitswitchdesign for 64-kbpsvoicechanners. using a standard soNET multiprexing format,a single srs-3 caniesthreeDS3 signals (2016voicechannels). sirnitarty,*a srs-3 (e.g.,an srM-1) carries a singleB$ signalwith 1920voicechannels. In eithercase, thecapac_ ity of each ATM link is over10timesthecapacity of theconventional circuit-switched architecture usingthe samedatarate.The advanfege comesfrom a combination of compressing the speech andtakingadvantage of voiceinactivity. A memoryswitchfor 12x 2016= z4,rgzchannels requires an access rateof 3g7 MHz, whichis muchgreater thantheg.44g-MHz access rateof theATM switch,even though thetotalcapacity is muchless. Thereason for thehighaccess rateofthe circuit switchis thatonly 8 bitsarebeingswitched at a time.rr muttiptebyteswereaccumulatedand switched througha wider memory,asin the eru case, ttreaccess rateof the circuit switchwouldbe reduced accordingly. circuit switches havenot beenim_ plemented with wider ffansfers to preventthe insertion of extracircuit delay.Voice interfaces to ATM networks necessarily require anechocanceler to accommodate the delay. Example10'?is a nonblocking switchasfar asinternal operations of theswitchare concerned' However, if a largeburstof kaffic arrivesat oni particular outputport, it maybe thatsome cellsarediscarded because thequeue for thatparticular port is full.

ATM ltlemory Switch As is thecase of TDM circuitswitches, ATM switches usememory switching to the maximum po$sible. extent Aslongasthememory speeds support thetraffic, themost

4Ig 10.3 ASYNCHRONOUSTRANSFERMODENETWORKS

ports,otheroutgoingportsareoperating for some Noticethat if traffic is beingqueued belowtheircapacity. The amountof variationin the traffic flow on outgoingATM links is a directfuncinvolvedin settingup concontrol(CAC) process admission tion of the connection arrival VPCshaverelativelyconstant areVPCsandthese If all connections nections. channels variable-rate the aggregate datarateof multiple, independent rates(because of thenetworkwill beefficientlyutilized resources thetransmission is fairly constant), (and largerqueues traffic arehighly variable, queue If arrivals sizes. the with modest utilization. transmission link to high largerdelays) arerequired achieve consequently typesaregivenpriority so Whenthereis a mixtureof traffic types,the time-critical cells. to non-real-time-critical areconfined cell lossandlong delays Spac*Memory Switch The implementationof large ATM switchesrequiresmultiple stagesof spaceand thatlargetime divisionswitches manner timesswitching(e.g.,buffering)in the same involves usefularchitecture Oneparticularly 5 areimplemented. in Chapter described queues' aS shown by output followed separate switch as a TDM $pace front-end bus a (S/P) ofthe circuits to series-to-Parallel is synchronized inputbus The in Figure10.8. must the bus Thus, every cell. for received input portssothat a time slot is assigned table via a is decoded header Each of all incomingsignals. at rhetotal speed operate for recells store only outputsotheoutputmemories look-upto select theappropriate outputports. spective shownin Figure architecture The main attractionof the multiple-output-memory broadcasting Furthermore, to a largerangeof switchsizes. 10.8is its ability to scale simullogic enable decode by havingtheheader andmulticasting areeasilysupported notdo much does thisarchitecture Unfortunately, writesinto multiplebuffer$. taneou$ theoutputport only need to support problems. Outputaccesses speed to solvememory slots on the bus. time successive suppofr must rate,but input accesses transmission acting caches high-speed with alleviated restrictions canbe somewhat Memoryspeed in Figure shown thebusandlarger,sloweroutputbuffels,as between buffers asspeed ofcell losswhen a source Thecaches do notaddmuchcell delaybutdorepre$ent 10.9. outputline' of a burstto therespective onefills up because

bufferATM swirch. Figure 10.t Input bus/output

480

DATAANDASYNCHBONOUS THANSFEH MODENETWORKS

Figure 10.9 Inputbus/output bufferATM switchwith caches.

coming cells are available to all output ports via separatepaths for each input. Each input path in each output port module is terminated in a separate cell buffer. Associated with each buffer is a table look-up function that selectsonly those cells destined to the respectiveoutput port$. Output data are selectedfrom the $eparate buffers as a cornmon queue,thereby pedorming a spaceswitch function. The main advantageof the configuration shown if Figure I 0. I 0 is that all data paths and memories operateat the external link speed.The basic disadvantageis the need for AP buffers (and AP headerprocessors),where N is the number orplrts. cell loss occurs when an incoming cell encountersa full buffer. The probability of this occurring is conkolled by how much traffic for a particula-r output is accepted from a particular input. The use of multiple, individual queues leads to smailer group sizes, which leadsto more total memory for a given cell loss probability. However, because the memories operateat relatively low speeds,the cost impact is minimizea. Notice that delay probabilities are determined by the total traffic ur.*pt-d for an ourput port in the samemiutner as previous con_figurations.*

Memory-SpaceSwitch Another version of a two-stage ATM switch is shown in Figure 10.10 wherein all in-

ATM switcharchitectures with singlestages of space andmemoryswitchingareimpracticalin termsof speed and/orhardware requirements whenvery large$ysrem$ are desired. As is thecase with circuit-switching architecture$, morepractic-aVeconomical structures requiremultiple memorystages or multiple space stages-or both. one such architecture is a counterpart to a TST switch, the memory-space-memory (MSM) implementation shownin Figure10.I L Theinpurmemorystage of anMSM bufferscomplete cells of informationthat arequeued for transfeithroughthe space stage andthenbufferedagainfor transfer from the outputmemory.successive cells of aparticular connection arenotnecessarily transfened through thi space smge at any palticularpredetermined time. As eachcell is received into an inpui buffer,a queue entryis madefor rheappropriate transferthrough thespace stage. Support ormuitiple
*This assumesthat the separatebuffers associated with each output link are managed as a single FIFO queue for output purposes.

Mem ory-$ pace-l,ilem ory Switch

481 10.3 ASYNCHFONOUSTBANSFERMODENETWORKS

ATM swirch. Flgure10.10 Multiple-memory (usuallysharing a coilunonmemory multipleinput queues reqUire of service classes element). the destage, throughthe space Beforea cell in an input buffer canbe transferred outputmemoryis busy, for input.If the desired mustbe available siredouput stage If another cell in the blockingoccurs. andhead-of-line the cell carnotbe transferred cellsareblocked, whenoneor moreof the head-of-line canbe selected input queue in areea$yto implement the impactof the blockingis minimized.Suchoperations swirchesbut must be implementedin hardstore-and-forward computer-controlled to determiningif ATM switch. An altemativeapproach ware in a large,high-speed cellsthrough theswitch is madeis to blindly fransfer beforea hansfer blockingexists andhaveblockedcells reenteran input polt though a recirculationpath,asshownin is very of sucha system lossperformance the delay/cell Figure 10.12.Determining on theprobabilityof blocking andthenumberof cellsthat anddependent complicated buffer(s). canentertherecirculation

ATM switch. Figure 10.11 Memory-space-nremory

482

DATAANDASYNCHRoNoUSTRANSFEFM0DENETWoRKS

Figurel0.l? Memory-space_memory switch withrecirculation. For bestperformance, theinputcellsfrom all input linesof anMSM switchshould be distributed across all input buffersusing a front-endshuffledistributionswitch decorrelates [15]' This process the enhiesin an input queue from the cell arrivalsof anyoneparticular input line. Recallthat a similaroperation is advantageous in TST switches to reduceblocking probabilities for individual channels of a busy trunk group. Thedesign of a space stage for anMSM switchmatrixcanfollow anyoneof a va. riety of approaches, includinga single-stage square matrix or a multipie-stage clos network,asdescribed in chapter5. with eitherof these designs the probabilityancl treatment of outputblockingcanbe minimized by runningthe space stage fasterthan the cell rateof the extemalports(i.e.,with the MSM equivalent of time expansion). The existence of expanded opporhrnities for space stage transfers reduces the probabilityof contention for anoutput bufferandminimizes thedelaywhencontention occurs.A very significant consideration in the space stage design is the complexityof hardware control logic, particularrywhen multiple service Irioriti", and multiple pathsthroughthe switch areaccomrnodated. Banyan Network Swltch one approach to implementing modularspace stagestructures is a banyan network in Figure10.13, U6l. As indicated abanyan nerwork is implemenred by inrerconnecring 2 x 2 switching elements in multiple,recursive stages. Noticethatthe g x g skuctureis implemented astwo 4 x 4 structures andanadditional front-end srage to select eitherofthe two 4 x 4 structures from each input.Repeated replications andfirst-stage additions allow implementation of arbitrarysizednetworks. A banyan networkprovides full accessibility in thatanyinputcanbe connected to anyoutput. Noticethatthereis a unique pathbetween anyinputandanyoutput. How-

483 10.3 ASYNCHRONOUSTRANSFEFMODENETWORKS

-l-

r-t
Slraight
(a)

-Et*
Cross

(b) (b) statesl element connection network:(a) 2 x 2 switching Figure 10.13 Banyanswirching 8 x I network.

to thefirst outIf thefirst inputis connected arenot nonblocking. ever,thenetworks to oneofthe bottomfouroutput,for example, thesecond inputcanonlybeconnected involves network of thebanyan puts.Onemethod of overcoming theblockingaspects netto asBenes referred what aregenerally to produce tWosuchsections cascading of connections if rearangement networkis strictlynonblocking works[17]. A Benes a Batcher of a banyannetworkis to concatenate is utilized.Anotheraugmentation the process orders The front-end sorting a network. banyan sortingnetwork[18] with modiAnother blocking. theswitchwithout through cellssotheycanall betransferred is to addparallelnetworks blockingproblems networkto address ficationto a banyan referredto as switch planesto provide more pathsto an output.This latter approach in Chapswitchdescribed to a multiple-stage stages to addingmorecenter is identical pathrouting. thesimplicityof unique compromises thisapproach ter 5. Unfortunately, networkis the modularsimplicityof its control. of a banyan The basicattraction prothroughthe network,the table look-up process When a cell it to be transferred The defines network. first bit the through for routing ofbits internal a sequence duces theselection of thesecThesecond bit deflnes element. theselection of thefirst-stage cell and of the the front to ond stageand so on. The routing information is appended time, at a with leadtheswitchonestage is transferred through message thecomposite networkutilizesdirectprogressive ing bits deleted asthey areused.Thus,a banyan in Chapter switch,described step-by-step of anelectromechanical controlreminiscent to provide multiple 5. Unfortunately,modificationsto the basicbanyanarchitecture control. of the hardware pathscompromises the simplicity anddistributedaspect proposed anddevelbeen architecfures have switch variety other ATM of A wide oped[19-23].

484

DATAAND ASYNcHRoNoUS THANSFER MoDENETWoHKS

10.3.5 ATMApplicarions
Although the basic ATM architectureis primarily directed to servicing data communications, the ATM architectureincludes provisions for other servicessuch as voice, video, and multimedia. Supportfor the various servicesis included in various versions of ATM adaptationlayers (AALs). service adaptationoccursat the periphery of a network in edgesswitches.Internal nodesof an ATM network (core switches)are unconcerned with the nature of the traffic other than supporting the eos objectives of the generalclassesof service.The role of AALs are shown in the functional layers of Figure 10.14 of the (ATM) Multi-service switching Forum (MSF) The generat [?4]. classesof service and the adaptationlayers to support theseservicesare identified as follows: AALI: Transport of cBR rraff,rc (program audio, video, and emulation of TDM-basedcircuits (i.e.,DSl, El). AAL2: Protocol standard for low-bit-rate and time-dependentvariable-bit-rate (VBR-rt) connection-orientedtraffic (compressed voice anclpacketizedvideo). AAL3/4: Protocol standard for supporting both connectionless and connection-orientedvBR traffic [primary application, switched Multimesabit Data Service(SMDS)1. AALS: Transport of vBR traffic anclsignaling messages (packet data, Ip, frame relay, LAN emulation).

CircuitEmulatlon Serulces A circuit emulation service (cES)t25lis used to transport TDM-based channels such asDSO, DSl, or El signals. processed cESsare according to anAALI protocol. A Applications Gontrol plf,ne Switching plane Adaptation plsne

Extemel interfaces
Figure 10.14 ATM functional implementation layers.

485 10.s ASyNcHFoNoUSTHANSFERMoDENETWoBKS

clock at the egress critical aspect of a CES serviceinvolvesrecoveryof the source recoveryscethree clock different depicts point of the ATM network.Figure 10.15 The desirable most synchronization. nariosdependent on the natureof the network in which the entirenetwork,includingthe data is shownin Figure 10.154, situation the primaryreference clock (PRC).In this case is synchronized to a common source, value output dataclock is derivedfrom the PRC andthereforehasthe sameaverage cell delayvariation(CDV) criteria, asthe source. As long astheATM networkmeets andno cell arrivalvariations absorbs AALI equipment the cell buffer in the egress dataslipsmayoccur. CDV requirements, exceed dataarelost.If cell arrivalvariations to consist of integral the slipsshouldbe controlled As is the casein TDM networks data(e.g.,193bitsfor DSI or 256bitsfor El) to of frames of theunderlying numbers circuit. preclude lossof framingin the underlying configuration whereinthe ATM networkis synshows network l0.l5b a Figure is source timedfrom someotherreference. but the PRC data chronized to a common (SRTSs). residual time stamps synchronous utilize ATM networks For this situation, ingress at data stream an overhead ofa cell into the inserted areperiodically SRTSs by dividing rate source theaverage data of the AALI candetermine AALI. Theegress by thetimeintervaldeSRTSs successive received between data theamount of source on the ingress andegress depends Noticethatthe useof SRTSs finedby the SRTSs. to a common PRC. equipment beingsynchronized and egress casein which the ingress Figure 10.15c depictsthe most undesirable (PRCI andPRCZ). In this case, adaptive references by separate nodes arecontrolled dataclock. Adaptiveclockinginvolvesa clockingis utilized to recoverthe source measphase-locked loop (PLL) with the fill levelof thecell bufferprovidinga phase fill long-term average filter to determine the is used low A bandwidth urement. very in Jitter the the clock VCO. output of recovered the establishes level,which in tum andnarrow-bandwidth hy usinga large-cell-buffer derivedclockis easilycontrolled (wander) caused by irregularcell arvariations clock low-frequency PLL. However, on the appli clock. Depending to thederived ransferred rival timesareunavoidably problems. DSI signal,for If a downstream cation,thewandermay or may not cause to voice no impairments into analogsignals, demultiplexed is immediately example, (beaffected maybe adversely modems voiceband channels will arisebut high-speed passed is instead phase). If theDSI signal reference to thecarrier cause of impairments interface store to slipsin theelastic contribute machine, thewandermay to a switching comrptvoicebut significantly of theswitch.Again,slipsdo not impairvoicesignals banddata. LAN Emulatlon theATM applications, andestablished with LAN protocols To providecompatibility how EthForumcreated a protocol,calledLAN Emulation(LANE), which defines overanATM datacanbecarried andtokenring LAN (IEEE802.5) ernet(IEEE802.3) LAN-to-LAN connecFigure10.16 showhow anATM networkcanprovide network. (ATM to thedesktop). Thecondirectlyto workstations tivity aswell asconnectivity LANs is simulatedin a manner that first nectionless nature of contemporary

DATAANDASYNCHRONOUS TRANSFER MODENETWOFKS

(a)

(b)

lPRcTl
.;

(c) Figure 10.15 Synchronization of circuitemulation (a) fully synchronized services: network; (D)unsynchronized (sRTsderived source clock);(c) unsynchronized ATM gateways (adaptive clocking).

487 10.3 ASYNCHRONOUSTRANSFERMODENETWOBKS

EnterpriseLAtl

usingATM LAN emulation. Figure 10.16 LAN interconnection

(SVCor PVC)to an addressed If so, station exists. already if a connection determines andthen Otherwise, anSVCis first established is sent anATM message to thestation. in everyLAN atclient (LEC) is established the message is sent.A LAN Emulation areusedto typesof LAN Emulationservers tachment to the ATM network.Several as and LAN multicast provide functions $uch contemporary configure theLECsand broadcast services. Low-Bit-Rdte Voice greatsavings in a CESmode, PCM channels as64-kbps Althoughvoicecanbecarried voice. Transportof comby transmittingcompressed in bandwidthare achieved to andfrom digital cellular for ffansmission pressed appropriate voiceis particularly Similarly, or about to becompressed. compressed wherevoiceis already basestations PBXsof a ptivatenetwork between voicechannels transport of a groupof compressed canbe serviced individualvoicechannels in Figure10.17, As shown is advantageous. packing of low-bit(AAL2) frames by multiple circuits switched virtual as VBR-rt in 10.17 particular shown Figure assumes example rate$peech into ATM cells.The (CS-ACELP) voicecomStructured AlgebraicCodeExcitedLPC G.729Conjugate puts4.8 processing pression ftame.Noticethatcell packing with 80 bits per lO-msec by asmuchas40 thevoicelatency ACELPframes into anATM cell,whichincreases of transmission. msecin eachdirection by forming a trunk groupandpackingmultiple The voice latencycanbe reduced A singlecell canthen packets 48-byte voice into cell payloads. individual compressed packets not a lot of delayto the inframe add in and a carry four lO-byteCS-ACELP

488

DATAANDAsyNcHRoNoUsTRANsFEHMoDENETwoRKS

Ftgure 10.17 Packing low-bit-rate voice intoATM. dividualchannels. This approach is particularly usefulfor fixed networktransport of digital cellulartraffic, which inherenflyinvolvesmultiple connections to and from basestations. Example10.3. Derermine the probabilirythat the delay of an ATM voice cell exceed$ l0 msecif the cell is carriedon a DSI access link to an ATM network. Assume theaccess link is 907o utilizedon averase. solution. The solutionto this problemutilizes queuingtheory as presented in chapter12 wheremoreproblems of this typeareprovided. It involvesdetermining . theprobabilitythattheDSl acce$s queue contains enough cellsto represent l0 msec of transmission time. Assuming all but the framingbit of the DSI signalis usedto carryATM cells,theservice time (f.) of a singlecell is determined as 53x8 = 276 t = Psec rgt; Booo Therefore, l0 msecof delayrepresents lo/0.2j6= 36.2cell times.Equation12.25 of Chapterl2 is usedto geta solution: P(>t)= Ps-(l*P)t/rn : (0.9)e(14'e)36'2 p(>10msec) = 0.025 Example10.3indicatesthat2.5vo of the cellswill be delayed by morethan l0 msec' Tenmilliseconds of delayon anacce$s link is quiteacceptable considering there arepresumably only two access links in a connection. Delaysof this magnitude are not acceptable on internallinks of an ATM network,but the internallinks havevery highbandwidths andassuchvery shortservice timessoqueuing delayof voicecells

489 10.3 ASYN0HHONOUSTRANSFEHMODENETWORKS

priority andthe is not muchof a consideration-aslong as voicecellsget adequate CAC limits thenumberof voicecallson a link. Thefirst The solution to ExampleI0.3 involvesa coupleof simplifyingshortcuts. times for exponential service is the useof Equation12.25, whichis intended of these in timesimpliedby fixedJengthcells.As discussed to constant services as opposed generally not for cell analyses are appropriate ATM 12,constant-service-time Chapter A Iargefile or extended dutraffic because the cellsarenot statistically independent. to a burst of cells that havean effect comparable a variableration talkspurtcreates time model. service the useof an exponential lengthmessage-hence of hoA second simplification of the solutionof Example10.3is an assumption well bemogeneous are reasonably traffic-all voicecells.Multiple voice sources point of view because an no one source canproduce havedfrom a traffic statistics Whena mixtureof traffic typeswith instantaneous burstof cellsascana file transfer. prioritiesexist,theanalysis is quiteinvolved a mixtureof arrivalstatistics andservice (asopposed analytical solutions). to time-honored simulation andtypicallyrequires discipline(priarethequeue size,thequeue Otherfactors thatinfluence the analyses andthe algorithms, flow controlalgorithms, oritiesandorderof service), cell discard (what real versus percentage of is allocated time disa link to CAC specific algorithm undertaken to analyze of has been amount research traffic). An extensive cretionary Referandprocessing algorithms. theperformance of various ATM switchstructures ences [26-28] aresomegoodexamples. in Example10.3is requiredto The conditionof 907oloadingof voice channels is attempted, loadingof voicechannels achieve of delay.If 700Vo a controlled amount queuing Thechannel can delayis unbounded. 10.2, asimpliedby Example theaverage is discretionary, non-real-time traffic. The if theadditional107o still be 1007o loaded discrevoicetraffic to be givenpriority in a manner thatneversends requires solution Otherwise, the discretionary if thereareany voicecellsin the queue. tionarytraff,rc (e.9.,besteffott) Cell lossfor thediscretionary traffic impacts the queuing analysis. at closeto 100%of capacity. if a link is allocated haff,rc will be significant Traffic Shaping nodeso of an access the controlof $ources Traffic shaping is a termusedto denote (e.g.,SCRandPCR).Traffic thattheyconformto a panicularsetof traffic statistics for othmay involveflow controlfor sometypesof fiaffic or cell discarding shaping is lessvariablethanthe statistics of a groupof sources of ers.Because the statistics canbe implemented with lessimpacton individual individualsources, haffic shaping (VCC$)arepacked into a groupandshaped asa traffic streams if a groupof sources process of theindividualVCCs(e.g., hasaccess to thesources VPC.If a VPC creation possibilities In this for traffic shaping occur. 64-kbps additional PCM voicechannels), processes for be controlled to achieve compression the individual VCCs can case the qualitydegradation each distributed across composite dataratewith speech a constaflt to an individualconnection asa of thechannels asopposed to degradation occurring of traffic of othertechniques resultof cell lossor excessive delay.For a description andan associated ofdelay andcell lo$s,seereferences shaping analysis [29 and30].

490

DATAAND ASYNCHHONOUS THANSFEFMODENETWORKS

TABLE10.1 Uncompressed Blt Ratesof Dlgltlzed Standards $tandard

NTSC PAL HDTV

Pixels/Line LineVFrame Frames/sec

pixels/sec 9.216 16.675 62.208

Mbps 221 400 1493

640 s80 1920

480 575 1080

30 50 30

This principle can also be applied to MpEG-z video encodingof multiple, real-time video signalst3l, 321.Maintaining a constantcompositedatarate of multiple independent channels complicates the multiplexing process becausea figure of quality most be preparedand comparedacrossthe multiple sourcesto determinewhich source is least affected by a lower bandwidth allocation. Undoubtedly, this processalso adds delay to the channelssince double-passencoding may be required.

Video
Tablel0' I identifies threemajortelevision standards andthebit rates required to digitally encode themwith no compression andusing24bitsperpixel.Thethreestandards areNTSC for North Americanbroadcast TV, PAL for European broadcast TV, and high-definition TV (HDTV). Two ver$ions of digital compression encoding havebeendefinedby the Motion Pictures ExpertGroup:MPEGI andMPJG2. MPEGI is intended for vHS-quality videoandaudio.MPEG2addresses higherqualityrequirements of broadcast-quality videoand audioaswell asHDTV. Because of the encoding complexity, MpEG2 is primarilyused in broadcast applications where theencoding costis shared across mul(MPEC2decoders tiple destinations. arerelativelyinexpensive.) Dataratesarevariabledepending on thenature of thesource (amount material of movement). Themean bit rateof MPEG-I is I.544 Mbpswhile MpEc-? hasa meanbit rateof 5 Mbps. The ATM Forumhasdefinedhow MpEG-2 TS packets areto be packed into a AALS-CBR frame.The useof AALI layeris advocated by the rru oru-T J.gz). However, ITU-T hasagreed to incorporate ATM Forumdefined AALS-cBR packing into its document. Accordingto the ATM Forum,AALS services are adequate for MPEG-2streams because MPEG-2includesa prograrn (FCR) and clock reference therefore doesnot needthe SRTSs providedby AALI.

10.4 INTERNETPROTOCOL TRANSPORT The Internetevolvedfrom a packet-switching networkconsisting of hostcomputers connected with leased linesto IntemetProtocol(IP) routers that were,in turn,interconnected with leased lines.As this evolutionoccurred, high-speed digital networks alsoevolved.FigureI 0.I 8 depicts thesituation wherein these two developments have cometogether in various ways.Whatis shown is five differentmeans of providingIp transporJ usingvariouscombinations of networks: ATM, soNET, framerelay,and directphysical layerfiber.

10.4 TNTEBNETpnoTocoLTHANSpoRT491

| " , l
lAtl4 I

I tr

ll

ll

I
p I

Am,,I llF'-".t'yll f sotrEr@ lsoltEr/spHll

Fiber plant physical layer
F'igure 10.18 Intemet transmissionlayer altematives.

Other than IP transport directly over fiber, IP over SONET [33] is the most etficient. The most inefficient situation is IP on top of ATM. A straightforward approach to reconciling the two protocol layers is to use a relatively static configuration for the ATM network with permanentvirtual circuits. ln this manner the IP network thinks it is using leasedlines. An AAL5 interfaceconvertsthe IP packetsinto fixed-length cells and ships them through the ATM network to an ATM destination node. At the destination node the packet is recon$tructed and passedto the IP layer. Ifthis IP node is the good. destination, is well final all and More often than not this is not a final destination becausea direct virtual connectionbetween all nodesin a large network is very difficult to manage.(Tl1enumber of paths grows arrthe sguareof the number of nodesand nodes are constantly being added and removed.) When the,first ATM node is an intermediatenode, the IP packet is passedback down through an AALS interfaceto get back into the ATM network. and so on. An altemative procedureinvolves having the ATM network set up SVCs for each packet so the ATM destinationcoincideswith the IP destination.This approachavoids the multiple trips up and down the adaptationlayersbut introducesan extremeamount of control overheadwithin the ATM network. To minimize IP over ATM problems, Cisco systemshas developeda networking procedurereferred to as "tag switching" that mergesIP and ATM protocols. A tag is essentiallyan ATM destinationaddressthat gets attachedto eachpacket (addressand is passedthrough the ATM network, all) at a tag edgerouter. The compositemessage which provides tag switching, until it gets reconstructedand delivered to the destination where the tag is removed. The simplification occurs becausea tag is easier to processthan IP adfuessingand routing. The IETF has standardized the basic concept of tag switching as multiprotocol label switching (MPLS). As indicated on the far right of Figure 10.18, the overheadof multiple network layers is avoided by directly connecting one IP node to anotherIP node with a dedicated fiber link. There are, however, limitations with direct connections.lP networks have been traditionally implemented with leasedcircuits that are managedand maintained by a common carrier. These leased-line services include provisioning, performance monitoring, and protection switching. Common-carrier provisioning allows rearrang-

492

DATAANDASYNcHRoNoUsTEANSFERMoDENETWoHKS

ing networkinterconnections performance usingSONETcross-connect equipment. monitoring allowsautomated identification andisolationof faulty or marginal equipment.Physical layerprotection switchingassures an application with a reliableconnection despite equipmentfailures or cable cuts. when direct physical layer interconnect is used,the IP application mustimplement application layerprotection switchingto circumvent transmission link failures. possibly Another, moresignificant limitationwith Ip "overglass"is thepotential for a lackofcarrier-$upported signal regeneration. Althoughtransparent opticalhansmission(on fibersor wavelengths) is a seemingly atmactive service offering,a transparentchannel, by its definition,cannot be supported with regeneration. Thecariers could offer transparent opticalchannels for limited distance applications, but longdistance applications throughopticalmultiplexingand switchingsy$tems cannotbe realized withoutregeneration. Regeneration is whatallowsa telephone userto "hear a pin drop."

HEFERENCES "Resource-sharing I R.E,Kahn, computer communications Network s,"proceedings of IEEE, Nov.1972,pp. 1397-1407. 2 H. Rudin and H. Miiller, "More on Routingand Flow Control,"National Telecommunications Conference, 1979, pp.34.5. l-34.5.9.
3 J' Rinde,"RoutingandControlin a CentrallyDirectedNetwork,"l{afional Computer Conference, 197 7, pp.603-608. 4 s. c. K. Youngandc. I. McGibbon,"The control systemof the Datapac Network," Inte rnati ona I Confe rente on Communicatio ns, lg76, pp, I 37- I 4 I . 5 T. s' Yum and M. schwartz,"comparisonof Adaptive Routing Algorithms for ComputerCommunications Networks,"National Telecommunications Conference1 9 7 8p ,p.4.1.1-4.1.5. 6 F, E. Heart,R. E. Kahn, S. M. Omstein,W. R. Crowther,and D. C. Walden..'The Interface MessageProcessorfor the ARPA computer Network," spring Joint Computer Conference, 1970, pp. 551-556. "Principles 7 L. Kleinrock, proceedings and l,essons in Packetcommunications," of IEEE,Nov, 1978, pp. 1320-1329. I Internetstandard3, "Requirements for InternetHosts: IETF RFC 1122," Internet Engineering TaskForce,lg9B. 9 J' McQuillan, "Beyond 'Best-Effort' Routing," Business communitationsReview, May 1998. l0 M. Hamidi, O. Verscheure, J. p. Hubaux,L Dalgic, and p. Wang, ..VoiceService Interworking for PSTN and IP Networks," IEEE communicationsMagazine, May pp. 104-111. 1999, I I TheATM ForumTC, "Traffic Management specification version 4.0," April 1996. 12 N. Ghani,s. Nanukul,and s, Dixit, "ATM Traffic Management considerations for FacilitatingBroadband Access,"IEEE communications Magazine, Nov. 199g,pp. 98-105.

REFERENcES 493 P. Newman,"A FastPacketSwitchfor the IntegatedServices Backbone Network," IEEE Joumal on Selected Areasof Corununications, Dec. 1988. "The Bypass L4 K. Sarkies, on Queuein FastPacketSwirching,"IEEE Transactions pp. 766-7'74. Communications, May 1991, 1 5 F. M. Chiussi, J. G. Kneuer, andV. P. Kumar,"Low-CostScalable Switching Solutions for Broadband Nefworking; The ATLANTA Architecture and Chipset," IEEE Communications Magaline,Dec. I 997,pp.44-53. t 6 S. C. Knauer and A. Huang, "STARLITE: A WidebandDigital Switch," IEEE
IJ

Glohecom, Nov. 1984.

t 7 V. E. Benes,Mathematical Theoryof Connecting Networks, AcademicPress, New

York, 1965. "SortingNetworks r 8 K. E. Batcher, Proteedings andTheirApplications," of SpringJoint Conference, 1968, pp. 307-314. Computer "The KnockoutSwitch:A Simple, l 9 Y-S. Yeh, M. G. Hluchyj, and A. S. Acampora, Modular Architecture for High-PedonnancePacket Switching," IEEE Joumal on pp. 1274-1283. Selected Areasof Communications, Oct. 1987, "Architectures 20 E. W. Zegura, IEEE Communications for ATM SwitchingSystems," 2l Magazine, Feb.1993.pp. 28-37. "Nonblocking A. Pattavina, IEEE Communicatians Architectures for ATM Switching," Magazine, pp. 38-48. Feb.1993, M. de Prycker,Asynchronous Transfer ModeSolution for BroadbandISDN,Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1995. R. Y. Awdeh andH. T. Mouftatr,"Surveyof ATM SwitchArchitectures," Computer pp. 1567-1613. and ISDNSystems, Networks Vol. 27, 1995, "Multiservice 24 Agreement," msf-architecture-Ol.00, SwitchingForumImplementation ATMForum,Nov. 1998. 25 CircuitEmulation Interoperabiliry SpecificationVersian2.0, af-vtoa-fi)?8.000, Senice ATM Forum.Ian. 199'7. 26 B. Steyaert,Y. Xiong, and H. Bruneel, "An Efficient Solution Techniquefor TrafFrc,"InternationalJoumal of Dirlcrete-Time QueuesFed by Heterogeneous pp. 73-86. Communications ,9ystens, Mar./Apr.1997, 27 A. Ia Corte, A. Lombardo,and G. Schembra,'?nalysis of Packet Loss in a Continuous-Time with Multimedia Traffic Stream," Intemational Finite-Buffer Queue pp. 103*115, fournal of Communitations, Mar./Apr.199'1, for Analyzing 28 J. ChoeandN. B. Shroff,"A Cental-Limit-Theorem-Based Approach on Networking, QueueBehavior in High-SpeedNetwork," IEEE/ACM Transactions pp. 659-671. Oct. 1998, K, Sriram, T. G. Lyons,andY, T. Wang,'AnomaliesDue to DelayandLossin AALZ Packet VoiceSystems: Performance ModelsandMethods of Mitigation,"IEEEfournal on Selected Areas in Communications, Jan.1999,pp.4-17. K. Sriram and Y, T. Wang, "Voice over ATM Using AAL2 and Bit Dropping; Performance Areas in and Call Admission Control." IEEE Joumal on Selected pp. 18-28. Jan.1999, Communications,

494
3l

DATA ANDASYNCHRONOUS TRANSFEH MODE NETWOHKS

S. Gringeri, K. Shuaib, R. Egorov, A. L,ewis, B. Khasuabish, and B. Basch...Traffic shaping, Bandwidth Allocation, and Qualilty Assessmentfor MpEG video Distribution over Broadband Networks," IEEE Nen+ork,Nov./Dec. 1g98. 32 M' Krunz, "Bandwidth Allocation strategiesfor Transporting variable-Bit-Rate video Traffic," IEEE CommunicationsMagazine, Ian. 1998, pp. 40*46.

33 J. Manchester, J. Anderson,B. Doshi, and S. Dravida, ..Ip over SONET." /EEE Communications Mag,azine, May I998, pp. 136-142.

PROBLEMS
l0.l Determine the average transmission capacity required to rehansmit 50-kbyte mes$ages if theyaretransmitted intactacross a singletransmission link with a bit errorrateof 10-6.what is the average retransmission capacity required if themessages arepacketized into ?-kbyre (Ignore packets? thesizeof thepacket headers.) Repeat Problem10.1with 2 bit errorprobabilityof l0-a. Determinethe total numberof bits in an HDLC frameif an informationfield contains nothing morethan4 bytesof all 1's. Assume theminimumsizefor all fieldsof overhead. Includetheopening andclosingflag in thecalculation. Determine thenumber of 2 xz switching elements in a 32 x 32 banyan switch matrix. Determine the transmission efficiencythat resultswhen a singlechannel of G.723.r compressed voice is packedinto ATM cells and transmitted with minimal delay.G723.1utilizes30 ms processing frames. Assume the higher of the two standmd rates(6.3 kbps).How muchdelayis addedro rhe voice channel if theATM cellsarepacked with closeto l00zoof capacity? (Ignore speech activityconsiderations. )

10.? 10.3

10.4 r0.5

11
DIGITAL ACCESS SUBSCRIBER
By theearly1990s networks thepublictelephone of theworldhadconverted to digital technology in virnrallyall of the internaltransmission andswitchingequipment. Towardthe latterhalf of the 1990s new digital applications for traditionalanalog technologyfocused to the digital network.The Integrated acces$ on providingcustomer Services Digital Network(ISDN) digital subscriber loops,definedin themid 1980s, represent oneapproach to digitalaccess. AlthoughISDN hasbeendeployed in many penetration markets, it hasnot achieved widespread for variousreasons. This chapter contrasts for accessing the digitalnetwork. ISDN access with altemate approaches technologies used Broadlyspeaking, therearefour basictransmission in providing local digitalaccess: wire pairs,fiber,coaxialcables, accopper andwireless. Copper cess wire pairsby replacing ffansmission with digitaltransutilizestelephony analog mission for both voice and data (e.9., ISDN), adding digital transmission onto (e.9., voicetransmission conventional analog in the ADSL), or carryingdigitalsignals existinganalog Therapidadvancement loop usingmodems. of modems for realizing transmission ratesof 33.6kbpsin a V.34 voiceband modemor roughly56 kbpsfor a V.90 modemis a mainreason ISDN usage. for lessthanexpected pairsinstalled POTSservice is Wide-bandwidth transmission on copper for analog complicated by several factors. First,loadingcoils on longerloopsmustbe removed. performance. Second, it maybe necessary to remove bridgedtapsfor adequate ISDN basicrateacces$ bridgedtap removal, such typicallyrequires but newerapproaches as ADSL utilize more sophisticated channel techcharacterization andequalization niquesto accommodate andinterference bridgedtaps.Crosstalk at high frequencies areotherconsiderations. A few wire pairsin a cablecancar4ithehigh-frequency signals,but if a largenumber of pairstry to be activeat thesame time,crosstalk becomes a significant limitation.Interference from external suchasAM radiostations sources (e.g.,I MHz). Some is a consideration athigherfrequencies higherrateaccess systems aredesigned to detect interference andmaskit out. narrowband involvesaddingdatatransmission Coaxialcableaccess onto unused frequency bandsof a cableTV system. Fiber access hasthe potentialfor providingvery wide bandwidths but requires installationof new transmission facilitiesdedicated to the new services. Wirelessaccess involvesmicrowavedistributionsvstems like mul4S5

496

DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER AccESs

tichannel multipoint dishibution (MMDS)andlocalmicrowave service distribution (LMDS) system or satellite-based services such asDSS. 11.1 INTEGRATED SERVICES DIGITAL NETWORK
In addition to the digitization of the internal portions of public telephonenetworks, a lesserknown but also significant changeinvolved the development of common-channel signaling (CCS) for network control. Both the digitization and the use of CCS srafred at internal portions of the network and migrated toward the periphery. Except for some special data service offerings and a few network-basedfeaturesderived from the signaling network, thesefacilities provided no direct benefit to the end users.As shown in Figure I I . I , ISDN i s a serviceoffering that extendsaccess to both of thesefacilities to the end user. Access to the digital transportfacilities occurs on 64-kbps bearer (B) channelswhile accessto the signaling network occurs on l6- or 64-kbps signaling (D) channels.Major featuresor benefits made availableby thesechannelsare listed in Tables 1l.l and 11.2,respectively. Two levels of digital access to the ISDN network havebeenstandardized: basic rate accessand primary rate access.As shown in Figure I1.2, the (worldwide) basic rate interface (BRI) $tandardis also referred to as a 2B + D interface. In North America. the primary rate interface (PRI) standard is sometimes referred to as 238 + D while the ITU-T counterpartis 30B + D. The North American pRI is fundamentally a L544Mbps DSI signal with the D channel replacing one of the 24 messagechannels(usually the last one). To achieve a 64-kbps clear channel capability, a BSZS line code is used to eliminate one's density requirementsand common-channelsignaling frees up the signaling bits so the full 64-kbps bandwidth is available for user data. The ITU-T

-----

f-ffiif-

-*

ISDN AccEte Line

-----.-/ Figure 11.1 Integrated Services DigitalNetworkaccess to circuits, channels, leased lines,and common-channel signaling.

11..I INTEGRATED NETWoRK DIGITAL SERVICES TABLE 11.1 Features of ]SDN B Channels

497

1 . End-to-end four-wiredigitalcircuits:no loss or echoesfor voice circuitsusingdigital 2. 3. 4. 5.

o.

instruments $hared network access for voice, data, and leased lines Flelativelyhigh bandwidthdata channel$ (64 kbps) Lower error rates than typical voiceband modems performance In"seruice monitoring Possible expansionof speechbandwidth becauseelimination of tandemencodings allows greaterone-timequantization Brrors

PRI is a 2.048-Mbps El digital signal with the D channel occupying the signaling channel (time slot 16). Becausea single D channel can support more than one PRI, 248 and 3lB interfacesare allowed for additional PRIs in a group of PRIs.

11.1.1 ISDNBasicRateAccessArchitecture
An ISDN basic rate accessline is a standardcopper pair that has been specially conditioned to support a bidirectional 160-kbps aggregatedata rate. Transmission technology required for basic rate accessis generally refened to as the digital subscriber loop (DSL). Complications arise when using existing analogpairs. The principal considerationsare bridged taps and wire gaugechanges,both of which causereflections that impact higher speeddigital signals.To allow flexibility in the selection and deployment of the DSL, the ITU-T basicrate specification I I ] doesnot define a two-wire transmission $tandard.Instead. it establishesan interface standardthat assumesthe presenceof a network termination module that converts any chosentransmissionsystem to the standardinterface.In the interestof supportingderegulatedcustomerpremises equipment, the Exchange Carriers Standard Association in the United States establisheda basic rate transmissionstandard[2] so CPE equipmentcould connectdirectly to the transmissionlink or select network termination modules f,rom alternate vendors. Figure 11.3 depicts the architectureand associatedterminology of a North American BRI.

TABLE11.2 Features of ISDND Channels

1 . Signaling connections simultaneous withactive 2. Calling identification number 3. Far-end superuision 4 . User-to-user message transfer 5 . Telemetry forfirealarms, reading, meter etc, $ecurity, A Access to packet-switching network 7. $upport for nelwork suchas multiple numbers oneor moreB $eruices directory sharing group channels, trunk blocking andidentification of calling number statistics, for or blocked abandoned calls

498

DIGITALSUBSCHIBEF ACCESS

Prim8ry Rete Accgrs

B I B l . . . l Bl D
238+D
ISDN N6twgrk

-rTpT

BTil
2B+D
Ba$ic Rate AccBBB

Figurell.2

primary Basic rarc and rate access to ISDN.

ModuleDefinitions NTI : A networktermination modulefor layer I functions physical thatprovides and electricaltermination of the transmission link only. In essence, the NTI isolates the userfrom thetransmission technology but doesnot demultiplex or process D channel messages. NTZ: A second levelof networktermination thatimplements functions associated with layers 2 and3 of theosl protocolstack. Thus,NTZequipment extracts and processes pBXs, D channel messages. Representative NTZ equipment includes multiplexers, or LAN gateway$. TEl: Type I terminal equipment suchasa digitaltelephone thatcomplies with the ISDN S interface recommendation. 714.'Terminaladapter usedto convertfrom an arbitrary(R) interfaceto the ISDN S interface. TEZ: A non-ISDN terminal that requiresa terminal adapterto interfaceto the ISDN S interface.Prevalentexamplesof a TE2 equipmentare analog telephones (RS-232) or asynchronous dataterminals. Reference Points U; Interface to thetwo-wiretransmission line.

ISDN Network

Figure 11.3 Basic rate interface architecture.

111 TNTEcRATED DrcrrAL sEnvtcEs NETWoHK 499

T: CCITT ISDN interface defined in RecommendationI.430. S; Interface to NTZ equipment identical to a T interface. R.' A non-ISDN interface such as an analog tip and ring. 11.1.2 S/T Interface The S/T interface is definedin ITU-T recommendation 1.430to be supplied by net(NT2A{TI). It is intended premises work termination equipment instalfor customer protection is prescribed.) lationsonly. (No overvoltage The mostsignificant aspects of the S/T interfaceare; 1 . Four-wirefacility (onepair for eachdirection) 2. Onekilometermaximum distance required J - Alternate inversionline code(whichis the inverse space of an AMI line code: see Figurel l.4) 4 . Point-to-point or point-to-multipoint configurations 5 . Datarateof 192kbpswith 48 kbpsof framing,control,andsynchronization
The frame rttructureat referencepoints S and T is shown in Figure 11.5.As indicated, each 250-msecframe contains 48 bits. Thirty-eight of thesebits are cornmon to both directions of transmissionand are defined as follows: 16 bits in first B channel(Bl) 16 bits in secondB channel (82) 4 bits in the D channel I bit in the framing channel F I bit in the auxiliary framing channel F4 The remaining l0 bits are assigneddifferent functions dependingon the direction of transmission.From the TE to the NT all remaining 10 bits are defined as L bits, which are used to maintain dc balance.The definition of the 10 bits from the NT to the TE are: 2 L bits for maintainins dc balance

l r l o l o l o l t l o l r l o l

_ J L _ _ n _---Lr -l_r _ 1rFigure 11.4 Altematespace line code. inversion

500

DIGITALSUBSCHIBER ACCESS

48 Bits ln 260

F L Brrr tl gr Br tr Brrr E D A F^r E?tt!tt2B? |2r?t2 f, u H !t rl rl rt rr

NT to TE

BtB2t0LFt.

LtttlllllllllllllLoLr^LlrttBt!2828282!lL0LBlElEtltrlElBluLDL12ultit12uu|0LDttL

FJ._J._J
Figure 11.5 S/T framestructure,

lr-

4 E bits that echo D bits received from the TE(s) I A bit for activation I N bit, which is the complement of the Fo bit I M bit far multiframe identification 1 S bit for S channel Figure I I.5 indicatesthat the framing bit F is always a binary 0. Even though a positive voltage level is indicated, either a positive or negative voltage is allowed so the receiversare not sensitiveto wiring polarity. A transmitter always producesthe same level, however, so the receiver always receivesthe samepolarity in every framing bit. As an aid in rapid acquisition of the framing pattem, the framing bit always represenm a line code violation (it is the samepolarity as the previous 0). To maintain dc balance, an L bit with the opposite polarity of the F bir always follows the F bit. The first 0 in a data block following the L bit is encodedwith the samepolarity as the L bit, which implies another line code violation. Direct-current balancing of this violation is the purpose of the L bit at the end of each data block, which also assuresthat the next (fixed-polarity) F bit producesa line code violation. The reason for the additional L bits in the frame from the TE to the NT arises becau$emore than one TE can be connectedto the S intedace as a passivebus (Figure I 1.6). Becausethe TEs transmit independently of each other, each individual transmission (D channelbits and B channelbytes) is individually dc balanced. Passivebus operationsare also the reasonfor the existenceof the NT-to-TE E bits. Multiple station access to the D channelis controlled by having a terminal wait for an idle code on the NT-to-TE D channelbefore hansmitting on the TE-to-NT D channel. when a terminal begins D channeltransmission,it monitors the incoming E bits. If an incoming E bit does not match the previously transmitted D bit, that terminal stops transmitting and waits to seize the channel at a later time. Two levels of priority are defined for accessingthe D channel. signaling informarion is the highest priority

11.1 INTEGHATED DIGITAL SERVICES NETWORK 501

s
TEl

a a
I

u
NTt

TET

TEl

J
Ftgure ll.6 S-bus connections.

while userpacket messages arethelowerpriority.All terminals on a passive bushave equalprioritieswithin eachlevel. Example 11.1. Determine the distance limit imposed by theneedto echoE bits in a BRI S/T inteface.Assume the speed of transmission of a signalon a pair of wires is one-third of light in a vacuum. thespeed Ignoretransmitter andreceiver filter delays in theNT logic circuitry. andassume no appreciable delays Solutian. From Figure I I.5 it can be seenthat the minimum delay betweena a D bit andreceiving terminalhansmitting it backin the followingE bit is seven bit times(thisis theTE to NT D bit followingthefirst 82 byte).At a 192-kbps dararare the duration of a bit is 5.2 psec.Thus,the total round-trippropagation time is 7 x 5.2 = 36.4p sec.Assuming no appreciable circuitrydelays in the NT, = (36.4x 10*6) Maximum wire length x + (3 x 108) m Because propagation round-trip involvesbothdirections of transmission = x 3.64= 1.82 Maximum distance Lrn ] Example1l.I showsthatthe BRI standard hasa fundamental distance limitation thatis not far above the minimumtransmission distance specification of 1 km. 11.1.3 ISDN U Interlace Prior to the e$tablishment of a standard U interfaceby the Exchange CarriersStandardsAssociation in NorthAmericaa number were of basicratetransmission sy$tems developed suppliers by telephone equipment the world andput into service. around

504

DrcrrAL suBscHtBER AccESS

one of these involves theuseof timecompression multiplex(TCM).TcM, developed by NEC in Japan[3], provides full-duplextransmission on a singlepair of wiresby alternately transmitting bursts of datain each direction. For thisreason it is sometimes referred to as"ping-pong"tralsmission. one big advantage of rCM transmission is thatnear-end crosstalk is avoided because a station is neverreceiving while transmitting' Thebig disadvantage is thattheburstdataratemustbe morethantwicethe desireddatathroughput. AT&T in the united statesalsodeveloped a BRI transmission system for the No. 5 ESSend office switchingsystem available with generic releases 5E4 and 5E5 t4l. This system hasa 160-kbps dara rateutilizinga 50zo dutycycleAMI line code.Full-duplex transmission is achieved by simultaneous transmission in both directions usinghybridsandechocancelers (ECs)to separate the two signals, as indicated in FigureI I.7. Beginning with generic 5E6theNo. 5 ESSsupporrs both the AT&T (Lucent) u interface(referued ro as a 5E4l5E5 u interface)and the ANSI U interface. Like the 5E4l5E5 U interface, the ANSI U interface usessimultaneous ffansmissionin bothdirections with echocancelers anda datarateof 160kbps.Themajordifference is the useof a four-levelline codereferred to as2B1e (two binarydigits in onequaternary digit).Thus,thesymbol(baud) rateon theline is 90,000 symbols/sec. Because the line codeitself doesnot preventdc wander, dc restoration is necessary. Reference animplementation with adaptive quantized [5] describes feedback asbeing thebestapproach. A 2BlQ line codewaschosen primarilybecause thelower symbol rate minimizesthe two dominanttransmission limitationsin this application; intersymbol interference andnear-end crosstalk [6]. The frame format and superframe structureof the ANSI U interfaceareshownin Figure11.8.Eachframeconsists of 240bits containing lg framingbits, 216payload bits (12 fieldsof I I 2B + D databits),and6 overhead bits.Because theframerateis 667frames/sec thedatarateis 160kbps.The6 overhead bits areorganized asa block of 48 bits in an eight-frame superframe. Functions includedin the overhead bits are 24 bits of embedded operations channel, I activation bit, I deactivation bit, I far-end block errorbit, l2 cRC bits, and9 fixed I bits. All bits exceptthe framingbits are scrambled fbr transmission.

Figure 11.7 ISDN DSL TX/RX blockdiagram.

11.2 HIGH-DATA-RATE SUBSCRIBER LOOPS DIGITAL

503

t8

18 28+D 28+D 28+O 28+D 28+D 28+D 28+O 28+D

18

3 4 5 6 7 E

rsw sw svv sw
SW svlf

sw sw

28+D 28+D 28+D 28+D 28+D 2B+D 28+D 28+D

28+D 28+D 2 8 +D 2E+D 28+D ?B+D 28+D 28+D

Mr-M" Mr-M. Mr-M" Mr-M. Mr-M. Mr-M" Mr-M" Mr-Mt

= +3+3-3*3-3+3-3+3+3 S W- S y n c Word I S W : I n v w u d$ W = - 3 - 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 - 3 + 3 - 3 - 3 2 B + D * l B , l B " l D l ( l 8 l 8 f2 ) Mr-M" * Ovdrlrosd bitr Data arencoded as0O= -3. 01 = -1, 11 : +1, 10 = +3 structure. Figure 11.8 ANSI U interfaceframe and superframe

11.1.4 ISDN D Channel Protocol protocolis definedin two separate series of ITU-T recomrnendations; TheD channel in L441or Q.921. theI series andtheQ series. Thedatalink layer(LAPD) is defined except This protocolis similarto LAPB of theX.25 standard Q.921allowsmorethan "connections" packet netseparate canexistfor signaling, onelogicallink. (Therefore sework, or far-endterminals.)The main functionsof the datalink layer aremessage quencing,error checkingand retransmission, and data layer link recovery.The protocolis definedin I.451 or Q.931 . This layerpronetworklayerof the D channel of ISDN calls.Whena B channel routing,andrelease videsconnection alerting, setup, state. accesses theX.25 protocolis usedwhile in theconnected network, a packet

LOOPS DIGITALSUBSCRIBER 11.2 HIGH.DATA.RATE data loop providesan aggregate, bidirectional A basicrateISDN digital subscriber transmission describes several rateof 160kbpson a singlepair of wires.This section newtechon copper wire pairs.These techniques thatallow muchlargerbandwidths digital signal by the availabilityof low-cost,high-performance niquesare enabled lineshavebeendevelprocessing. digital subscriber versions of high-speed Several to asxDSL (see TableI 1.3). referred arecollectively oped.Thevariousversions 11.2.1 Asymmetric Dlgital Subscriber Line andmoderate to low dataratesfrom ADSL allowsfor high dataratesto the subscriber asa means wasoriginallyconceived ADSL technology the subscriber to thenetwork, loop [7], whichobviously overa copper of delivering switched digitalvideoservices did not high datarates Althoughvideoapplications from thesubscriber. do notrequire

504

DIGITAL SUBScFIBEH AccEsS

TABLE11.3 Verslone of DlgltalSubscrlber Lines

DSL ADSL HDSL SDSL VDSL

Digital Subscriber Line(ISDN basic rate) Asymmetric DSL(9 Mbpsdownstream, 640 kbpsupstream)d High-bit.rate DSL(T1lE1service on two pairs) Single-line DSL(T1/Elservice on onepair) VeryhighbitrateDSL(52Mbps downstream, 2.8Mbpsupstream)d

'Listd data rates ere maximum posslblevalues. Downstreamls toward the subscriber.Upstr6emis toward the network.

materialize,the asymmehic datarate is also suitedfor Internet access. The philosophy behind the asymmetric data rates is that subscriberstypically need to reieive highbandwidth data (for lntemet file downloads) but normally need to rransmir (query) at a relatively low data rate. The subscriber'sreceive data rate on ADSL varies between 1.5 and 9 Mbps while the subscribertransmit rate varies between 16 and 640 kbps.* The specific data rate utilized dependson the transmissionquality of the particular wire pair. In contrastto ISDN channels,which representextensionsofthe digital facilities of the public switched telephone nerwork (psrN), ADSL channelsare separated from the public nerwork at rhe line inrerface of the psrN. As shown in Figure I l.g, ADSL lines terminate at a telephonecompany central office (or remote terminal) where the data streams are forwarded to and received from a facility that is separatefrom the telephone network. Transmission between the line interface and an intemet service provider, for example,is typically provided with an ATM connection. ADSL has two major advantagesover IsDN access.First, ADSL data rates provided to the subscriberare significantly higher than the lZg-kbps ISDN basic rare. second, ADSL piggy backs digital transmissionon a standard*atog telephonewire pair. Thus, existing analog telephonesare retained on ADSL but are either replaced by digital phonesor are connectedthrough conversiondeviceswhen ISDN is utilized. Two versionsof ADSL transmissionlinks have beendeveloped:carrierlessamplitude and phase(CAP) modulation and discretemultitone (DMT) modularion. CAp is the first version deployed but DMT has been selectedas the standard [g]. Because DMT makes more intensive use of Dsp, a DMT implementation typically requires more power-a significant considerationfor remote terminal deployment. cAp, on the other hand, its not generally considered to be as flexible as DMT in achieving maximum data rateson some wire pairs or in some interferenceenvironments.For a thorough comparisonof the two alternatives,seereference[9].

DMT lmplementdtion
Basicparameters of the standard ADSL DMT implementation areprovided in Table I 1.4.A block diagramof an end-to-end DMT implementation is shownin Figure I I.10. As mentioned in chapter6, a DMT implementation utilizesan inverse FFT as
*A less ambitious vetsion of ADSL rcferred to as G.Lite only attempts to achieve 1.544 Mbps clownstream and 384 kbps upstream.

11.2 HIGH.DATA.RATEDIGITALSUBSCRIBERLOOP$

505

P$TN metrix Switcl't Lineinterfaces

multiplexer

loops Subscriber Splitters

volce volCc

Figure 11.9 ADSL networkconfiguration.

Paramters TABLE11.4 AD$L DMTlmplementatlon

Subchannel $eparation Maximumbits/$ubchannel Numberof subchannelsa FFT sample size Cyclic prefix Total numberof samples Sample rate FFT frame duration Pilot frequency

4.3125 kHz 15
Downlink 255

512samples 32 samples s44 (512+ 32) MHz(51?x 4312,5) 2,208 x 106) x 10a sec (5,+4/2,208 246.377 64) 276kHz(subchannel uplink 31 64 samples 4 samples 68 (64+ 4) 276kHz(64x 4312.s) x 1Oo) x 104 sec(68/0.276 ?46.977 16) 69 kHz(subchannel

Numberol subchannels FFTsample size Cyclicprelix Totalnumber of samples $amplerate FFTframeduration Pilot frequency

dBpendson the amount of matgin tor PoTS filterlngand the number of subchannFl8 on choice of echo canclingor FDM to isolatethe two directionsol transmission.

506

DIGITAL sUBscRIBER AccESs

a modulator and an FFT as the correspondingdemodulator.The following paragraphs identify the basic funcrion of eachblock in Figure I I . 10: PRSsource: A pseudorandomsequence generatorprovides a prescribedsequence for characterizing the channel during a training period. Characteristicsof the channel that are determined during the training periorl are attenuation and phase distortion across the band, noise/interferencelevels across the band. and the information capacity of individual subchannels. Channel Allocation: Provides assignmentof data bits to individual subchannels according to the subchannelcapacity determinationsobtained during training. FEC: A combination of Reed-solomon and convolutional coding. IFFT QAr4 Modulation: conversion of data values to quadraturechannel signal amplitudes and conversion to a time-domain waveform using an inverse FFT. D/A : Digital-to-analog conversion. TX Filter: Bandpassfilter to preventinterferenceinto the voicebandand to smooth the discreteDSP samples. POTS Splitter" Used at both ends of the line to separate the analog voice from the data.(Simpler versionsof ADSL incorporatethe splitter function in the modems to simplify installation.) AGC.' Automatic gain control to adjust overall receive level. sktpe/Delay Equaliption' A front-end equalizerro partially flatten the frequency responseand equalizeextreme delay variations in the chaanel [10]. ,4./D.' Analog-to-digital conversion.

Source data

Wire pair

Figure ll.l0

ADSL DMT block diagram

CAFHIEB 11,3 DIGITAL LOOP SYSTEMS 507 FFT QAM Demodulation: FFT conversion of time-sampledwaveform to frequency domain where data values are related to amplitudes of quadraturecarriers. Clock Recovery: AID sample timing obtained by locking to pilot frequency. The desired sampling rate is eight times the pilot frequency so 1-of-8 phase ambiguity has to be determined by monitoring framing/synchronization bit integrity. Frequency-Domain Egualizer: Multiplication of complex (quadrature) frequency $pectrumby amplitude and phaseequalization pararnetersobtained during training period. Data Detection and Interleaving: Slicing of quadrature amplitude values to generationof compositestreamidentical to original decodedata and subsequent sourcedata.

11.2.2 VDSL evenhigherbandwidths on parVDSL is an expanded versionof ADSL to achieve of fiber to the curb from remoteterminals ticularlyshortlinesaswouldbe available distribution of HDTV signals. systems. A primarymotivationfor VDSL is potential for VDSL, a techniques havebeenproposed differentmodulation Althoughseveral to be favored[11]. DMT versionrieems

11.3 DIGITALLOOP CARRIER$YSTEMS of a digitalloopcarrier(DLC) system in Chapter 1,theprimarypurpose As discussed pairs fiom a centraloffice to the vicinity of a group is to reduce or eliminate copper link from the centraloff,rce to theDLC the of subscribers. Eventhough transmission from remote to thesubthe terminal terminalis digital,thetransmission links remote purpose main of a DLC is loops. Thus, the aretypicallyconventional analog scribers (particusystems provide some digital Nevertheless, DLC subscriber access. not to provide T1, xDSL interfor ISDN, digital larly fiber-based systems) options or DLC faces. Moreover, the fact that fhe DLC remote terminal is relatively close to the (A shortcopper dropfrom facilitates theuseof these interfaces. subscriber locations andcrosstalk andis lesslikely to haveloading haslow attenuation theremote terminal Althougha DLC taps, of wire with varyinggauges.) or multiplesections coils,bridged throughISDN or xDSL digital services is a naturalmechanism to provideenhanced reprepackaging of these interfaces andpowerconsiderations interfaces, mechanical with to strictly POTS applications. sentuniquerequirements respect 11.3.1 Universal Digltal Loop Carrier Systems As shown in FigureI1.11,a universal digitalloop carier (UDLC) system [12] canbe between thelocal or digital.Theinterface interfaced to anyswitchingsystem: analog

508

DtetrAL suBscRlBER AccEss

Customer loops COT RT

Figure 11.11 Universal digital loop carrier system.

switching system (end office) of the public network and the central office terminal (coT) involves individual circuits (e.g., individual analog rip and ring connections). The multiplexed digital transmissionlinks between the COT and the remote terminal (RT) can be wire pairs or fiber. Each interface of a COT is paired with a corresponcling subscriberintetface at the RT so the use of a UDLC is transparentto both the switch and the subscriber.In its simplest mode of operation,the uDLC usespure multiplexing betweenthe COT and the RT so that there i$ a one-to-onecorrespondence between a particular TDM channel and the coT/RT interface pair. some systemscan also be configured with concentration wherein the Cor/RT pairs are dynamically assigned transmissionchannels.If the number of requestedconversationsexceedsthe number of channels,blocking occurs. The possibility ofblocking introducesnontransparency and implies that some means of returning a reorder tone (fast busy) is neededin the RT. UDLC installations are configured to match eachparticular interface of the central office switch with a complimentary interface in the RT. A fully capablesystemmust provide a wide variety of interfaces such as loop-start line, ground-start pBX trunk, foreign exchangelines, and coin telephoneinterfaces.In someearly systemsthe confrguration processinvolved nothing more than physically installing matching interfacesin respectiveequipment slots of the CoT and RT. More recent.systems typicatly utilize line units with multiple-service capabilities. These systemscan be configured electronically (i.e., no straps)with either a local or a remore manasementinterlace.

11.3.2 Integrated DigitatLoop CarrierSystems

Whenever a universal digitalloopcarriersystem is interfaced with a digitalswitch,obviousinefficiencies occurin termsof back-to-back demultiplexing-multiplexing and D/A-A/D conversion. As shownin Figure 11.12,an integrated digital loop carier eliminares theinefficiency 0DLC) system by directlyconnecring theDLC TDM link to the digital matrix. Typically rhe direct digital connections are eitherDSI or El crorts-connect signals. Thus,a fiber-based DLC system will typically interface with theswitchthrough multiplexing/demultiplexing equipment assome number of digital crostt-connect signals.

LOOP SYSTEMS 509 11.3 DIGITAL CARRIEH

Customer loops

loopcariersystem. Figure11.12 Integrated digital

wasnothingmorethana From a functionalpoint of view an earlyIDLC systems interfaces whereinsomeline of the switcharemovedto distributed switchingsystem provide sucha capabilityMost cenfialoffice switchmanufacturers remote locations. line interfaces thatcanbecolofor analog sometimes assimplyasusingchannel banks catedwith the matrix or remoted.Central office switch vendorsalso offer remote switchingmoduleswhereinsomeportion of the matrix itself is remotelylocated. for efficientuseof theconnecting provideremote concentration These configurations moduleso pmvidelocal switching in theremote transmission link and,in some cases, por"ts link. of a remote moduledo not usethetransmission connections between two (If remote between two portsof a remote a connection localswitching is notprovided, link.) modulerequires two channels of thehansmission Remotemodulesof a particular switching systemvendorare often implemented processes useof DLC equip' thatpreclude with proprietarysignalingandmanagement the ability to emulate mentfrom othervendors(exceptwhena DLC vendordevelops In the interest of opening IDLC appliswitchvendor'sremote modules). a particular an IDLC standard referredto as cationsto competingvendors,Bellcore established (possibly in mustsupport vendors GR-303[13, 14] that compliantswitchingsystem additionto a proprietaryIDLC capability).Includedin the GR-303specificationare provisioning, andperformance testing,alarmsurveillance, definitionsfor signaling, monitoring. LEC local loop services GR-303hasassumed Due,in part,to a moveto unbundle inBecause a GR-303 capability thanjust anIDLC application. a muchbroader scope a myriad of switch interfacetypes,theGRcludesbeingableto defineandadminister suchas xDSL 303 $tandard can be usedfor interfacingother typesof equipment (ITU) for intemational ETSI has established a similar IDLC standard equipment. refenedto asa V5 interface switchingequipment [5, 16]. 11.3.3 Next-GenerationDigital Loop Carrler Syetems within the digital loop carrier (NGDLC) hasbeenadopted The term next-generation fhat adhere to GR-303andprovide additionalconindustry to refer to DLc sy$tems an Thereis no precise definitionof whatconstitutes figurationoptionsandinterfaces. areadherence to GR-303,opticalfiber transNGDLC system. Four basicattributes (e.g.,SONET/SDH), generally largerline sizes, andan ability to missioncapabilities alarms,and supportsystem for diagnostics, interfacewith a cenhaloffice operational

510

DIGITAL SUB$CRIBER AccESS

Figure ll.l3

Next-generationdigital loop carrier.

remote provisioning commonly [l4]. other aspects available in NGDLC systems are depicted in FigureI 1.13. The mostimportant aspect of an NGDLC $ystem from a services point of view is theavailabilityof new services suchascopper or fiber digitalsubscriber interfaces in additionto theconventional POTSinterfaces. Themostdesired digitalinterfaces are Tl/El, primaryrateandbasicrateISDN, ADSL, andvDsL. other digitalinrerfaces mayalsobe provided for services like broadband dataanddigitalvideo.Althoughthe diversityof interfaces beliesuseof a singlemultiple service line intedacefor total electronicprovisioning,the systemmust report inconsistencies betweeninstalled hardware andthe elechonicdatabase. A particularly desirable feature of the system shownin Figure I l. I 3 is drop-and-insert capability, which allowsdistributed access to a singlebackbone digitalroute.GR-303identifies starconfigurations, linearADM distribution, andADM ringsasdesirable topologies. NGDLC sysrems tharsupport advanced interfaces or topologies necessarily usea COTto separate outthespecial servicesfrom thePors. In essence, thecor performs cross-connect operations to groom anddistribute various typesof traffic.

11.4 FIBERIN THE LOOP Fiber in the loop (FITL) is a genericterm that refersto oneof threemore specificdescriptions of the useof fiber for local distribution. The flrst category is fiber to the cabinet or fiber to the neighborhood. These systems areofteninstalled by local telephone companies aspartof thefeeder portionof theirlocaldistribution facilities.Traditional copper pairs for voice service extend from the cabinet to subscriber residences. Because a relativelylong copper pair is usedfor ,.thelastmile,,'they do not providemuchopportunity for enhanced service offerings. Theiruseandjustification arestrictlybased on reducing rhecosrof pOTSdisFibution. The second caregory of FrrL is a fiber-to-the-curb (FTTC) system. As the name implies,these systems aredesigned to reach within 1000 feetof a subscriber residence. An FTTC system is generally intended to provideenhanced services suchasvideoor high-speed datausingADSL or VDSL. Distribution of theenhanced services from rhe "curb" location is caniedover wire pairsor coaxialcable.These systems areessentially identicalto advanced DLC sysrems with opticalrransport. Thethird category of FITL is f,rber ro thehome(FTTH).These sysrems obviously off'er oppornrnities for extremelylarge bandwidthsto the homebut havesignifircant

11.s HYBRTDFTBERcoAXSYSTEMS 511

is expensive in established neighborhoods First,installation bedeployment obstacles. anddriveways)arenormally required. underground installations(understreets cause providingnetworkpowerto subscriber is a majorproblem.The equipment Second, but lack of power for enhanced serviceapplicationsis not much of a consideration power to telephones carriersgo to great effotts to ensureindeis. Local exchange pendence powersystems systems and from commercial for boththeiroffice switching (A centraloffice typically maintainsenoughbatteriesto the connected subscribers. poweris lost.If poweris out for longer up for ?4 hoursif commercial keepa system than this, dieselgenerators are available.)A further complicationof providing telephoneservice to analog for overFTIH is the needto converta digitalvoicechannel telephones-anadditional andpowerproblem. expense interfacing to conventional but logistical Batteriesareoften offered asan alternativeto line poweredtelephones if the batteryis dead problemsremain;who maintainsthe batteryand what happens poweris lost andsomeone wantsto diat 911? whencommercial

11.5 HYBRIDFIBERCOAX SY$TEMS with downThe cableTV systems installedaroundthe countrycan be augmented utilizing to subscribers by merelyadding"cablemodems" datatransmission strearn Upstream transmission from the subor displaced TV channelbandwidth. unused scriberto a cableTV headendis muchmoredifficult. Although manycableTV systransmission as an option, the tems were designedand installedwith upstream is generally limitedandoftensubject to to theupstream bandwidth available channels transmission limitationscan be levels.Upstream very high noiseand interference telephone connection with voiceband by utilizinga conventional somewhat alleviated The connection is usedin 28.8 kbps. telephone modem modems data up to with rates an while ADSL relative highas the channel of upstream the samebasicmanner this cable. disadvantages of soluon The bandwidth downstrearn dataarecarried the cost large of telephone line, of numbers the tion includethe needfor a subscriber provider, dialand need to into a service the coordinate channel connection$ telephone users. with particular cablechannel up telephone comections in Figure is depicted Thebasicconfiguration of a hybridfiber coax(tFC) $ystem areconfigured astree-and-branch portions of CATV system$ I 1.14. Thecoaxial cable signal. Amthesame, multichannel broadcast receiving topologies with all customers low from attenuation plifiersarein$erted wherever the signallevelgetsunacceptably in Figure11.14 undertheasBidirectional amplifiers areshown andbranching loses. In sumptionthat this sy$tem is an applicationwith a returnpath from the residences. sethereturnpath(if thereis one)is usedfor premiumchannel TV-only applications thereturnpathcarriesvoice or datawith frelection.In expanded applications $ervice quency in a bandfrom 5 to 42 MHz. divisionmultiplexed cablemodems portion of an HFC sy$tem repre$ents a replacement The optical fiber transmission For this reaamplifiers. with numerous of relativelylong haulcoaxialcablesections andreceivers aredesigned to carrya wideband analogsigson,theopticaltransmitters (anywhere by a largenumberof cu$tomers nal. Noticethat the opticallinks areshared

512

DIGITAL SUBS0RIBER AccEsS

Fiber node

Figure 11.14 Hybrid fiber coaxsystem configuration. from 100 to 1500). upgrading an IIFC system for new $ervices typically requires Sreaterpenetrationof the optical frber portions so that fewer householdsare connected to a common coaxial cable segment.In the limiting situation, wherein eachhouseholdis connectedthrough a dedicatedcoaxial cable, an FIFC systembecomesan FTTC system. Downstream digital servicescan utilize cable modems that typically pack 30-40 Mbps into a 6-MHz analog TV channel. 64-eAM modulation is commonly used.In newer FIFC system.s, new downsfieam digital servicescan be canied at fuquencies above 450 MIJZ while the band from 54 ro 450 MHz is reservedfor haditional analog Tv. A major impediment to upgrading an IIFC systemfor return channelservicesis the shareduse of a coaxial cable segmentcommon to some number of households.The network termination within eachhome is passiveand bidirectional, which meansthat all noise and interferencewithin a home is passedonto the cornmon cable to all other homes.Thus, a single sourceof interferencecan disrupt the signal to all other homes served by the common coaxial cable. Furtherrnore,the noise and interferenceof all householdsare additive, indicating the needto limit the number of householdsserved by a single coax segment.An additional drawback of the sharedcable is the need for some form of encryption for content security. TDMA return channelshelp minimize the interferenceproblem by blocking all output energy from a residenceexcept when an allotted time slot occurs. using an HFC systemfor POTS hasthe samebasic drawbacksas an FTTH sy$tem in that there is no inherent facility for line powering rhe telephones. Thus, FIFC might not be used for primary ("lifeline") POTS distribution but could be quite effective in providing secondarytelephoneapplications.The main attribute of HFC for enhanced servicesis the ability to provide dynamic assignmentof high-rate digital downstream channelsand relatively low rate full-period upstreamchannels.

11.6 VOICEBAND MODEMS

voiceband modem technology improved dramatically in the early 1990swith the culmination of 33.6 kbps becoming standardwith ITU recommendationv.34 [17]. The

11,6 VOICEBAND MODEM$ 513

performance the rapidadvance of voiceband wasdueto two primaryfactors; modem canceling andthe for equalization/echo DSP technology availabilityof economical from quatityof thenetworkin termsof lowernoiseanddistortion resulting improved In an all-digital network the only significant implementation, the near-all-digital noiseofthe analog-to-digital conversion. ofnoise is thequantization source Example 11.2. Determinethe theoreticalmaximum data rate of a perfectly a singleA/D andD/A conversion. modem undergoing equalized voiceband 3 to be ratio (SQR)is derivedin Chapter Solution. The signal-to-quantizing-noise to a powerratio of 3981.Usingthis value on the orderof 36 dB, which conesponds yields capacity of a channel in Shannon's theorem for thetheoretical C= lVlogz(l + SNR) = 3100 logr(l + 39Bl) = 37 kbps wherethe channel coupling,60 Hz eliminationfrlters, is limited by the transformer from 300to 3400Hz. filters to extend andD/A smoothing bps

11.6.1 PGM Modems

As the previous problem indicates,a V.34 voicebandmodem provides data rates that arenearthe theoreticallimit imposedby quantizationnoise alone.Recognition that the principal sourceof noise in the end-to-endconnectionis the quantizationnoise of the A./D convertersleads to alternative modem implementations that directly utilize the digital 64-kbps channel and eliminate the quantization noise [18]. Thesemodems are commonly referred to as PCM modems. As shown in Figure 11.15, a V.90 PCM modem relies on the digital network to carry an unaltered digital signal from a digital source to a digital-to-analog conversion device (codec)at an analog subscriberinterface.The codecconvertsthe PCM codewordsto PAM samplesthat are detectedby the receiving customerpremisesmodem and convertedback to the original PCM data. Successfuldata detection requires the receiving circuitry to adequately equalize the combined distottion of the D/A smoothing filter and the transmission link, to know the quantization levels of the codec,and to becomesynchronizedto the D/A conversionclock. The equalizationand quantizationrequirementsare determinedduring an initialization proce$$while clock synchronization requires processing of data transitions in the multilevel received waveform. It might seemthat a PCM modem could provide a data rate of 64 kbps. However, severalfactors restrict the data rate to something less than 64 kbps. The first of fhese is the bandpass filter in the D/A codec (for 60 Hz elimination and samplesmoothing). A secondconskaint is the possibility that the digital path through the network might

514

DIGITAL SUBSCHIBER AccEsS

Tl or ISDN digitatlnterface Dlgital network

m1orrm 10mfi0010t10011

Subscrlber loop

+'*.-.H* mlor roo 1fiI}l roo 1oltmii

Figure 11.15 Downstream V.90 modem concept.

include a digital pad for changing the signal level of rhe assumedanalog signal.* A third constraint is rhe possibility (in North America) that robbed bit signaling might be in use on one or more of the digital links. The fact that the overall bandwidth of the channelis slightly over 3kHz implies that the maximum, intersymbol, interference-freepulse rate is just over 6 kHz. Thus, the actual sample rate of 8 kHz implies that some amount of intersymbol interferenceis inevitable (assumingthe PCM samplesare independent). The lack of a low-frequency transmissionresponseis accommodatedby V.90 modems by utilizing every eighth pcM sample soreryfbr dc restoration.Thus, the maximum data rate is 56 kbps. If robbed bit signaling is present,its effects are minimized by determining, during initialization, which frames in the six frame sequences are signaling frames and then using only 7 bits per samplein thoseframesund g bits p*r ru*_ ple in the nonsignaling frames. Digital pads can be accommodatedby detectins their presenceand modifying the digital codewords according to the particular amolunt of attenuationbeing insertedby the pad. The v'90 uplink direction is implemented as a convenrional (v.34) modem. thereby implying asymmetry in the data rates. It is conceivable that pAM signaling could be usedin both directions,but the uplink is more complicatedto implement and is often unnecessary becausemost applications (e.g., Intemet access)are inherently asymmehic in the dataratesrequired. It is also possibleto utilize analog PAM on both
-Dgital Ievels.

pads are often included in the codecsfor digital setting of gain levels to desired voiceban d sigflal

DISTFIBUTION SEHVICE 515 11,7 LOCAL MICHOWAVE

(asopposed are to just one end),but theseimplementations endsof the connection morecomplicatd considerably [19, 20]. datarate is that theyprovidealmostthe same Themain attractionof PCM modems treator special in theline interfaces but do notrequire changes asanISDN B channel of bridgedtaps). loop (e.g.,theelimination Whenthecustomer mentof thecustomer loop is a shortdrop from a remoteterminalof a digital loop carrier,themaximumdata rateof 53-56 kbpsis assured.

SERVICE 11.7 LOCAL MICROWAVE DISTRIBUTION frequency microwave for digitalradioacTheFCC hasallocated bands two separate is Multichannel MultipointDistribucommunications Thefirst of these services. cess (MMDS), whichoperates at 2 GHz.MMDS is essentially a wireless cable tion Service Reverse commuchannel only one-way transmission. and,as such,provides sy$tem network. through the telephone nications dial-upmodemconnections rcquires (LMDS) operates at 28 GHz andprovides Local MicrowaveDistributionService with LMDS aredependBandwidths available two-waycommunications. cell-based, plansprovide provider's plan. frequency Typically,these ent on a particularservice bandthetotalallocated ontheorderof 1.5-50Mbps,although bidirectional datarate$ rates to providehigherrate$ or asymmetric width of almost1 GHz canbe partitioned of 25-31 GHz. havebeenmadein a range International LMDS allocations if desired. Systems Thesesystems are also refbrredto as Local Multipoint Communications (LMCS) in Canada andBrazil. by LMDS arevoice,video,andhigh-bandwidth Theprincipalapplications supported The major is the main attraction. amount available data.The immense of bandwidth equipment. Thus, radio after the subscriber is associated with costof anLMDS system costsareincurredonly assubscribers begin additional the cell sitesareestablished, payingfor service. facilitiesthatreThis situation is in contrast with newfiber-based The mostimmediate quire major,up-frontinvestment are realized. beforerevenues to high-speed digitalleased linesfor for LMDS is to offer an alternative opportunity areseconHigh-speed Internet andHDTV to individualresidences access businesses. daryopportunities. line-of-sight The major disadvantages of LMDS are the needfor FCC licensing, poin heavyrainfalls, limits of 2-3 miles,extreme attenuation transmission, distance and bands, the as satellites in the other such same from services tentialinterference (telephone) or dynamic power sites. margins Fade in all subscriber needfor local rainfallrates. powercontrolon the orderof 40 dB overcome all but themo$tsevere station means thata single base canTherequirement tbr line-of'-sight transmission in WestTexas or theAusin a cell (except maybe not communicate with all locations are but somelocations coverage, Overlapping cellsprovidegreater tralianoutback). canbeinstalled. Line-ofreflectors unless sureto be in theshadow ofall base stations or trees of buildings canbefurthercompromised by theappearance sighttransmission initial deployment. after

516

DtctrAL suBscRtBER AccESS

11.8 DIGITALSATELLITESERVICES Direct SatelliteService(DSS)hasrecentlybecome a viablealternative to cableTV services. Because theDSS system utilizesdigitaltransmission for its TV channels, it is straightforward for a DSSproviderto offer datacommunications services to theTV subscribers. However,because DSS is a one-waycommunications service, dial-up modemconnections throughthe telephone networkare requiredfor two-way data communications. DSSis alsolimitedro thetoralbandwidth (400MFIz)of thesatellite transponders, which mustbe shared by the Tv ffansmissions and any allocated data channels. In contrast to DSS,whichuses geostationary satellite orbits,Low Earthorbit satellitesoflridium andTeledesic provideopportunities for lowercost,bidirectional user terminals. As mentioned in Chapter 9, Iridium is primarilyoriented to relativelynarrow bandapplications suchasvoice,messaging, andpaging.Teledesic, on the other hand,is oriented to wide-bandwidth dataapplications.

REFERENCES
Recommendation I.430 ISDN user-NetworkInterface;Layer I Recommendations, Fascicle IlL9,CCITTBlueBook,1988, pp. lll- 240. AmericanNationalstandards for Telecommunications,,.Integrated servicesDigital Network-Basic AccessInterface for use on Metallic Loopsfor Applicationon the Network Sideof theNT-Layer I Specification," ANSI TI.60l-1988. R. Komiya, K. Yoshida,and N. Tamaki,"The Loop coveragecomparisonbetween TCM andEchocancellerundervariousNoiseconsiderations,"rEEE Transactions on Communications, Nov. 1986, pp. 1058-1067. sESs@. switch ISDN BasicRateInrerface programIssue specification, 5E5 Generic I.00,AT&T, Dec.1987, pp.II-B-t/15. s. sugimoto' K. Hayashi,and F. Mano, "Design of 2Ble rransceiverfor ISDN subscriber Loops,"IEEEIntemationalconferenteon communication,Iune pp, 19g9, 8 . 1r.- 8 .1 . 5 . "Line codes for J. w. Lechleider, Digital subscriber Lines,"IEEE communications Magazine, Sept.1989,pp.25-32. w' chen andD. waring, "Applicability of ADSL to supportvideo Dial rone in the CopperLttop,"IEEE Communications Magazine, May 19g4, pp, 102_109, "Networkand customerInstallation Interfaces-Asymmetric Digital subscriber Line (ADSL)MetallicInrerface," ANSI Tl.4t3-1995, Aug. 1995. B' saltzberg,"comparisonof single-carrierand Multitone Digital Modulationfor ADSL Applications," IEEE Communications Magasine, Nov. 199g,pp. ll4_lLL. w. Y. chen, DSL simulation Techniques and standardsDevelopment for Digital publishing, subscriber Line,sysferns, MacmillanTechnical Indianapolis, l9gg. J. M. Cioffi, V. Oksman, J. J. Werner, T. polletr,p. M. p. Spruyt, J. S. Chow,andK. S. Jacobsen,'-very-High-speed Digital subscriber Lines," IEEE communications Magazine, Apr. 1999,pp.72-79.

r0
n

PROBLEMS 517 Criteria for Digital Loop Carrier Systems," Technical ft.eference, TR-NWT-000057, Bellcore, Morristown, NJ, Jan. 1993. "Integrated Digital Loop Carrier System Generic Requirements, Objectives and t3 Interface," Generic Requirement, GR-NWT-000303, Bellcore, Morristown, NJ' Dec' I 998. "Generic 14 Operations Interfaces Using OSI Tools; Information Model for Integrated Digital Loop Carrier and Fiber in the l,oop Systems," Generic Requirements, GR-NWT-002833, Bellcore, Morristown, NJ, Dec. 1996' 12 "Functional

r5
l6

t7
l8 19

G.964 (06194),"V-Interfaces at the Digital Local Exchange Recommendation Network(AN)' of Access (LE)-VS.l-Interface (Based on 2048kbiVs)for theSupport ITU, GenevaSwitzerland, Recommendation G.965 (03/95)-V-Interlaces at the Digital Local Exchange Network(AN). (Based of Access (LE)-VS.2Interface on 2048kbit/s)for the Support ITU, Geneva, Switzerland. "The V'34 High-Speed G. D. Forney,L. Brown, M. V. Eyuboglu,and J. L. Moran, pp' 28-33. Dec. 1996, Maga4ine, IEEE Communications ModemStandard," B. Townsend, "High Speed CommunicationsSystem for Analog Subscriber l, 1998. Sept. 5,801,695, Connections," U.S.Patent "TheCapacity Channels," of PCM Voiceband I. Kalet,J. E. Mazo,andB. R, Saltzberg, pp. 507*51l. 1993, Conference. IntemationalCommunications "High Speed E. Ayanoglu, G. Golden, R. Jones, J, Mazo, and D. Shaw, Quantization-Level-Sampling Modem with Equalization Arrangement," U.S. Patent
June 18, 1986. 5,528,625,

PROBLEMS system utiltransmission loop lengthof a ping-pong 11.1 Determine themaximum the veAssume in eachdirection. of 50 psecduration izing 8-kHzdatabursts the speed of light. is one-third locity of propagation by a voicetheoretical dataratethatcanbe achieved themaximum ll,2 Determine digital passing thepublicnetworkanda singleuniversal through bandmodem in the digital thereare no signalimperfections Assume loop carriersystem. poftionsof thefacilities.

r1-3

Determine the range of data rates achievable with a V.90 modem passing "robbed bit" signaling. through six Tl facilities with 11.4 Assume a multipair cable systemis used to carry bidirectional high-bandwidth AMI signals and that near-endcrosstalk coupling from one pair to another is IVo (-2O dB). If the systemis crosstalklimited, determinethe maximum num ber ofactive pairs for a bit error rate of 10-6.

marginfor noiseandotherimProblemI1.4 with a 3-dB interference 11.5 Repeat perfections.

t',t#Fi

It#t",*"
x h't

\t'l\\

12
TRAFFIC ANALYSIS
of networkis composed loops,a telephone andtheirassociated Exceptfor stationsets interstage call processors, suchas digit receivers, a variety of commonequipment designed switchinglinks, andinterofficetrunks.The amountof commonequipment that not all usersof the network under an assumption into a network is determined is unprerequired equipment of common at onetime.Theexactamount needservice Networks conceivably requests. of the service of therandomnature because dictable all requests to instantlyservice commonequipment wifh enough couldbe designed peaks. this solutionis However, of very rareor unanticipated exceptfor occurrences is unused duringnormalnetequipment muchof thecommon uneconomical because for determining is to providea method work loads.The basicgoalof traffic analysis of networks. of varioussizesandconfigurations thecost-effectiveness beof all userrequests networkrefersto theaggregate Traffrc in a communicatrons reque$ts the service by the network,As far asthe networki$ concerned, ing serviced times.The fluststepof trafservice arriverandomlyandusuallyrequireunpredictable of traffic arrivalsandservicetimesin a probabilistic is thecharacterization fic analysis in terms of how of a network can be evaluated framework.Then the effectiveness loadsandhow often the haffic volume it carriesundernormalor average muchtraff,rc the capacityof the network. exceeds categories: loss canbe dividedinto two general Thetechniques oftraffic analysis analysiscategoryfor a particularsystem The appropriate anddelay systems. fiystems overload traff,tc traffic.In a losssystem treatment of overload on thesystem's depends trafficis heldin a queue overload In a delaysystem withoutbeingserviced. is rejected circuit switchingopit. Conventional to service available until the facilitiesbecome withouta reffy andnot serviced traffic is blocked sinceexcess erates asa losssystem "lost" callsactually represent a lossofreveinstances on ttrepartofthe user.In some by virtueof theirnot beingcompleted. nueto thecarriers the basic or packetswitchingobviouslypossesses message Store-and-forward operation however, a packet-switching Sometimes, characteristics of a delaysystem. andvirnralcirsiees Limited queue of a loss$ystem. canalsocontaincertaina$pects networks overloads. Circuit-switching traffic during imply operations loss both cuits loss operation in to the nature addition delay operations ofa incorporate certain also 519

520

THAFF|c ANALysts

of the circuits themselves. For example,access to a digit receiver,an operator,or a call proce$soris normally controlled by a queuing proces$. The basic measureof performancefor a loss systemis the probability of rejection (blocking probability). A delay system, on the orher hand, iJ measured in terms of servicedelays' Sometimesthe averagedelay is desired,while at other times the probability of the delay exceedingsome specified value is of more interest. some of the analysespresentedin this chapter are similar to those presented . in chapter 5 for the blocking probabilities of a switch. chapter 5 is concerned mostly with matching loss-the probability of not being able to set up a connection througir a switch under normal or averagetraffic volumes. This chapter, however, is mostly concernedwith the probability that the number of active sourcesexceedssome specified value' Typically, the specified value is the number of trunk circuits in a route.

12.1 TRAFFICCHARACTERIZATION
Because of theratrdom natureof networktraffic,thefollowing analyses involvecertain fundamentals of probabilitytheoryand srochastic pro""r*r*. L tni, heatment only the mostbasicassumptions andresultsof traffic analysis arepresented. The intentis to provideanindication ofhow to applyresults ofhaffic analysis, not to delve deeply into analytical formulations. However, a few basicderivations arepresented to acquaint theuserwith assumptions in themodels sotheycanbeappropriately applied. In the realm of applied mathematics, where thesesubjectsare nlatea more formally, blockingprobabilityanalyses arereferredto as congestion theoryanddelay analyses arerefenedto asqueuingtheory.These topicsarealsocommonlyreferred to astraffic flow analysis. In a circuit-switched network, the..flow" of messages is not so much of a concernas are the holding times of cornmonequipment. A circuitswitched networkestablishes an end-to-end circuitinvolvingvariousnetworkfacilities (transmission links andswitching$tages) that areheldfor the duration of a ca1l. From a networkpoint of view, it is the holdingof these re$ources that is important, not theflow of information within individualcircuits. on theotherhand,message-switching andpacket-switching networks aredirectly concerned with the actualflow of information, sincein thesesystems traff,rc on the transmission links is directlyrelated to the activityof the sources. As mentioned in Chapter 7, circuitswitching doesinvolvecertain aspects of traffic flow in theprocess of setting up a connection. connectrequests flow from thesources to the destinations acquiring, holding,andreleasing certainresources in theprocess. As wasdiscussed, controllingtheflow of connect requests duringnetworkoverloads is a vital functionof networkmanagement. Theunpredictable natureof communications traffic arisesasa resultof two underlying random processes: call arrivals andholdingtimes.An arrivalfrom anyparticular useris generally assumed to occurpurelyby chance andbetotallyindependent ofar_ rivals from otherusers. Thusthenumberof arrivalsduringanyparticulartime interval is indeterminate. In mostcases holdingtimesarealsodistributed randomly. In some applications this element of randomness canbe removed by assuming constant hold-

521 tz.t rBAFFtc cHAHAcrEFlzATloN to a netpackets). thetraffic loadpresented In eithercase ing times(e.g.,fixedJength of arrivalsandthe average on both the frequency dependent work is fundamentally in which situation a representative holdingtime for eacharrival.Figure12.1depicts The are 20 sources unpredictable. different of the times holding the arivals and both while top displays source the individual of each activity bottomof the figuredepicts areto be conthatthe20 sources total of all activity.[f we assume theinstantaneous of circuitsin useat any thenumber nected to a hunk group,theactivitycurvedisplays number of circuitsin useat anyonetimeis particular time.Noticethatthemaximum terms,thetrunks utilizationis a little underI I circuits.In general 16 andthe average group' anda trunk group is a serYer arereferredto asservers, Traffic Measurementg overa periodof time. is thevolumeof traffrccarried of networkcapacity Onemeasure times duringtheinterval. holding carried the of all sum Traffic volumeis essentially activitycurve(apthe 12.1 area Figure is the under in Thetraffic volumerepresented proximately 84 call minutes). of traffic is the traffic intensity(alsocalledtraffic flow). A moreusefulmeasure of timeduring by dividingthetrafficvolumeby theIength Trafficintensity is obtained activityduringaperepresents theaverage Thustraffic intensity whichit is measured. dimenriod of time (10.5in Figure12.1).Althoughtraffic intensityis fundamentally afterthe in units of erlangs, (time dividedby time), it is usuallyexpressed sionless (century) call secA. K. Erlang,or in termsof hundred pioneer tlaffic theorist Danish can be units derived erlangs CCS (CCS). and relationship between The ondsperhour thatthereare3600secin anhour: by observing

Es
I

E.E !s
E E t

Tims lfiinu$rl

Flgure 12.1 Activity profile of networktraffic (all callscanied).

522

TRAFFICANALYSIS

I erlang= 36 CCS Themaximum capacity of a singleserver (channel) is l erlang, whichis to saythat theserver is always busy.Thusthemaximum capacity in erlangs of a groupof servers is merelyequalto thenumber of seryers. Because traffic in a losssysLmexperiences infiniteblockingprobabilities whenthetrafficintensity is equal to thenumber of servers,theaverage activityis necessarily less thal thenumber of servers. similarly,delay rrystems operate at lessthanfull capacity, on average, because infinite delaysoccur whentheaverage loadapproaches thenumber of servers. Two importantpalameters usedto characterize mafficarethe average alival rate L andtheaverage holdingtime t*. If thetrafficintensity l, is expressed in erlangs, then

a =fu*

(12.1)

whereI' andf* areexpressed in like unitsof time (e.g.,callsper second andseconds per call,respectively). Noticethat traffic intensityis only a measure of average utilizationduringa time periodanddoesnot reflectthe relationship between arrivalsandholdingtimes.That is, manyshortcallscanpraduce thesame traffic intensity asa few longones. In many of the analyses that follow the resultsaredependent only on the trathc intensity. In someca|tes, however, theresults arealsodependent on theindividualarrivalpattems andholdingtime distributions. Publictelephone networks aretypicallyanalyzed in termsof the average activity duringthebusiest hourof a day.Theuseof busy-hour trafficmeasurements to design andaralyzetelephone networks representrr a compromise between designing for tle overallaverage utilization(whichincludes virtually unused nighnimehours)anddesigningfor short-duration peaks that may occurby chance o, *, u resurtof rv commercialbreaks, radiocall-inconte$ts, andsoon. Busy-hour trafficmeasurements indicate thatanindividualresidential telephone is typicallyin usebetween 5 and l0zo ofthe busyhour.Thuseach telephone represenm a traffic loadof between 0.05and0.l0 errangs. Theaverage holdingtime is between 3 and4 min, indicating thara typicartelephone is involvedin oneoi two phonecalls duringthe busyhour. Business telephones usuallyproduceloadingpatterns differentfrom residential phones' First, a business phoneis generally utilizedmoreheavily.second, the busy hourofbusiness traffic is oftendifferentfrom thebusyhourofresidential traffic.Figute 12.2showsa typicalhourly variationfor both sources of traffic. The trunksof a telephone networkaresometimes designed to takeadvantage of variations in calling patterns from differentoffices.Toll connecting trunksfrom residentialareas areoften busiest during eveninghours,and trunksfrom business areas areobviouslybusiest duringmidmorning or midafternoon. Traffic engineering depends not only on overall traffic volumebut alsoon time-volumetraffic patterns within the network. A certainafirount of caremustbe exercised whendetermining thetotal traffic load of a system from theloadingof individuallinesor trunks.For example, sincetwo tele-

12.1 TRAFFICCHARACTEFIEAT|0N523

:
I

rillAr'r2

l0 ll

l2H I

ftuq ol dof I t oti(|;uomrdi*ia ofi* . *.ll.,ttot or'i"

on time of day. Figure 12.2 Traffic volumedependence phonesare involved in eachconnection,the total load on a switching systemis exactly one-half the total of all traffic on the lines connectedto the switch. ln addition, it may be important to include certain setupand rcleasetimes into the averageholding times of some common equipment. A lQ-sec setup time is not particularly significant for a 4-min voice call but can actually dominate the holding time of equipment used for Common equipment setup times also become more significant short data messages. presence in the ofvoice traffic overloads.A greaterpercentageofthe overall load is represented by call attempt$since they increaseat a faster rate than completions. An important distinction to be made when discussingtraffic in a communications network is the difference between the offered haffic and the carried traffic. The offered trffic is the total traffic that would be carried by a network capable of servicing all requestsas they arise.Since economicsgenerally precludesdesigning a network to immediately cany the maximum offered traffic, a small percentage of offered traffic typically experiencesnetwork blocking or delay. When the blocked calls are rejected by the network, the mode of operation is referred to as blocked calls cleared or lost blocked calls are assumedto disappearand never return. This calls cleared.In essence, assumption is most appropriatefor trunk Broup$with alternateroutert.In this case a blocked call is normally serviced by another tnrnk group and does not, in fact, retum. The carried traffic ofa loss system is always less than the offered traffic. A delay system,on the other hand, does not reject blocked calls but holds them until the necessaryfacitities are available. With the assumptionthat the long-term averageof offered traffic is less than the capacity of the network, a delay system caries all offered

524

TRAFFIc ANALYSIS

ffaffic. If the number of request$ that can be waiting for serviceis limited, however, a delay system also takes on properties of a ross system.For exampre,if the queue for holding blocked arrivals is finite, requestsarriving when the queueis full are cleared.

12.1.1 Arrival Distrlbutione The mostfundamental assumption of classical traffic analysis is thatcall arivals are independent. That is, an arrivar from one sourceis unrelatedto an arrival from any othersource. Eventhoughthis assumption may be invalid in someinstances, it has general usefulness for mostapplications. In those cases wherecall arrivalstendto be correlated, usefulresults canstill be obtained by modifyinga random arrivalanalysis. ln this mannerthe randomarrival assumption providesJmathematicalformulation that.catr be adjusted to produce approximate solutions to problems thatareotherwise mathematically intractable. Negatlva Exponenilal lnterarrlval Timeg Designate theaverage call arrivalratefrom a rargegroupof independent (subsources scriber lines)as1,,Usethefollowing assumptions: l. Only oneanival canoccurin anysufficientlysmallinterval. 2. The probability of an arrival in any sufficiently small iriterval is directly proportionalto the length of the interval. (The probability of an arrival is l" lr, whereAr is theintervallength.) 3. The probability of an arrival in any particularinterval is independent of what hasoccurred in otherintervals. It is straightforward [1] to showthatrheprobabilitydisnibutionof interarrival times is
P()(I"t) = e-M

(r2.2)

Equation l?'2 defines theprobabiliry thatno arrivalsoccurin a randomlyselected intervalt' This is identicalto theprobability that f seconds elapse from onearrival to the next. Example12.1. Assumingeachof 10,000subscriber lines originateone cail per hour,how oftendo two callsarrivewith lessthan0.01secbetween themt Solutinn. The average anival rateis l, = 3600/10,000 = 2.78arrivals/sec FromEquationlZ.z,theprobabilityof no arrivalin a O.0r-sec intervalis

525 12.1 TRAFFICCHARACTERIZATION = 0.973 PoQ'0215): e4'o?78 2.7Voof the arrivats occur within 0.01 secof the previous arrival. Since the arrival rate is ?.78 arrivatsper second,the rate ofoccurrence ofinteranival times lessthan 0.01 secis 'lhus

2.78x0.027 = 0.075times/sec arrivaldistriexponential madein derivingthenegative Theflrst two assumptions howThe third assumptron, butioncanbe intuitivelyjustifiedfor mostapplications. First, that cannotalwaysbe supported. of the sources ever,impliescertainaspects to the sources might stimulate breaks, commercial as televiSion Such certainevents, distrithe negative exponential time.In this case placetheir callsat nearlythe same butionmay still hold but for a muchhighercallingrateduringthecommercial. thenuminvolves arrivalassumption of theindependent A moresubtle implication of ananival in any Whentheprobability notjust theircallingpattern$. berof sources, of other arrivals,it implies that the numberof small time intervalis independent If a numberof arrivalsoccurimmeis constant. requests sources availableto generate become busyandcansome of thesources in question, diatelybeforeanysubinterval arrivalrate. the average is to reduce requests. Theeffectof busysources not generate largerthan whatEquation12.2preThusthe interarriva'ltimesarealwayssomewhat of sourceactivity dicts themto be. The only time the arrival rateis truly independent exist. of sources is whenan infinite number activityis relativelylow, busy is largeandtheir average If the numberof sources anendoffice consider thearrivalrate.Forexample, reduce $ources do notappreciably Normally,thereare with 0.1 erlangof activityeach. subscribers thatservices 10,000 Ifthe numto generate newartivals. available 1000activelinks and9000subscribers activelines,thenumber to 1500 by anunlikely 507o increa$es berof activesubscribers Thusthearrivalrateis relaof only 5.6Vo. to 85fi), achange reduces of idle subscribers thearrivalrateis fairly of source activity.Whenever overa widerange tively constant assumptron constantfor the entirerangeof normal sourceactivity, an infinite $ource is justified. in Chapter 5 havealready beendiscussed Actually,someeffectsof finite $ources graph Lee pointed out that It is switch. probabilities of a blocking when analyzing of interstage because, if somenumber analyses overestimate theblockingprobability links in thegrouparelesslikely links in a groupareknownto bebusy,theremaining solutionto produces a morerigorousandaccurate analysis to be busy.A Jacobaeus analyis used. Accurate particularly whenspace expansion theblockingprobability, areincludedin the These arealsopossible. sesofinterarrivaltimesfor finite sources to follow. blockinganalyses Poisson Arrlval Dlstributlon of interarrival thedistribution of determining provides a means Equation1.2.2merely informationof how times.It doesnot, by itself, providethe generallymoredesirable

526

TRAFFIC ANALYSIS

manyarrivals canbeexpected to occurin some arbitrary timeinterval. using thesame assumptions presented, however, theprobability ofj arrivals in aninterval, canbede_ termined [] as

=p r,{M)

r-u

(12.3)

Equation12.3is thewell-knownpoisson probabilitylaw. Noticethatwhenj = 0, the probabilityofno arrivalsin an intervalr is ps(r),asobtained in Equation12.2. Again,Equation12.3assumes arrivalsareindependent andoccurat a givenaveragerate1,,irrespective of the numberof arrivalsoicuning just prior to an interval in question' Tfius the Poisson probabilitydistributionstrouldonty be usedfor arrivals from a largenumber of independent sources. Equation l?.3 defines theprobability of experiencing exactlyjardvals in, seconds. Usuallythereis moreinterest in determining theprobabilityofj or morearrivalsin r seconds;

p=Itu) =Er,fUt
ej ./:l

: r -Er,flrt
r'{

= I _p*lftf) whereP;(l,r)is defined in Equation12.3.

(r2.4)

Example12.2. Given a message-swirching nodethat normally experiences four arrivalsper minure,what is the probabilitythat eight or more arrivals occur in an arbitrarilychosen 30-sec interval? solution, Theaverage number of arrivalsin a 30-sec intervalis

Lr=x a# = ?
Theprobabilityof eightor morearrivals(whentheaverage is 2) is

=i ",,r, P>8(2)
r=8

I2.1 TRAFFICCHARACTERIZATION 7

527

=t-Lr,(z)
r{

=r-a{r
= 0.0011

) " *' {'r!

Exampte12.3. What is the probability that a 1000-bitdata block experiences link with alit enor rate overa transmission exactlyfour errorswhile beingtransmitted (BER) of l0-5? assumption on many errors (a questionable Solation, Assuming independent from four directly exactly errors probability of obtain we can the links), transmission (arrivals) lut= errors average number of The distribution. Poisson the = x tO-s Thus 101 0.01.

= P4(0.01) = prob(4errors) ry

10 - 4.125 x 16e-{'or

An alternativesolutioncanbe obtainedfrom the binomial probability law:

: oo*Jtt t - p)ee6 prob(4errors) [t

= 4.I01x 10-10 wherep= lfl-s

Thecloseof Example12.3arenearlyidentical. thetwo solutions As canbe seen, probability distribution is reflectsthe fact that the Poisson nessof the two answers it Because is probability distribution. often derivedasa limiting caseof a binomial to a binoapproximation is used as an distribution often a Poisson to calculate, easier mial distribution' 12.1-z Holdlng Time Distrlbutions holdin Equation 12.1is theaverage asspecified Thesecond factorofffaffic intensity be needs known to of theholdingtimesis all that cases ing time tr-.In some theaverage or delays in in a losssystem blockingprobabilities aboutholdingtimesto determine of probability disribution to know the In othercases it is necessary a delaysystem. This sectiondescribes the two most results. the holdingtimesto obtainthe desired times holding andexponenconstant holdingtime disnibutions: commonlyassumed tial holdingtimes.

528

rRAFFtc ANALysts

ConstantHoldlng Times
Althoughconstant holdingtimescannot beassumed for conventional voiceconver$ations,it is a reasonable assumption for suchactivitiesasper-callcall processing requirements, interofficeaddress signaling, operator assistance, andrecorded -*ssag" playback'Furthermore, constant holdingtimesare obviouslyvalid for transmission timesin fixed-length packetnetworks. when constant holding time messages are in effect,it is straightforward to use Equation12.3to determine the probabilitydistribution of activechannels. As$ume, for thetimebeing,thatall requests areserviced. Thentheprobability ofj channels be_ ing busyat anyparticular time is merelytheprobabilitythat; arrivalsoccurred in the time intervalof lengthr* immediately preceding theinstant in question. sincetheaveragenumberof activecircuits over all time is the traffic intensityA = l,f*, the probability ofj circuitsbeingbusyis dependent only on the traffic intlnsity: P;(i.r-) = Pj(A)
a =N7- " where l, = arrival rate fm = constflrltholding time A = traffic inten$ity (erlangs)

(12.5)

ExponentlalHolding Tlmes
The most commonly assumedholding time distribution for conventional telephone conversationsis the exponential holding time distribution: P(>t) = s-t/t^

(12.6)

holdingtime. Equation12.6specifies yhere r* is the average the probabilitythat a holdingtime exceeds thevaluer. This relationship can-be derived fro* u few simple assumptions concerning thenatureof thecall termination process. justificaIts basic tion, however, lies in thefact thatobservations ofactual uoice"onuersations exhibit a remarkably closeconespondence to an exponential distribution, Theexponential distribution possesses the curiousproperty thattheprobabilityof a termination is independent of how longa call hasteen in progress. Thaiis, no matter how long a call hasbeenin existence, theprobabiliry ofit Lsting another r seconds is definedby Equation12'6.In this sense exponential holdingtimesrepresent themost random process possible. Not evenknowledge ofhow longa call hasieenin progress provides anyinformation asto whenthecall will terminaie. combininga Poisson arrivalprocess with an exponential holdingtime process to obtainthe probabilitydisribution of activecircuitJis morecompilated thanit was for constant holdingtimesbecause callscanlast indefinitely.rhe final result,however'proves to be dependent on only theaverage holdingtime.ThusEquation 12.5is

12.I TRAFFIC CHARACTERIZATION529

holdingtimes(or anyholdholdingtimesaswell asfor constant valid for exponential for emphasis; The probrepeated Equation12.5is therefore ing time distribution). a Poisson arrival ability of j circuitsbeingbusy at any palticularinstant,assuming is areserviced immediately, process andthatall requests

PIA)=fte-A

(r2.1)

This resultis true for any distributionof whereA is ttretraffic inten$ityin erlangs. holdingtimes.

to immediately Example12.4. Assumethat a tnrnk group has enoughchannels process with an arrival rateof onecall carry all of thetraffic offeredto it by a Poisson of the holding time is 2 min. What percentage per minute.Assumethat the average total traffic is carriedby the first five circuits, andhow much traffic is carriedby all remainingcircuits? (Assumethat the haffic is always packedinto the lowest numbered circuits.) I x2=2erlangs. thesystemisA= Solutinn. Thetrafficintensity(offeredload)of Thekaffic intensitycarriedby I activecircuitsis exactlyi erlangs.
Hence the traffic carried by the fust five circuits can be determined as follows;

+ 5Pr(?) +2Pr(2)+ 3Pr(2)+ 4Pa(2) As = 1Pr(2)

=e

s x z s) ^ .Zxz? 33 xi z z+ *. _3 *.-4 Tx-z a,

zl

st )

= l.g9 erlangs All of the remainingcircuits carry 2-1.89=0.llerlang returns asthe theprincipleof diminishing Theresultof Example12.4demonstrates greater percentage$ greater offered and ofthe is increased to carry capacityofa system of the traffic while all retraffic. The first five circuitsin Example12.4carry94.57o 95 exka cirof theftaffic. If thereare 100sources, mainingcircuitscarryonly 5.5Vo to carrythe5.5Vo. cuitsareneeded

530

TRAFFICANALYSIS

12.2 LOSS SYSTEMS Examplel2'4 provides anindication of theblockingprobabilities thatarisewhenthe number of servers (circuits) is lessthanthemaximum possible traffic load(number of sources). The example demonstrates thatg4.5%o of the traffic is carriedby only five circuits'Theimplication is thattheblockingprobability, if only five circuitsareavailableto carrythetraffic,is 5.svo. Actually,Example12.4is carefullywordedto indi_ catethatall ofthe offeredtraffic is carried but thatonly thetraffic carried by thefirst five circuitsis of interest. There is a subtle butimportant distinction between theprobability that six or morecircuitsarebusy(ascanbe obtained from Equation12.7)and theblockingprobabiliry thatarises whenonly five circuirsexisr. Thebasicreason for thediscrepancy is indicatecl in Figure12.3,whichdepicts the same trafficpattern arising from z0 sources asis shown previously in Figuretz. t. nlgure l2'3, however, assumes thatonly l3 circuitsareavailable to carryttretraffic.thus thethreearrivalsat t = 2.2,2.3,and2.4 min areblockedandassumed to haveleft the system. Thetotalamount of traffic volumelost is indicated by theshaded area, which is thedifference between all trafficbeingserviced asit arriverand trafficbeingcarried by a blockedcallscleared system with l3 circuits.Themostimportant feature to notice in Figure I2.3 is that the call arrivingat r = z.g is not blocied, eventhoughthe originalprofile indicates thatit arriveswhenall 13circuitsarebusy.Thereason it is not blockedis thatthepreviously blockedcallsleft thesystem andtherefore reduced thecongestion for subsequent arrivals. Hence thepercentage of time thattheoriginal traffic prof,rle is at or above13is not the $ame astheblockingprobabilitywhenonly 13circuitsareavailable.

gs
E.E
Efi
.tE
P E

= E
G

Tim6 (rninutEl Figure 12.3 Activity profile of blocked calls cleared ( I 3 channels).

SYSTEMS 531 12.2 LOSS

12.2.1 Loet CallsCleared

for theeffectof cleared calls in the fully andaccurately The first personto account we wasA. K. Erlangin 1917.In this section of blockingprobabilities calculation probblocking formulation of the result; his often Erlang's most used discuss RecallthatthePoisson arrivals. with Poisson system ability for a lostcallscleared This is variously referredto as infinite result implies sources. arrival assumption or the Erlang-Bformula; Erlang'sloss Erlang'sformulaof the first kind, El,y(A); formula. to modern anda key contribution aspect of Erlang'sformulation, A fundamental statistical equilibrium. Basically, process is theconcept of statistical theory, stochastic (numstate beingin a particular impliesthattheprobabilityof a system's equilibriunr of the time at whichthe system ber of busycircuitsin a trunk group)is independent equilibrium, a longtime mustpass(sevto be in statistical is examined. For a system in a state until it is again known from the $ystem is when eralaverage holdingtimes) it hasnobusy group to traffic, first begins accept examined. For example, whenatrunk the system is mostlikely to haveonly a few busy circuits.For a shorttime thereafter, equilibrium.At this point the the system reaches however, circuits.As time passes, is to haveA = I'rr busycircuits' of the system mostlikely state is aslikely to havean arrivalasit is to havea tera $ystem Whenin equilibrium, A, de' above theaverage to increase of activecircuitshappens mination. If thenumber Similarly,if the numberof activecircuits partures become morelikely thanarrivals. Thusif a system to dropbelowA, an arival is morelikely thana depadure. happens to return. perturbed it tends chance from its state, average is by complicated, it is notpreis notparticularly formulation AlthoughErlang'selegant The interresults. application of the in herebecause we aremostlyinterested sented ofthe result: is invitedto seereference reader ested [2] or [3] for a derivation

B=Erl,A)= Mffi
(channels) N = numberof servers where \,t^ (erlangs) ,4 = offeredtraffic intensity,

(12.8)

with randomarritheprobabilityof blockingfor a system Equation12.8specifies The blocking time arbitrary holding distributions. infinite source and vals from an of traffic a function offered plotted in Figure 12.4 as probabilityof Equation12.8is presentation of Erof channels. An oftenmoreusefUl intensityfor variousnumbers utilization theoutputchannel whichpresent$ is provided in Figure12.5, lang'sresults utilizationp repof servers. Theoutput andnumbers for various blockingprobabilities resents the traffic carriedbv eachcircuiu

g s g T U
= ! t
F E @ =

o t r F o . E b o L ' t r .it X q
cl P HO tl

J E

? E

6 t

E . E
H b
=
X H

g ^rilHrqod 0sHoolg

\ \ \ \

l \\
\

\\ \
i
q

\
I
I

\'

\ \ \ \
JT

8 d
U o C

r
' i

h H u E
q = i !

\ \ \ \ \ \

\ \
rr

t r H r E ; =
t

(
$

J
!

r
E

o
d
t

t
\
Jt
_Q

(\
aj a '
$ \

a , H rlr .5 . a =
L

\ \ \ \
O i

i\

E v

f t r t t
(

le
\ \ \ \ \ \

14.'

EJ

\ \ \ \

\ \

\
I

U?
ol
Fi

P b0

\ \ \ \

l-,

,r\ \ \ \

o j ( ' tr e c h t q ou lo r ot t o ' ? o t o! o 1

(uotterilrrn lndtno)d tauueqc

TRAFFICANALYSIS

P=-F
whereA N B (l -B)A
offered traffic number of channels blocking probability carried traffic

(1-B)4

(12.e)

Blockingprobabilities arealsoprovided in tabularform in AppendixD. Example 12.5. A Tl line is to be usedasa tieline trunkgroupberween two pBXs. How muchhaffic canthe trunk groupcany if the blockingptouuuitityis to be 0.1? What is the offeredtraffic intensitv? Soluti'on- From Figure 12.5it can be seenthat the outputcircuit utilization for B = 0.I andN = 24 is 0.8.Thusthecarried traffic intensity is 0.g x24 = 19.2erlangs. sincetheblockingprobabilityis 0.l, themaximumlevelof offeredtraffic is

A=ffi=2l.3erlangs
Example 12.6. Fourclusters of dataterminals areto beconnected to a computerby way of leased circuits,as shownin Figure 12.6.In Figure lz.6athetraffic from the clusters usesseparate group$of shared circuits.In Figure lz.6b thetraffic from all clustersis concentrated onto one commongroup of circuits.Determinethe total numberof circuits requiredin both caseswhen the maximum desiredblocking probabilityis 57o,Assume that 22 terminals arein eachclusterandeachterminalis activellVo of thetime. (Usea blocked callscleared analysis.)

lq?

Figure 12.6 Dataterminalnetworkof Example10.6:(a) four separate groups; (b) all traffic concenfrated into onegroup.

1a.aLosssYsrEMS 535 Sincethe Solution. The offeredtraffic from eachclusteris22x0.l =2.2 erlangs. an averagenumberof active circuits is much smaller than the numberof sources, of circuitsrequired canbe used. UsingTableD.l, thenumber infinite source analysis is 5. Thusthe configuration of Figure 12.54 for B = SVo at a loadingof 2.2 erlangs requires of 20 a total circuits. is of Figure12.6b Thetotalofferedtraffic to theconcentrator of theconfiguration to support the given From TableD.1, l3 circuitsarerequired 4 x2.2 = 8.8 erlangs. traffic load. into onelarge of smalltrafficgroups Example12.6 demonstrates thatconsolidation requirements. Large provide circuit group in traffic can significant savings total it is unlikely that the groupsare more efficient than multiple small groupsbecause arriindependent overloaded at the sametime (assuming small groupswill become group. Thus group use idle in another trafficin one can circuits vals).In effect,excess traffic peaksbut arenormally idle are thosecircuits that areneeded to accommodafe is is combined into onegroup.This feature utilizedmoreefficientlywhenthe,traffic voice data traffic integrating and in 10 for mentioned Chapter oneof themotivations in ffansmission co$tsis most significant into a commonnetwork.The total savings peripheralareaof a netlow. it is the Hence whenthe individual traffic intensitiesare traffic. work that benefitsthe mostby concentrating the The greatercircuit efficiency obtainedby combiningtxaffic into large groupsis This efficiencyof circuitutiliof largegroupsizes. oftenreferred to asthe advantage of interconInstead structures. motivation forhierarchical switching zationis thebasic pair, it groups each between nectinga large numberof nodeswith rathersmall trunk trunk one individual nodes into large is moreeconomical to combineall traffic from node.Figure12.7contrasts a groupandroutethetraffic througha tandem switching node center. centralized switching at the Obviously, mesh a starnetworkwith a versus justifiedwhenthesavings in totalcircuitmiles switchbecomes thecostof thetandem is largeenough.

(a) Flgure 12.7 Use of tandem switching to concentrate ffaffic:

ft) (a) mesh; (b) star.

536

THAFFIC ANALYSIS

Example 12.7. what happensro rhe blocking probabiliries in Figure rz.6a andb discussedin Example 12.6 when the traffic intensity increase$ by 50va? soluti.on. If the traffrc intensity of eachgroup increases from z.zto3.3erlangs, the blocking probability of the configuration of Figure 12.6aincreaserr from 5Zoto almost l4Va. In the configuration of Figure 12.6b a 507oincreasein the traffic intensitv causes a 400Voincreasein the blocking probability (from 5 to ZOVo). Example 12.7 demonstrate$ some important consideration$ in network design. As indicated, blocking probabilities are very sensitive to increasesin traffic intensities, particularly when the channelsare heavily utilized. Becauselarge trunk groups utilize their channelsmore efficiently, they are more vulnerable to traffic increasesthan are a number of smaller groups designedto provide the same grade of service. Furthermore, failures of equal percentages of transmissioncapacity affect the performanceof a large group more than the performarce of severalsmall groups.In both cases the vulnerability of the large group$ arisesbecauselarge groups operatewith less sparecapacity than do multiple small groups. A secondaspectof blocking analysesdemonstrated in Example l Z.7 is that the calculatedresultsare highly dependenton the accuracyofthe traffic intensities.Accurate valuesof traffic intensitiesare not always available.Furthermore,even when accurate traffic measurements are obtainable,they do not provide an absoluteindication of how much growth to expect.Thus only limited confidence can be attachedto calculations of blocking probabilities in an absolutesense.The main value of theseanalysesis that they provide an objective meansof comparing various network sizes and configurations' The most cost-effectivedesignfor a given gradeof serviceis the one that should be chosen,even if the traffic statisticsare hypothetical. If a network is liable to experience wildly varying traffic patternsorrapid growth, thesefactors mustbe considered when comparing design alternatives.A network with a somewhat larger initial cost may be more desirableif it can absorbor grow to accommodateunanticipatedtraffic volumes more easily.

12.2.2 Lost Catts Returning In the lost callscleared just presented, analyses it is assumed that unserviceable requests leavethe system andneverretum.As mentioned, this assumption is mostappropriate for trunk groups whose blockedrequests overflowto another routeandare usuallyserviced elsewhere. However,Iostcallscleared analyses arealsousedin in$tances whereblockedcalls do not get serviced elsewhere. In manyof thesecases, blockedcallstendto returnto the system in the form of retries.someexamples are subscriber concenhator systems, corporate tie linesandpBX trunks, callsto busytelephonenumbers, andaccess to WATS lines (if DDD altematives arenot used). This

1z.z Loss sYsrEMS 537 derivesblockingprobabilityrelationships section for lost callscleared with systems retries. random involvesthreefirndamental assumptions regarding Thefollowing analysis thenatureof theretumingcalls: l. All blockedcalls return to the systemand eventuallyget serviced, even if multiple retriesarerequired.
The elapsed times between call blocking occurrencesand the generation of retries are random and statistically independentofeach other. (This assumption allows the analysisto avoid complications arising when retries are correlatedto each other and tend to cause recurring traffic peaks at a particular waiting time interval.) The typical waiting time before retries occur is somewhat Ionger than the averageholding time of a connection.This assumptionessentiallystatesthat the $ystem is allowed to reach statistical equilibrium before a retry occurs. Obviously, ifretries occur too soon, they are very likely to encountercongestion "relax." In the limit, if all retries are since the system has not had a chanceto immediate and continuous, the network operation becomes similar to a delay system discussedin later sections of thi$ chapter. In this case, however, the system does not queuetequests-the sourcerldo so by continually "redialing." When consideredin their entirety, theseassumptionscharacterizeretries as being statistically indistinguishable from first-attempt traffic.* Hence blocked calls merely add to the first-attempt call arrival rate. Consider a system with a first-attempt call arrival rate of 1,.If a percentageB of the calls is blocked, B times L retries will occur in the future. Of theseretries, however, a percentageI will be blocked again. Continuing in this manner, the total arival rate l,i after the systemhas reachedstatisticalequilibrium can be determinedas the infinite series

l,' = l, +Bl,+ R7"+B37r... L

I-B analysis with traffic inwhereB is the blockingprobabilityfrom a lost callscleared ten'tityA' = l,'fm. Equation12.10relatesthe average arrival ratel,/, including theretries,to the firstattemptarrival rate andthe blocking probability in termsof l,'. Thusthis relationship notprovidea directmeans l,' or d since each in terms does is expressed of determining by iteratingthe lost calls of the other.However,the desired resultcan be obtained
*First-attempt traffic is also referred to as demand traffic: the service demands assuming all arrivals are serviced immediately. The offered haffrc is the demand traffic plus the refries,

(12.10)

538

THAFFIc ANALysts

clearedanalysis of Equation 12.8. First, determine an estimateof B using L and then calculatel,'. Next, use l,' to obtain a new value of B anclan updatedvalui of 1,,.continue in this mamer until values of l,' and B are obtainecl. Example 12.8. what is the blocking probability of a pBX to a central office trunk group with I 0 circuits servicing a first-attempt offered traffic load of 7 erlangs?What is the blocking probability if the number of circuits is increased to 13?Assumerandom retries for all blocked calls. solution. It can be assumedthat the 7 erlangs of haffic arise from a large number of PBX stations.Thus an infinite sourceanalysisis justified. The blocking probability forA = 7 erlangsand N= l0 serversis about 87a.Thus the total offered load, including retries, is approximately 7.6 erlangs. with N = l0 and,4'= 7.6, the blocking probability is llvo. Two more iterations effectively produce convergenceatA, = g erlangs and B = lTvo.rf the number of circuits in the trunk group is increasedto 13, the blocking probability of a lost calls clearedsystemis 1.57o.Thus a first approximation to the retuming traffic intensity is 7/0.985 = 7.1 erlangs. Hence the blocking probability including all retuming traffic increasesonly slightly above the l.5Zo. Example l2'8 demonstrates that the effect of retuming traffic is insignificant when operating at low blocking probabilities. At high blocking probabilities, however, ir is necessaryto incorporate the efTects ofthe returning traffic into the analysis.This relationship between lost calls cleare{ and lost calls retuming is shown in Figure 12.g. when measurements are made to determine the blocking probability of an outgoing trunk group, the measurements canxot distinguish betweenfirst-attempt calls (demand traffic) and retries. Thus if a significant number of retries are contained in the measurements, this fact should be incorporatedinto an analysisof how many circuits must be addedto reduce the blocking of an overloadedtrunk group. The apparentoffered load will decrease as the number of serversincreasesbecausl the number ofret.0
.5

E .100 E .080 {

.F .om
J

E .010

t E .oot

u. I

tt,z

u.ir 0J

u,+ 0.,0

u.[ 0.[

o.o 0.8

0,7 0.7

0,9

(ritfigll Of|rttd tilffh Of|rttd rilftTo Inrfirlry Inrfirlry Frr ctunrut (ritfigll Frrctunrd Figure 12.8 Blocking probability of lost calls reruming.

12,2 LoSSSYSTEMS 539

tries decreases. Thus feweradditional circuitsareneeded thanif no retriesarecontainedin the measurements. 12.2.3 Lost Galls Held In a lostcallsheldsystem, blocked callsareheldby thesystem andserviced whenthe facilitiesbecome necesrrary available. Lost callsheldsystems aredistinctlydifferent from thedelaysystems discussed laterin oneimportant respect; Thetotalelapsed time includingwaitingtime andservice of a call in the system, time,is independent of the waitingtime.In essence, eacharrivalrequires for a continuous periodof time service andterminates its request independently of its beingserviced or not.Figure12.9demthebasicoperation onstrates of a lostcallsheldsystem. Noticethatmostblocked calls get someservice, eventually but only for a portion of the time that the respective sources arebusy. Althougha switched networkdoesnot operate in a lost callsheld mantelephone ner,some generally system$ do.Lost callsheldsystems arisein real-time applications in whichthe sources in needof service, or not thefacilities arecontinuously whether are available.Whenoperating underconditions of heavyftaffic, a lostcallsheldsystem typicallyprovides for only a portionof thetime a particular source seryice is active. Eventhough conventional circuitswitching notoperate according does to thetheoreticalmodelof lost callsheld,Bell System traffic engineers haveusedit to calculate for trunkgroups blockingprobabilities produces always [4]. A lostcallsheldanalysis a largervaluefor blockingthandoesErlang'slossformula.Thusthe lost callsheld produces design for retriesandday-to-day analysis that helpsaccount a conservative

E,:

Es E E gG -

Figure 12,9 Activity profile sf lost callsheld,

540

THAFFIC ANALYSIS

variations in the busy-hour calling intensities. In contrast, CCITT recommendations [5] stipulateErlang-B formulas should be used in determining blocking probabilities. One example of a system that closely fits the lost calls held model is time assignment speechinterpolation (TASD. A TASI sy$temconcentrates somenumber of voice $ourcesonto a smaller number of transmissionchannels.A sourcereceivesservice(is connectedto a channel) only when it is active. If a source becomesactive when all channels are busy, it i$ blocked ard speechclipping occurs. Each speechsegment starts and stops independenfly of whether it is serviced or not. TASI systemswere originally used on analog long-distancetransmissionlinks such as underseacables. More modern counterpartsof TASI are referred to as digital circuit multiplication (DCM) systems.[n contrast to the original rASI systems,DCM systemscan delay speechfor a small amount of time, when necessary, to minimize the clipping. In this case,a lost calls held analysisis not rigorously justified because the total time a speech segmentis "in the sy$tem" increase$as the delay for service increases.However, if the averagedelay is a small percentage of the holding time, or if the coding rate of delayed speechis reduced to allow the transmissionchannel time to "catch up," a lost calls held analysisis stilljustified. Recall that controlling the coding rate is one technique of traff,rcshaping used for transporting voice in an ATM network, Lost calls held systemsare easily analyzedto determinethe probability of the total number of calls in the systemat any one time. Since the duration of a source'sactivity is independentof whether it is being serviced,the number in the systemat any time is identical to the number of active sourcesin a systemcapableof carrying all traffic as it arises.Thus the distribution of the number in the systemis the Poissondistribution provided earlier in Equationl2.3. The probability that i sourcesrequestingserviceare being blocked is simply the probability that i + N sourcesare active when N is the number of servers.Recall that the Poissondistribution essentiallydeterminesthe desired probability as the probability that i + N arrivals occurred in the preceding f. seconds. The distribution is dependentonly on the product of the averagearrival rate l" and the averageholding time tm. Example 12.9. what is the probability that a talk$purt experiencesclipping in a TASI system with l0 sourceriand 5 channels?with 100 sourcesand 50 channels? Assume that the activity factor of each talker is 0.4. (Ignore finite sources..l solution, For the first case, the clipping probability can be determined as the probability that five or more sourcesare busy in a poisson processwith an averageof A = O.4x l0 = 4 busy servers.Using Equation 12.7, /,, : f, r,r+) prob(crippingl ="*l #* # * +.#.fr l: o.ru
Fi l,"' )

With 100sources, theaverage number of busycircuitsis,4 = 0.4 x 100: 40.A speech segment is clippedif 50 or moretalkersareactiveat once.Thusthe clippingprobability canbe determined as

1z.a LosssysTEMs 541

99

= = prob(clippingl f, rr{+O) 0,04 'Fso Example12.9demonshates aremuchmoreeffectivefor large that TASI system$ groupsizes thanfor smallones.The 36Vo clippingfactoroccuningwith 5 channels produces unacceptable voicequality.On the otherhand,the4Vo clippingprobability for 50 channels whenthe line costsarehigh enough. canbe tolerated In reality,thevalues for blockingprobabilities obtained in Example 12.9areoverly pessimistic because assumption an infinite source Thesummations wasused. did not includethecase of all sources beingactivebecause thereneeds to be at leastoneidle source anarrivalduringthetimecongestion. to create A moreaccurate to this solution problemis obtained in a latersection usinga finite source analysis. 12.2.4 Lost Calls Cleared-Finite Sources previously, As mentioned assumption a fundamental in the derivation of thePoisson arrivaldistribution, andconsequently loss is Erlang's formula, thatcall arrivalsoccur independently of thenumber of activecallers. Obviously, this assumption canbejustified only whenthenumber of sources is muchlarger thanthenumber This of servers. sectionpresents relationships for determiningblocking probsome fundamental abilitiesof lost callscleared systems whenthe numberof sources is not muchlarger thanthe numberof servers. Theblockingprobabilities in these arealwaysless case$ thanthose for infinite rtource system$ sincethearrivalratedecreases asthenumber of busysources increases. Whenconsidering finite $ource systems, traffictheorists inffoduce anotherparameter of interest calledtime congestion. Time congestion is the percentage of time that thatall server$ all servers in a grouparebusy.It is iderticalto theprobability arebusy times.However, at randomlyselected time congestion is not necessarily identicalto blockingprobability(whichis sometimes refenedto ascall congestion). Time congestion merelyspecifies theprobabilitythatall servers arebusy.Beforeblockingcan occur,theremustbe an arrival. In an infinite lrource system, andcall congestion time congestion areidentical because thepercentage ofarrivals encountering all servers is exactly to busy equal the (Thefact that all servers time congestion. arebusyhasno bearing on whether or not an arrivaloccurs.) In a finite source however, system, thepercentage of arrivalsenis smaller because countering congestion fewerarrivals whenall occurduringperiods (blocking arebusy.Thusin a finite riource probability) $ervers system, call congestion is always lessthanthetime congestion. As anextreme example, equalnumconsider bersof sources andservers. Thetime congestion is theprobabilitythatall senersare busy.Theblockingprobabilityis obviouslyzero. basictechniques by Erlangwhenhe determined The same introduced thelossforfor infinite mula sources for finite sources canbeused to derivelossformulas [3]. Us-

542

TRAFF|c ANALysts

ing these techniques, we find theprobabilityof n servers beingbusyin a system with M sources andN servers is

( 1 2 . 1)

wheret is the calling rateper lzle source andf* is theaverage holding time. Equation 12.1I is knownasthetruncated Bernoullian distribution andalsoastheEngset dishibution. settingn = N in Equation12.1 1 produces an expression for thetime congestion:

rL[Y)rrr-r'

(r2.r2)

using the fact that the arrival ratewhenN servers arebusyis (M -M)/r4 timesthe arrival ratewhenno servers arebusy,we candetermine theblockingprobabilityfor lost callscleared with a finite source asfollows;

t)t^"-r u= [t" ELF,I-tlrrrJ'

(12.13)

t'')

which is identical to P1,, (the time congestion) for M - I sources.

Equations l2.ll, 12-12, and 12.13areeasilyevaluated in termsof theparameters ir,'andt-. However,Ll andr. do not, by themselves, speci$,the average activity of a source' In a lost callscleared system with finite sources theeffectiveofferedloaddecrease$ asthe blockingprobabilityincreases because blockedcallsleaveanddo not retum' When a call is blocked,the average activity of the offering sourcedecreases, which increases the average amountof idle time for that source. The net resultis that U decreases because the amountof idle time increases. If the average activity of a source assuming no traffic is clearedis designated a$p = It*, the valueof l/t canbe determined as

} j r"*': = * - j I - P(l-B)

(r2.14)

12.?LosssysTHMs543 whereB is theblockingprobabilitydefined by Equation 1?.13. The difficulty with usingthe unblocked activity factorp to characterize $ource a $ource's offeredloadis now apparent. Thevalueof li t* depends on B, whichin furn depends on l"'I*. Thus someform of iterationis needed to determine B whenthe sources parameter) arecharacterized by p (aneasilymeasured instead of il. If thetotal offeredload is considered to be Mp, the carriedtraffic is
A"*ie*l =MPI - B)

( I 2.1s)

is provided A tableof traffic capacities for finite sources in AppendixD.2, where the offeredIoadA =Mp is listedfor variouscombinations of M, N, and8. Someof theresults areplottedin Figure12.10, wheretheycanbe compared to blockingprob(Erlang-B) abilitiesof infinite source systems. As expected, infinite $ource analyses areacceptable whenthenumber of sources M is large. Example12,10, A groupof callers generate request$ callsperhour at a rateof f,rve pertelephone (including incoming andoutgoing calls).Assuming theaverage holding time is 4 min, whatis theaverage idle source? callingrateof each How manycallers can be supportedby a l2-channel concentrator/multiplexer if the maximum acceptable blockingprobabilityis lVo'! Solution, Sinceeachcalleris typicallyactivefor ?0 min ofevery hour andplaces anaverage of five callsduringthe40 min of inactivity,thecallingratefor idle $ources = 0.l?5 callsperminute. M = 5l4O Theofferedloadfor M sources, assuming all traffic is carried, is 0.33M. TableD.2 mustbe searched to find thelargest M suchthat0.33 M is lessthanor equalto the maximumofferedloadfor B = lVo andN = 12.Using interpolation for M = 2l reveals 7.11erlangs that 12 servers cansupport at B = LVo. = Since2I x 0.33 6.93is theofferedload,2l sources is an acceptable solution. If 22

! 5

c o E
C

ffi

0.6 0.8 0,7 0.4 (orlangBl traffic prrErvsr Offered

0.9

0.9

Figure 12.10 Blockingprobabilityof lost callscleared with finite sources.

544

THAFFIo ANALysts

sources are used,the offeredload of 7.26 erlangsis higherthan the 7.04 erlangs obtainable from interpolation in TableD.2 asthemaximumofferedloadfor B = lvo. It is worthwhilecomparing the resultof Example12.10to a resultobtained from aninfinite source (Erlang-B). analysis For a blockingprobability of lvo,TableD.l reveals thatthemaximum offered loadfor 12servers is 5.88erlangs. Thusthemaximum number of sources canbe determined = t/.94. Hence as5.88/0.333 in this case an infinite source analysis produces a resultthatis conservative by l5Vo. 12.2.5 Lost Calls Hetd-Flnlte Sources A lost callsheld system with finite sources is analyzed in thesame basicmanner asa lost callsheld $ystems with infinite sources. At all timesthe numberof calls"in the system" is definedto be identicalto the numberof callsthat wouldbe serviced by a strictlynonblocking group.ThusEquation server 12.11 is used to derermine theprobability thatexactlyn callsarein the system:

(1,'t-)"

r%[Y)rr,t-r'

[y),",-,
ql + l"'r*)tr

(r2.16)

Becauseno calls are cleared,the offered load per idle sourceis not dependenton B:

r,,*=*h=f;

(12.r7)

combining Equationsl?.16 and 12.17produces a more usefulexpression for the probabilitythatn callsarein the system:

+=[f;)ot'-p)M-n

(12.18)

If thereareN servers, the time congestion is merelythe probability that N or more servers arebusy:

Pr* EP,
n4'l

(12.19)

12.2 LOSS SYSTEMS 545

The blockingprobability, in a lost callsheld sense, i$ theprobabilityof an arrival encounterins try'or in morecalls the svstem: f ,prob(anival lru sources arebusy)
average arrival rate

ff^ Br,=

=iU
wherep = offeredloadper source M = number of sources N = numberof servers

t)o'ct - p)Mr-'r

(12.20)

Exampte12.11. Determinethe probability of clipping for the TASI systems in Example12.9.In this case, described however, usea lost callsheld analysis for finite sources. Solution, In this exarnple we areconcemed only with theprobabilitythata speech utterance is clippedfor someperiodof time until a channel Thus becomes available. Equation12.20providesthe desired answerusing p = 0.4 for the offeredload per source. In the first case, with 10 sources and5 channels,
9

=o.z7 = E | ] lto.+fto.o)%n Bn
,=s(-/ In thesecond with 100sources case and50 seryers.

/rt\

6)ee-'= o'023 . =,1f;)(o'4)n(0

Theresults of Example12.11showagainthata TASI system largegroup requires sizes to providelow clippingprobabilities. Whencompared to theresults of Example 12.9,these results indicate that an infinite source analysis overestimates theclipping probability (0.36versus in bothcases 0.27and0.04versus Noticethattheper0.023). centage errorin the infinite $ource is almostidenticalfor the IO-source analysis systemand the l0O-source system.Hencethe validity of choosingan infinite sourcemodelis more dependent on the ratio of sources to servers thanit is on the numberof sources.

546

TRAFFTc ANALYSIs

F
.s o .s g
o .E 4 o

E
E I
ll
5

.t o

s
s E o
g L

$ource activlty(erlangsl F'igure l2.Il Clipping probability and clipping duration of TASI. that a speech segment encoun-

Example I2. I I merely determines the probability

ters congestionand is subsequently clipped. A complereanalysisof a TASI (or DCM) system must consider the time duration of clips in addition to their frequency of occuffence. In essence, the desired information is represented by the amount of traffic volume in the clipped $egments. weinstein [6] refers to the clippert $egments as "fractional speechloss" or simply "cutout fraction." This is not the silne as the lost traffic, since a conventional lost calls held analysisconsidersany arrival that encounterscongestion as being completely "lost"-even if it eventually receives some service.The cutout fraction is determined as the ratio of untransmittedtraffic intensitv to offered traffic intensitv:

iz.g NErwoFrKBLocKtNc pFroBABtLtlES

547

n",:i.E(,-1v)P"
n=N+l

(r2.21)

M = number where of sources A = ofTered load,= Mp N = number of servers (Equation Pn= probabilityof n callsin thesystem 12.18) Example12.12, Determine theaverage duration of a clip in thetwo TASI systems of Example 12.11. Assume the average duration of a speech is 300 msec. $egment (Theaverage lengthof a speech is dependent on theactivitythreshold, segment which alsoinfluences theactivityfactorp.) Solution. In thefirst case,

a,,=II

:0.05e tn- s)f1,0.)(0.4r(0.6)10-n

n+t \-/

Thus,on average, 5.9Va, ot 17.7msec, of every300-msec segment speech is clipped. Since?7%o l l),theaverageduration of thesegmentsexperienceclipping(Example 12. = 22Vo, of a clip for clippedsegments is 0.059/0.27 or 66 msec-an obviouslyintolerable In the second amount. for 100sources case and50 channels.

- 50) =0.00r u",:+,*E,,n fifl),r.-t*.6)rtx]Thusin thiscase only 0.1%of all speech is clipped, whichimpliesthatwhenclipping occurs, 300x 0.001/0.023= 13msec of thesegment is lost. Example12.12showsthat largegroupsizesnot only greatlyreduce the clipping probabilityof TASI systems but alsoreduce theduration of theclips.Therelationship of clippingprobabilities andclippingduration(fractionalspeech loss)to groupsize andsource activityis provided in FigureI ?.I l. As shown, theclippingprobabilityis sensitive extrcmely activity(offered to s(turce load).For a discussion of theeffects of quality,seereferences clippingon speech [7] and[8].

100

12.3 NETWORKBLOCKING PROBABILITIES In thepreceding sections basictechniques ofcongestion theoryarepresented to determineblockingprobabilities of individualtrunk groups. In this section techniques of calculating end-to-end blockingprobabilities of a networkwith morethanoneroute

548

TBAFFIcANALysts

betweenendpoints is considered. In conjunctionwith calculatingthe end-to-end blockingprobabilities, it is necessary to consider the interaction of raffic on various routesof a network.Foremost amongtheseconsiderations is the effectof overflow ffaffic from onerouteontoanother. Thefollowingsections discuss simplifiedanalyses only. More sophisticated techniques for morecomplexnetworks canbe obtained in references andI l]. t9l, t101, 12.3.1 End-to-End Blocking Probabilities Generally, a connection througha largenetworkinvolvesa seriesof transmission links, eachone of which is selected from a set of alternatives. Thus an end-to-end blockingprobabilityanalysis usuallyinvolves a composite of series probandparallel abilities.The simplest procedure is identicalro the blockingprobability(marching loss)analyses presented in chapter5 for switchingnetworks. For example, Figure I 2.I 2 depictsa representative setof alternative connections througha networkandthe resulting composite blockingprobability. Theblockingprobabilityequarion in Figure12.12 contains severar simplifyingassumptions. First, the blockingprobability(matching loss)of the switches is not included.In a digital time divisionswitch,matching losscanbe low enough that it is easily eliminated from theanalysis. In otherswitches, however, thematching lossmay not be insignificant. when necessary, switchblockingis includedin the analysis by considering it a source ofblocking in series with theassociated ffunk groups. when morethanoneroutepasses throughthe sameswitch,asin nodec of Figure 12'12,propertreatment of correlation between matching losses is an additional complication. A conservative approach considers thematching lossto be completely correlated. In this case thematching lossis in series with thecommon link. On theother hand,an optimisticanalysis assumes thatthematching losses areindependent, which impliesthattheyarein series with theindividuallinks.Figure12.13 depicts rhese two approaches for includingthe matching lossof switchc into theend-to-end blocking probabilityequation of Figurel2.r2.In rhiscase, thelink from c to D is thecommon link.

1 - qz{t

B=pr11-qpqsl Figure 12.12 hobability graph for end-ro-endblocking analysis.

12.3 NETWoRK BLoGKING PRoBABILITIES 549

l
E/

-wfl"@-q\
\0,

1 -q+

fr%d
g=1-{rofig

ffito'
-Q2fte) B= 1-(1-slSsxl

; bo"o ,o,

Qr*= 1- (1 -0r9")Q

Figure 12.13 Incorporating swirch*matching loss into end-to-end blocking analysis:(a) independent switchblocking;(b) correlated switchblocking.

A second simplifyingassumption usedin derivingtheblockingprobabilityequation in Figure12.I? involvesassuming independence for theblockingprobabilities of the trunk groups.Thus the composite blockingof two parallelroutesis merelythe productof the respective (Equation probabilities im5.4). Similarly,independence pliesthattheblockingprobabilityof two paths-in series-is I minustheproductof (Equation5.5). In actualpracticeindividual blocking the respective availabilities probabilities arenevercompletely independent. This is particularly truewhena large amountof traffic on oneroute resultsasoverflow from anotherroute.Wheneverthe first routeis busy,it is likely thatmorethanthe average amount of overflowis being route.Thusan alternate divefiedto thesecond routeis morelikely to bebusywhena primaryrouteis busy. In a largeprrblic network,trunksto tandemor toll switchesnormally carry traffrc to manydestinations. Thusno onedirectroutecontributes an overwhelming amount group. of overflowtraffic to a panicular case trunk In this independent blockingprobjustified. abilitieson alternate are In public routes some instances of the network, and oftenin privatenetworks,overflow traffic from oneroutedominates thetraffic on tandem routes.In thesecases failure to accountfor the conelationin blockingprobabilitiescanleadto overlyoptimisticresults. Example 12.13. Two trunk groupsare to be usedas direct routesbetween tws switchingsystems. The first group has 12 channels and the secondgroup has 6 AssumeI0.8 erlangsof haffic is offlered channels. to the l2-channelgroup and groupwhenthefirst groupis busy.Whatis the overflowsareofferedto the6-channel blockingprobabilityof thefirst group,andhow muchtraffic overflows to the second group?Using the overflow traffic volumeasan offeredload, determine the blocking probabilityof the second kunk group.What is theprobabilitythatbothtrunk groups this answer arebusy?Compare to the blockingprobabilityof one t8-channel tunk group.

550

THAFFI0 ANALysts

solution. using a lost calls cleared analysis with an infinite source, we determinethatblockingofthefirsrgroupis l|vo(A= l0.B,N= 12).Thereforethe overflow traffic is 10.8x 0.ltsI.62 erlangs. The blocking probability (assuming random arrivals?) of the secondgroup is o.Svo(A = 1.62, N = 6). The probability that both trunk groups are busy simultaneously can be determined (assuming independence?) as

B=0.15x0.005=0.00075 In contrast, thecorrect blockingprobabilityof an l8-channel trunk groupwith an offeredloadof 10.8erlangs is B:0.013 Thequestion marksin the solution of Example12.13 pointto two sources of error in the determination of the first blocking probability value.one error is the assumption ofindependence ofblockingin thetwo trunkgroups. A second errorresults from the useof an analysis predicated on purely random(poisson)arrivalsfor over{low trafficinto thesecond trunkgroup.Resolution ofthis erroris discussed in thenextsec* tion. separating the 18channels of Example12.13 into two groups is anobvious artifice. This example is usefulin thatit demonshates anextreme case of correlation between blockingprobabilities of two trunk groups.when correlation exists,the composite blocking probability of a direct route and an alternate route shouldbe determined as follows:
B = (8,) (8211) where 81 = blocking probability of group I B2ll = blocking probability ofgroup 2 given that group I is busy In the artificial caseof dividing a trunk group into two subgroups,the conditional blocking probability can be determined as

(12.22)

Brll =B(MN1) ; prob (N servers arebusywhenN, areknown to be busy) _ !1V p -n=Nr'n P* _ \aN r un=71;An/nl) AN/NI

(r2.23)

wherePnis theprobabilityrhatexactlyn of N servers arebusy(Equationl?.3).

pRoBABtLrrES 551 la.s NETWoRK BLoCKTNG

that the apEvaluating Equation12.23for A = 10.8,Nr = 12,andN = 18 reveals propriate probability Thusthecomposite B2ll for Example12.1 3 is 0.033. conditional blockingprobabilityper Equation12.22isB = 0.15x 0.033= 0.005.The remaining (0.005versus inaccuracy 0.013actually) is dueto nonrandom characteristics ofoverflow trffic. Equation 12.23is valid only for the contrivedcaseof an altemateroute carrying however, asa worst-case overflowtraffic from only oneprimaryroute.It canbeused, solutionto situationswhereoverflow from oneroutetend$to dominatethe traffic on an alternate route. between of individualroutesarisebeThe correlations theblockingprobabilities congestion on on onerouteproduces overflowsthat tendto cause congestion cause Extemalevents stimulating networkwide overloads alsocause theblockotherroutes. blocking Thusa third assumption in theend-to-end ing probabilities to be correlated. probabilityequation the networkis indeof Figure 12.12is that traffic throughout pendent. If fluctuationsin the traffic volumeon individual links tendto be conelated (presumably of extemal events commercials, etc.),signifibecause suchastelevision in overall performance results. cantdegradation 12.3.2 OverflowTratfic an Erlang-B analysis oferror in Example12.13occurred because The second source usedthe averagevolume of overflow traffic from the first group to determinethe traffic trunk group.An Erlang-Fanalysis assumes blockingprobabilityof the second Howarrivalsarepurelyrandom, thatis, theyaremodeled by a Poisson distribution. erroneous assumption for the offered traffic ever, a Poissonanival distributionis an to the second trunk group.Eventhougharrivalsto thefirst groupmay be random,the groups of these themon to the secarrivalsandpass overflowprocess tendsto select groupoccur thearrivalsto thesecond ofbeing random ondtrunk group.Thusinstead a typical in Figure12.14, whichportray$ in bursts. This overfloweffectis illustrated group, randomardval patternto onehunk groupandthe overflow patternto a second If a significantamountof the traffic flowing onto a trunk group resultsas overflow from othertrunk groups,overly optimistic valuesof blocking probability arisewhen all of thetraffic is assumed to be purelyrandom. The mostcornmontechnique of dealingwith overflow traffic is to relatethe overflow traffic volume to an equivalentamountof randomtraffic in a blocking probis For example, if the 1.62erlangs of overflowtraffic in Example12.12 ability sense. equated of randomtoaffic,a blockingprobabilityof LSVIis obtained to 2.04erlangs for the second trunk group.(This is the correctprobability of blocking for the second groupis busy.) groupsincebothgroups arebusyif andonly if the second randomtheto method traffic is refened as the This of treatingover{low equivalent overflow efareavailable the ory [12]. Tables of traffrccapacity [3] thatincorporate fectsdirectlyinto the maximumofferedloads.The Neal-Wilkinsontablesusedby TheNeal-Wilkinsontacomprise onesuchsetof tables. Bell System traffic engineers the effectsof day-to-dayvariationsin the traffic load. bles,however,alsoincorporate

552

THAFFIC ANALYSIS
AfflYrh to flil trunk gru.rp

Drprturd frotn llnt tunk $uup frprclty of fim mrnk ero{F

Olnrflofr rtylnh to rmnd trunk Foup

l i l l

Figure 12.14 Bursty characteristic of overJlowtraffic. (Forty erlangson one day and 30 erlangs on anotheris not the $ameas 35 erlangson both days.) These tables are also used for trunk groups that neither generatenor receive overflow traffic. The fact that cleared traffic doe$not get serviced by an alternate route implies that reffies are likely. The effect of the rehies, however, is effectivelv incorporatedinto the value of B by equivatentrandomness.

12.4 DELAYSYSTEMS
The secondcategoryoftelefaffic analysisconcern$systemsthat delay nonserviceable requestsuntil the necessaryfacilities become available. These systemsare variously referred to as delay systems,waiting-call systems,and queuing system$.call arrivals occurring when all serversare busy are placed in a queueand held until servicecommences. The queue might consist of storage facilities in a physical sense,such as blocks of memory in a message-switching node, or the queuemight consist only of a list of sourceswaiting for service.In the latter ca$e,storageof the messages is the responsibility of the sourcesthemselves. using the more general tnrm queueingtheory, we can apply the following analyses to a wide variety of applications outside of telecommunications.Some of the more coiltmon applications are data processing, supermarket check-out counters. aircraft landings, inventory control, and various forms of service bureaus.These and many other applicatronsare consideredin the field ofoperations research.The foundations of queuing theory, however, rest on fundamentaltechniquesdevelopedby early telecommunications traffic researchers. In fact, Erlang is credited with the first solution to the most basic type of delay system.Examplesof delay systemanalysisapplications in telecommunicationsare messageswitching, packet switching, statisticaltime division multiplexing, multipoint data communications,automatic call distribution, digit receiver access,signaling equipment usage,and call processing.Furthermore, many

12.4 DELAY$YSTEMS 553

acce$$ allowingqueued to corporate PBXshavefeatures tie linesor WATS lines.Thus somesystems formerlyoperating aslosssystems now operate asdelaysystems. (fransmission a delayoperationallows for greaterutilization of servers ln general, befacilities)thandoesa losssystem. Basically, theimprovedutilizationis achieved peaks by thequeue. Eventhougharrivals cause in thearrivalprocess are"smoothed" regulararrivalpattern.Theeffect to thesy$tem arerandom, the$ervers ssea somewhat queuing process illustrated in Figure 12.15. overload is This figure of the on traffic patterns presented the in Figures I2.1,12.3, and I2.9. In displays same earlier traffic produce overload trafficis delayed available thiscase, however, until callterminations chamels. to thesystem thatall traffic offered it is assumed In mostof thefollowinganalyses getsserviced. is thattheofferedhaffic of this assumption eventually Oneimplication intensity A is lessthanthenumberof servers N. EvenwhenA is lessthanN, thereare traffic.First,some two cases in whichthecaniedtraffic mightbelessthantheoffered thecaandabandon therequest. Second, sources mighttire of waitingin a longqueue pacityfor storingrequests be rejected requests mayoccasionally maybefinite.Hence by thesystem. is that infinite $ources exist.In a assumption in the following analyses A second in a physical but an infitheremay be a finite number of sources sense delaysystem, sense nitenumber of sources in anoperational because eachsource mayhaveanarbi(e.9., a packet-switching node).There are outstanding trary numberof requests conis necessary, but notin theapplications instances in whicha finite source analysis here. sidered An additionalimplicationof servicingall offered traffic ariseswhen infinite Even source$ exist. This implicationis the needfor inJinitequeuingcapabilities.

Ee
E E.E gs
E C

F G - + - - r - + - - - '

(13 servers). Figure 12.15 Activity profile of blockedcallsdelayed

554

THAFFIC ANALYSIS

though the offered traffic intensity is less than the number of servers,no statistical limit exists on the number of arrivals occurring in a short period of time. Thus the queue of a purely losslesssystem must be arbitrarily long. In a practical sense, only finite queuescan be realized, so either a statisticalchanceof blocking is always pr+ sent or all sourcescan be busy and not offer additional traffic. When analyzing delay systems,it is convenientto separate the total time that a request is in the sysrem into the waiting time and rhe holding time. In delay systems analysisthe holding time is more corlmonly referredto as the servicetime. In contrast to loss systems,delay systemperformanceis ggnerally dependenton the distribution of servicetimes and notjust the mean value Im.Two servicetime distributions are consideredhere;constantservicetimes and exponentialservicetimes. Respectively,these distributions representthe most deterministic and the most random servicetimes possible. Thus a system that operateswith some other distribution of service times performs somewherebetweenthe performanceproducedby thesetwo distributions. The basic purpose of the following analysesis to determine the probability distribution of waiting times. From the distribution, the averagewaiting time is easily determined. sometimes only the average waiting time is of interest. More generally, however, the probability that the waiting time exceedssome specified value is of interest.In either case,the waiting times are dependenton the following factors: I. Intensity and probabilistic nature ofthe offered traffic 2. Distribution of service times 3. Number of servers 4. Number of sources 5. Service discipline of the queue The service discipline of the queue can involve a number of factors. The first of these concerns the manner in which waiting calls are selected.commonly, waiting calls are selectedon a first-come, first-served (FCFS) basis,which is also referred to as first-in, first-out (FrFo) seryice.sometimes,however, the serversystemitself does not maintain a queuebut merely polls its $ources in a round-robin fashion to determine which onesare waiting for service.Thus the queuemay be servicedin sequentialorder of the waiting sources.In some applications waiting requestsmay even be selectedat random. Furthermore, additional service variations arise if any of these schemesare augmentedwith a priority discipline that allows some calls to move aheadof others in the queue. A secondaspectof the service discipline that must be consideredis the length of the queue.If the maximum queuesize is smaller than the effective number of sources, blocking can occur in a lost calls sense.The result is that two characteristicsof the grade of service must be considered: the delay probability and the blocking probability' A common example of a system with both delay and loss characteristics is an automatic call distributor with more accesscircuits than attendants(operatorsor reservationists).Normally, incoming calls are queuedfor service. under heavy loads,

12.4 DELAYSYSTEMS 555

however, blockingoccurs beforethe ACD is evenreached. Reference [4] contains andfinite $ervers. with finite queues an analysis of a delaysystem queuingtheoristshave To simplify the characterization of pafiicular systems, adopted notation for classifying varioustypesof delaysystems. This notaa concise to identifyalby D. G. Kendall,uses letterabbreviations tion, which wasintroduced listed.Althoughthediscussions in thisbookdo not ternatives in eachof thecategories sothereader canrelate the rely on thisnotation, it is introduced andused occasionally queuing The interpretation theorymodels. of each following discussions to classical in Figure12.16. letteris specified represents formatpresented anextension Thespecification in Figure12,1 6 actually of the formatcommonlyusedby mostqueuingtheorists. Thusthis formatis sometimes abbreviated by eliminating the last one or two entries.When theseentriesare a single-server eliminated, infinite case specifications sys* areassumed. For example, tem with random exponential seryice timesis usuallyspecified as input andnegative queue Mll,lUl. Both thenumber andthepermissible inof sources lengthareassumed finite. 12.4.1 Exponential Servlce Times to analyze is a system with randomarrivalsandnegative The simplest delaysystem a Recallthat randomarival distributionis one exponential servicetimes:M/IVI/I.{. of queunotation exponential interarrival times.Thusin the shorthand with negative (anM is ing theorists, M to negative exponential distributions theletter always refers purely memoryless). because a distribution is used random

Input rfclflcttlon

Gonffrl {nqs$urhpt;ofi;

{;
Gl

rrndom Purely
Gcnlfd {no ffiumptiofil

ServlcetimE distrihrtiorl

Mr ;{egltiw rxponintirl D: Corltrnt

Numbtr of *rrrot

N:

Flnlte number

Numbffof rourcdJur

rinittnumuer

I
I | or*" | r"r$fi {

L*
L' L*'

Inrinitc
Flnitelensrttr Inflnitclefisth

t t

l2l 3/4/E
Figure 12.16 Queueing $ystemnotation.

556

THAFFIo ANALysts

In the IM/lvVl systemand all other systemsconsideredhere,it is assumedthat calls are serviced in the order of their arival. The following analysesal$o assumethat the probability of an arrival is independentof the number of requestsalreadyin the queue (infinite sources).From theseassumptions, the probability that a call experiences congestion and is thereforedelayed was derived by Erlang:

(r2.24)
where N = number of servers A = offeredload(erlangs) B = blockingprobabilityfor a lost callscleared (Equation system l2.g) Theprobabilityof delay p(>0) is variously refenedro asErlang'ssecond formula, Ezn(A);Erlang'sdelayformula;or the Erlang-c formula.For single-server $ystems (N= l) theprobabilityof delayreduces to p, whichis simplyrheoutpururilizationor traffic carriedby the server. Thusthe probabilityof delayfor a single-server sysrem is alsoequalto theofferedloadl,t- (assuming fu. < l). Thedistribution of waitingtimesfor randomarrivals, randomservice times.anda FIFO service discipline is
p(>t) : p(>0) "-{N-A)t/to,

(r2.?5)

wherep(>0) = probability of delay given in Equation 12.24 fm = flYrfl8oservice time of negative exponential service time distribution Equation 12.25definesthe probability that a call aniving at a randomly choseninstant is delayed for more than t/t^ service times. Figure 12.17 presentsthe relationship of Equation 12.25by displaying the traffic capacitiesof various numbersof serversas a function of acceptabledelay times. Given a delay time objective r,/f., Figure l2.l7a displaysthe maximum traffic intensity if the delay objective is to be exceeded for only lovo of the arrivals. similarly, Figure lz,.r7b displays the maximum traffic intensity if the delay objective is exceededfor only lzo of the arrivals. Notice that atp(>r) = 0.01, the serversystemsdo not approachtheir maximum capacity (number of servers) unlessthe acceptabledelay is severaltimes larger than f*. By integrating Equation 12.25 over all time, the averagewaiting time for all arrivals can be determinedas

;f = - P(>O)r,n N_A

(12.26)

NoticethatTistheexpected delayfor all arrivals. Theaverage delayofonly those ar.

12.4 DELAYSYSTEMS 557

E
I

B .B
F

OF

1,0
(t)

1.6

2.0

aE

It/t-l

$
o !

u o E

r.0 ,rrr.u

2.0

e.s

(yr-l

with exponential Figure 12.17 Traffic capacityof multiple-server delay systems service times;(a)probabilityof t,p(>t)=lVo. exceeding exceeding LpFt)=10To;(b) probabilityof rivals that get delayedis commonly denotedas
* - t *

(r2.27)

v-N-a

Example12.14. A message-switching network is to be designedfor 95Vo distributedmessage utilization of its hansmission links. Assumingexponentially per minute, what is the average waiting lengthsand an arrival rate of 10 messages 5 min? time,andwhatis theprobabilitythatthewaitingtime exceeds network uses a single channel Salutinn. Assumethat the message-switching for each anda singlequeue Thusthereis a singleserver between eachpair of nodes. link. Sincep is given to be 0.95 and l, = 10 arrivalsper minute,the transmission

558

TRAFFIc ANALYSIS

average service time can be determined as f* = 0.g5l10= 0.095min. The averase waitingtime (notincludingtheservice time) is easilydetermined as ;= o'q5x-q:095 = l.Bo5min I - 0.95

UsingEquation 12.25, we candetermine theprobability of thewaitingtimeexceeding 5 min as - 0.068 p(>5)= (0.95)e-tt-o'sr)5/0.0es Thus6.87o of themessages experience queuing delays of morethan5 min. Example12.15. Derermine rhenumber of digit receivers required to support1000 telephones with anaverage callingrateof two callsperhour.Assume thediatingtime is exponentially distibutedwith anaverage service timeof 6 sec. Thegrade of service objective is to returndial tonewithin I secofthe off-hooksignalfor 99Zo ofthe call attempts. comparethe answer obtained from a delay system analysis to an answer obtained from a losssystem analysis atB = lVo . If theblockingprobability is lessrhan l%o, fewerthanlVoof thecallsaredelayed. Solution. The calling ratel, andthe offeredhaffic intensiry,4areeasilydetermined as0.555callsper second and3.33erlangs, respectively. sincethenumberof servers N cannot be solvedfor directlyfrom theequations, Figure lz.ljb is usedto obtaina valueof eightservers for t/t^=t. Examination of TableD.1 revealsthatgg.Svo of the call attempts canbe serviced immediately if thereateninedigit receivers. Thusin thiscase theabilitv to delavservice provides a savings ofonly oneserver. Example12.15demonstrates rhat a blockingprobabilityanalysis produces approximately the same resultsasa delaysystem analysis whenthe maximumacceptabledelayis a smallpercentage of theaverage service time.Thetwo results arealmost identical because, if a digit receiver is not imrnediately available, thereis only a small probabilitythatonewill become available within a shorttime period.(With an averageservice time of 6 sec,theexpected time for oneof eightdigit receivers to be released is 6/8 =0.75 sec. Hence thedelayoperation in thiscase allowsa savings of one digit receiver.) Because a digit receiver mustbeavailable within a relatively shorttimeperiodafter a request is generated, digit receiver groupsizingis oftendetermined strictlyfrom a blockingprobabilityanalysis. Thefact thatdigit receiver access is actuallyoperated asa delaysystem impliesthe grade of service is alwaysbetterthanthatcalculated. 12.4.2 Constant Service Timee Thissection considers delaysystems with random arrivals, constant service times,and a singleserver(IWD/I). Again,FIFO service disciplines andinfinite $ources areas-

12.4 DELAYSYSTEMS 559

sumed. hasbeensolved Thecase for multipleservers [3] but is tooinvolvedto include in of multiple-server service systems with constant timesareavailable here.Graphs reference [5]. waiting time for a singleserverwith constantservicetimes is deterThe average minedas
Pf'= ze*p)

(r2.28)

p =,4istheserver utilization.NoticethatEquation l2,28producesan average where asingle-server systemwithexponential waitingtimethatisexactlyone-halfofthatfor Exponential averagedelays becausethere servicetimes causegreater servicetimes. increatingthedelay.Inbothtypesofsystems,dearetworandomprocessesinvolved thecapacity With exof theservers. laysoccurwhena largeburstof arivals exceeds service ponential of excessive long delays alsoarisebecause service times,however, (Recall message-switching of conventional thatthisaspect timesofjust a few arrivals. in a packetup into packets is one of the motivationsfor breakingmessages systems switching network.) (M/D/l) is compared time system with service If the activityprofile of a constant (lWIWl), theM/D/l $ystem service time system theactivityprofile of anexponential is seento be activefor shorterandmorefrequentperiodsof time. That is, the Ivl/ii{,/l activity systemhasa highervanancein the durationof its busyperiods.The average is, of course, equalto the server utilizationp. Hencethe probability of both system$ with constant timesis identicalto that for system service of delayfor a single-server times:p(>0) = l"t . exponential service for largerN is relatively closeto that for exponential Theprobability of congestion forp(>0) for canbe used asa closeapproximation times.ThusEquation 1?.25 service time arbitrary service distributions. multiple-server with systems holdingtimes,the probabilityof delay with constant For single-server systems greaterthanan arbitraryvalue f is p(>r)=p[>(ft+ r)t*l
k

=t_(1_p)E
I4

pili - t/t^1itP$-t/t^)

=1-(l-p)er'ieff
whereft = largestintegralquotientof t/t* r = remainder of t/t^ = = fuserver utilization, P

(r2.2e)

560

THAFFIc ANALysts

Comparisons of the waitingtime distributions for single-server systems with exponentialand constant servicetimes are shownin Figure l2.lg. For eachpair of curves' theupperoneis for exponential service timesandtheloweroneis for constant service times.Sinceall otherservice timedistributions produce delayprobabilities betweenthese extremes, Figure12. 18provides a directindication of therange of possibledelays. Example 12.16. A packet-swirching node operates with fixed-length packets of 300 bits on 9600-bps lines.If the link utilizationis to be 90%,whatls the averase

q E o o

x o g o

E
o &

.E

DElaytime. r/r-

Figure 12.18 Delayptobabilities ofsingle-server (exponential $ystems andconstant service times).

12.4 DELAYSYSTEMS 561

of packets encounter morethan0.35 secof What percentage delaythrougha node? delayif theofferedloadincreases by 107o? delay? Whatis theaverage lengthsof 300 bits anda datarateof 9600bps imply that the Soluti,on. Message = 0.031sec.FromEquation12.28, the average fixedJengthservice time is 300/9600 waitingtime is

0.9x 0.031 f = F = 0-. 1 4 2(1 0.e)

sec

processing, is obtained by adding delay excluding Thetotalaverage through thenode,

the average waiting time to the service time:

+ 0.031= 0.171sec delay= 0.140 Average whenthewaitingtime is time is 0.031sec,0.35secof delayoccurs Sincethe service = 10service = 0.319. FromFigure to 0.319/0.031 times. Thiscorresponds 0.35* 0.031 0.12.Thus lZVoof the 12.18, theprobabilityof delayfor t/t^- 10 is approximately in the traffic packets of 10Vo of greater than0.35 sec.An increase experience delays the intensityimpliesthat the new offeredloadis 0.99erlang.From Equation1?.30, average waitingtime becomes

f =-:=

x 0.031 0.99

2(t-o.ee)

1 . 5 3s e C

thenode delaythrough Thuswhentheoffered loadincreases by only l0%, theaverage = I .56 + 0.03 sec increases ninefoldto a valueof 1.53 I ! for heavilyutilizeddelaysyscharacteristic thesame ExampleI 2.16demonstmtes to inis very sensitive Theperformance for losssy$temsr temsthatwasdemonstrated critical flow control is a in Chapter 10, Thus,asdiscussed creases in traffic inten$ity. particularly delivery operation, whentherearereal-time aspect of a packet-switching objectives. 12.4.3 Finlte Queues presented sofar haveassumed thatanarbitrarilylarge analyses All of thedelaysystem this asin a queue. In manyapplications couldbe placed numberof delayed request$ havesignificantlylimited sumption is invalid. Examples of systems that sometimes and ATM queue$izesare store-and-forward nodes(e.g.,packetswitches swirching input/outPut deswitches), automatic call distributors, andvarioustypesof computer on the number vices.Thesesystems treatarrivalsin threedifferentways,depending "in the $vstem"at the time of an arrival:

562

TRAFFIo ANALYSI$

I . Immediate service if one or more of N serversare idle 2. Delayed service if all serversare busy and less than 1-requestsare waiting 3. Blocked or no service if the queueof length Z is full In finite-queue systemsthe arrivals getting blocked are those that would otherwise experiencelong delays in a pure delay system. Thus an indication of the blocking probability of a combined delay and loss sy$tem can be determined from the prob-_ ability that arrivals in pure delay systemsexperiencedelays in excessof some specified value. However, there are two basic inaccuraciesin such an analysis.First, the effect of blocked or lost calls clearedis to reduce congestionfor a period of time and thereby to reduce the delay probabilities for subsequent anivals. Second,delay times do not necessarily indicate how many calls are "in the system." Normally, queue lengths and blocking probabilities are determinedin terms of the number of waiting requests,not the amount of work or total service time representedby the requesd. with constantservicetimes, there is no ambiguity betweenthe size of a queueand its implied delay. with exponential service times, however, a given size can represent a wide range of delay times. A packet-switching node is an example of a system in which the queue length is mo$t appropriatelydeterminedby implied servicetime and not by the number of pending requests.That is, the maximum queue length may be determined by the amount of store-and-forwardmemory availablefar variablelength messages and not by some fixed number of messages. For a system with random input, exponential service times, N servers.an infinite source,and a maximum queuelength of z (wMlNl*lL), the probability ofj calls in the svstemis

PrA)=hni
0<j<N

(12.30)

INIriwhere 4 = offered load (erlangs), = f/* N = number of servers I = maximum number in the queue

N<jsN+L

Here, Pq(A) is chosento make the sum of all p,(A) = l;

"',o)=[=i#.,-1,,---tl

=[-i#.#]#J

(12.30a)

12.4 DELAYSYSTEMS 563

Thetime congestion, or blocked, canbe or probabilityof an arrivalbeingdelayed foomEquation 12.30as determined

N+L

P(>o)=EPIA)=Pru(A)++ l-P
j=w

(r2.3r)

wherep =A/N is the offeredloadper server. is determined Theloss,or blockingprobability, as

P^(A)AN*L "'

B=P-,(A)=

' N!N"

(r2.32)

(I = 0), these to thoseof reduce It is worthnotingthatif thereis no queue equations (12.8). reduces 12.31 theErlanglossequation If t is infinite,Equation to Erlang'sdeformulation that lay formula, 12.24. represent a general Equation Thusthese equations produces pure pure and as cases. loss the delayformulas special The waitingtime distribution [3] is
GI

p(>r):PN(A) I \ ) xte-*dx i+"'u'/'* from which the average delay can be determined as lp(>O) -Pff+r(A)lt*

-n,I

(12.33)

(r2.34)

N_A

(L = m). 12.26 12.34 for aninfinite Equation is identical to Equation Again, {ueue Equations Single-Server queuing involve theprevious most applications single-server configurations, Because
equationsare listed explicitly for N = l: , Prob(7 calls in system)(12.30):

ntG):rn(P)d

(r2.3s)

P.$) =[,

' p+p*"I'=[E,'l'

(12"36)

564

TRAFFIG ANALysts

Probability of delay(12.31): p(>0): Probability of loss(12.32):

o_{t-p)pal

- p*t) Po(p)p(l

p(l

I-p

(r2.37)

u----=-:-

l-p*" Average delay(12.34):

(12.38)

- Pr*,(p)Jr* p(l - pz)rtp(>o) l-p ( t _ p X l_ p L r z )

(12.3e)

The blockingprobabilityof a single-seryer system(N = 1) is plottedin Figure 12.19. when usingFigure12.19, keepin mindthattheblockingprobability (Equation 12.38) is determined by thenumber of waitingcallsandnot by theassociated service time' Furthermore, $ince thecurves of Figure12.19arebased on exponential service times,they overestimate the blockingprobabilities of constant holdingtime system$ (e.g.,fixed-length packet networks). However, if fixed-length packets ariseprimarily from longer,exponentially dishibutedmessage$, the arrivalsare no longer independent, andtheuseof Figure12.19(or Equation t 2.38)asa conservative analvsis is moreappropriate. ATM Cell Queues Analysisof queuingdelaysandcell lossin an ATM switchingnodeis complicated. Thecellshavea fixed lengthof 53 bytessoit wouldseem thata constant service time analysis wouldbe appropriate. This assumption is valid for voicetraffic inserted onto wide-bandwidth signalssuchas 155-Mbps sTS-ls. In this caserhe servicetime is muchshorter thattheduration of a speech burst(e.g.,2.7 psecversus several tensof milliseconds). Eventhoughcorrelated arrivalsoccurfrom individualsources. the arrival times are separated by many thousands of servicetimes so they appearindependent. WhenATM voiceis carriedin CBR trunk groups, a differentsituation results. In this case theservice timesof thevoicecellsmaybe only slightlysmallerthantheintervalbetween voicecell generation, andtheaverage delaywouldindicate thattwo or morecellsfrom the samesource could be present in the queue at onetime. Thus,a queuing analysis thatassumes exponentially distributed service timesis moreappropriateeventhough thevariable-length talk spurts arebroken up into fixed{engttr ciffs. Example12.17. A 64-kbpscBR virtual path in an ATM networkis to carry lg voicesignals thatarecompressed to 7.25kbpsduringvoicespurts. Assuming a speech activityfactorof 407o, determine eachof thefollowing;

I2.4 DELAYSYSTEMS 565

1.000
f, I 2 3 5

tt o' 1 0 0 -o (s
-o

10

e s.
(D

.g .s IJ

g -0.

010

0.001
baffic(erlangs) Offered
service system(exponential Figure 12.19 Blocking probabilityof singleserverloss/delay times).

(a) Outputchannelloading (b) Service time (c) Probability of delaywith an infinite queue (d) Probability of length20 ATM cells of delaywith a queue (e) Average for exponential timeswith aninfinite queue service time in queue (f; Averagetime in queuefor exponentialservicetimeswith a finite queueof 20 (g) Average service times(infinitequeue) time in queue for constant times) (h) Probability service of cell loss(assuming exponential

566

THAFFIC ANALYSIS

Solution (a)An ATM cell consists of48 bytesofpayloadand5 bytesofoverhead. Thus,rhe * (18 x 7.25kbpsx 0.4) (53/4g)/64 offeredloadto thechannel kbps= 0.9 erlangs. (b) The service time of a cell is 53 x g/64kbps= 6.625msec. (c) Theprobabilityof delayfrom Equation12.24is 0.9. (d) Theprobabilityof delayfrom Equarion12.37 is 0.g9. (e) The average queuing delayfrom Equation12.26 is 59.6msec. (0 Theaverage queuing delayfrom Equation12.34 is 5g.2msec. (S)The average queuing delayfrom Equationl?.29 is 29.gmsec. (h) Theprobabilityof cell lossfrom Equation12.39is 0.012. Theresults of Example12.17illustrare several imporrflnt points.First,(c) and(d) indicate thattheprobability of delayin a finite-queue system is smaller thanthatof an infinite-queue system-becau$e sometraffic is rejected. with a reasonably sized queue theeffecton the delayprobabilityis small.similarly, a comparison of (e) and (f) illustrates thatthe average queuing delayin a reasonably sizedqueue is not much differentthanthatof an infinite queue. As discussed earlier, thereis a significant difference between theaverage delayof a system with exponentially distributed service timesasopposed to constant service times.Beforeassuming that a consrant service time analysis shouldbe used,the average delaymustbe compared to the delaybe_ tweenardvalsof voicecells.The durationof a speech segment carriedin the ATM cellsof Example12.17 canbederermined as4g xgl72s0= 53 msec. Theaverage delay of a constant service timeanalysis (29.8msec) indicates thatcellsfrom a particular source areusuallyserviced beforea subsequent arrivalfrom the$ame source. but certainly not always. If Equation12.34 is used to determine theaverage delay,the5g.2_ msecresultindicates that, on average, an arriving cell from a source encounters a previous cell from the same$ource. Thusthe assumption of independent arrivalsis marginal.To be safe,a cell losscalculation assuming exponential service timesaccountsforcorrelatedarrivals.The cell lossprobabilityof l.zvo is marginalfrom a voicequalitypointof view.Noticethatthisvalueof cell lossrelates to theCBR gateway (AALI adapration layer),whichis presumably theonly significant source of cell loss. The solutionto example problem12.17necessarily useda simplemodelfor the traffic andthequeue. A thorough analysis of anATM or packet-switching networkis muchmorecomplicated. Factors that mustbe considered arethe switchingnodear_ chitectures andqueue imprementation (e.g.,shared queues versus dedicated queues;, server disciplines (e.g.,priorities),cell discard algorithms, call admission conholal_ gorithms, andtraffic statistics. Some of these issues arecovered in references [16-lg]. 12.4.4 Tandem eueues All ofthe equations provided in previous sections for delaysystem analysis havedealt with theperformance of a singlequeue. In manyapplications a service request undergoesseveral stages ofprocessing, each oneofwhich involves queuing. Thusit is often

REFEHENcES 5S7 Locrl rrrlvrlr

Arrinh lrom pr|Yiodt qu6lC

Output quctre

queues. Figure12.20 Tandem in series. with a numberof queues of a system to analyze the performance desirable requests thatreceive, asinputs,locallygenerated of queues a series Figure 12.20depicts with tandem of applications Two principalexamples and outputsfrom other queues. switching networks. systems andstorc-and-forward queue$ aredataprocessing in derivingforsuccessful in queuing theoryhavenot beengenerally Researchers Often, simulationiS usedtOanalyzea of tandemqueues. mulasfor the performance queues like store-and-forarisingin systems of interdependent complexarrangement of a network'sopthat special aspects hasthe advantage ward networhs. Simulation The model. in thesimulation eration-like routingandflow control-can beincluded and,often,lessvisibility into the deareexpen$e of simulation main disadvantages parameters' perforrnance on variousdesign pendence of system queuingproblemthat hasbeensolved[19] is for randominputsand one tandem The solutionof this sysholdingtimesfor all queues. exponential) random(negative with purelyrandomarrivals In a delaysystem on thefollowingtheorem: temis based is alsoa at whichcallsterminate holdingtimes,the instants exponential andnegative distribution. negative exponential systemhavestaThe significanceof this theoremis that outputsfrom an IvI/IvIA.{ process in onestage tisticalproperties that areidenticalto its inputs.Thusa queuing can be anaand all gueues Stage, in a subsequent doesnot affect the arrival process hasexponentially with N servers Specifically, if a delay$ystem lyzedindependently. servicetime is f., distributedinterarrival times with average1/1,,and if the average distributedintercompletion to exponentially according callsleaveeachofthe servers l/LN. timeswith average justified only queues canbe rigorously of tandem analysis Althoughindependent in other is often assumed for purely randomarrivalsand servicetimes,independence question beexshould the in however, systems assumptions, using Before such cases. operation of queue the influence of can if the one state to closely determine amined queue in the system. another

REFERENCES Wiley'New and ltsApplications, Theory An Introduction to Probability I W. Feller, York.1968.

2 A. A. Collins and R. D. Pederson,Telecommunicatians-a Timefor Innovation,Metle Collins Foundation, Dallas, TX, 1973.

568

rRAFFtc ANALysts

3 R. syski, Introduction to congesfion Theoryin Telephone,sysfems, oliver andBoyd, London. 1965. 4 Technical Staff,Bell Telephone Laboratories, Engineering and Operations inthe Bell System, Westem Electric,Indianapolis, lg7?. 5 'Determination of the Number of Circuits in Automatic and Semi-Automatic operation,"ccITT Recommendarion E. 520,orangeBook,vor. II.2, r976,p.zrr. 6 c. J. weinstein, "Fractional speech Loss and ralker Activity Model for packet switchedspeech," IEEE Transactions on communications Technology. Aug. I 97g,pp. t253-1256. 7 H. Miedema and M. schachtman,"TASI eualiry-Effect of speech Detection and Interpolation," Bell SystemTechnical Joumal,July 1962, pp. l4i5_1473. '-Voice-Activated-Swirch I G. Szarvasand H. Suyderhoud, Performance Criteria," Comsat Technical Review, SpringI g80,pp. I Sl *177. 9 S. S. Katz, "ImprovedNetworkAdministationhocessUtilizing End-to-End Service Considerations," IntemationalTeletraffic Conference, lg7g, "Alternate 10 R. Dayem, Routing in High Blockingcommunications Networks.,, National Telecommunications Conference, lg7g,pp. 2g.4. I _2g.4.6, l l P. R. Boorstyn andH. Frank,"Large*scale NetworkTopological optimization," rEEE Transactions on Communicaflrrzs, Jan.lg77, pp, Zg_47 . 12 R. I. wilkinson, 'Theories for Ton rraffic Engineering in u.s.A.,- Beil system Technical Journal,Mar. 1956. 13 "calculation of theNumberof circuits in a Groupcarrying overflow Traff,rc,"ccITT Recommendation E.52r, orangeBoak,vol. 2, No. 2, Geneva, switzerrand, p. 2rg. 14 J. A. Morrison,"Analysisof some overflow hoblems with Bell system eueueing,,' Technical Joumal,Oct.1980, pp. 1427-1462. 15 Telephone Tragic Theory,Tables, and charts, siemens Alctiengesellschaft, Munich, t970. "The Knockout 16 Y.-s. Yeh' M. G. Hruchyj,and A. s. Acampora, switch: A simple, Modular Architecture for High-perfonnancepacket switching,,, IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, Oct.l9g7, pp. ll74_llg3. 17 K. sriram,T. G. Lyons,andr.-T. wang, "Anomaries Dueto DelayandLossin AAL2 Packet voice systems: Performance ModelsandMethods of Mitigati on,,' IEEEroumal on Selected Areasin Cornmunitations, Jan,I g99,W, 4_17. 18 K. Sriram and y. T. yang, ..Voice over ATM Using AALZ and Bit Dropping: Perfbrmanceand call Admission control," IEEE Joumal on selected Areas in Communications, Jan.1999, pp. 18-28. 19 L. Kleiruock and R. Gail, eueueing sysferns, problems and solutions,wiley, New York. 1996,

PROBLEMS l2.l A central-office-to-PBX funk group contains fourcircuits. Ifthe average call duration is 3 minand thebusy-hour offered hafficintensity is 2 erlangs, deter_
mine each of the followine:

PHOBLEMS 569

(a) Busy-hour callingrate (b) Probability thattwo arrivalsoccurlessthan I secapart operation a lost callscleared (c) Blockingprobabilityassuming (d) Amountof losttraffic fixed-order selec(e) Proportion of time the fourthcircuit is in use(assuming tion) office, to a central concentrator 12.2 A Tl line is usedto cany traffic from a remote suppofrat0.SVo system canthe concentrator How many l0 CCS subscribers Asfinite analysis' to source analysis a an infinite source blocking.Compare sume blockedcallscleared. busy-hour traffic load 20 erlangs of average officesexperience Two switching the 24 directtrunksbetween a singleTI line provides them.Assume between switch? to a tandem traffic over{lows offices.How muchbusy-hour hasfive trunksto the public network'What is the A PBX with 200 stations callsper 8-hr is involvedin threeexternal blockingprobabilityif eachstation the average of 2 min percall?Assume duration workingday with an average duringthe day (no busyhour)andblockedcallsreturn callingrateis constant traffic? Whatis tlreofferedload?Whatis thedemand with random retries. center for (VO) ports needed a computer are input-output How manydial-up each Assume u$er probability 57o? limit of with a blocking to support 40 users min. of 30 If three duration $ession four callsperdaywith anaverage averages for theremaining of service all day,whatis the grade remainconnected u$srs 37 users? trunksin of 12 one-way A 24-channel trunk groupis dividedinto two Sroups at one end.) eachdirection.(A one-waytrunk is onethat canonly be seized blocking?How at O-SVI support of traffic canthis system How manyerlangs if all 24 trunksaretwo-waytrunks?(Thatis, manyerlangs canbe supported at eitherend.) everytrunk canbe seized havebeen Erlang(E) statistics The following 10 A.M. to 11 A.M. busy-hour is blocking group. the overall what interoffice trunk observed on a 3z-channel if day-tohour for the busy probability same probability? Whatis theblocking areaveraged together? dayflucfuations Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday 30E 19E 22E' 19E' 20E

12.3 12.4

12.5

12.6

12.7

trunk groupindicatethatduron a PBX-to-central-office 12.8 Traffic measurements utilized.If thereareeight hour of the day the trunk$are807o ing the busiest blockedcalls probability, assuming group, is the what blocking in trunks the blockto a maximum added achieve must trunks be many do not retum?How ing probabilityof SVo? retries. blockedcallsreturnwith random Problem12.8assuming tz.9 Repeat with a community is to be serviced with 400 subscribers A smallcommunity 12,10 0.1 erlangof originates subscriber thatthe average dial office switch.Assume are local (intracommunity) that20Vo of the originations traffic. Also assume

570

TRAFFIC ANALYSIS

callsandthat 807o aretransitcallsto tlreserving centraloffice.How manyerlangs of trafficareoffered to thecommunity-dial-office-to-central-office g1nk group? How manyfrunksareneeded for 0.5vo blockingof thehansittraffic? 12'11 For the comrnunity of Problem12.10determine the numberof concentrator channels required iflocal callsarenot switched locallybut aremerelyconcentratedinto pair-gain $ystems andswitched at thecentraloffice. 12.12 Repeat hoblems 12.10and 12.l I if g0%of rheoriginations areinrracommu_ nity calls andZOVa aretransitcalls. u.13 A groupof eightremote farm houses areserviced by four lines.If eachof the eightfamiliesutilizestheirtelephones for I0zo of thebusyhour,compare the blockingprobabilities of thefollowingconfigurations: (a) Fourpartylineswith two srations per line (b) An 8-to-4concentration sy$tem 12.14 A PBX provides queuing andautomatic calrbackfor access to outgoing wATS lines.If therearez0 requests per hourfor thewATs lines,andif theaverage call is 3 min in length,how manyWATS linesareneeded to providederays of lessthan I hr for 90Zo of therequests? f2.15 A call processor has507o of its timeavailable for servicing requests. If each requestrequires 50 msecof processing time, whatarrivalratecanbe supported if only I 7oof theservice requests aredelayed by morethanI sec? Assume that processor time is slicedinto iOO-msec time slots.(Thatis, 500 msecareallo_ catedto call processing andthen500 msecto overhead functions..l 12'16 A groupof 100sources offersmessages with exponentially diskibuted lengths to a 1200-bps line.Theaverage message lengthis 200bits,including overhead, andeachsource generates onemesrlage every20 sec. Access to theline is con_ trolledby message-switching concentration with an infinite queue. Determine thefollowing: (a) Probability of entering rhequeue (b) Average queuing delayfor all arrivals (c) Probability of beingin thequeue for morethan I sec (d) Utilizationof thetransmission link 12.17 An airlinecompany usesan automatic call distributorto service re$ervations andticketpurchases. Assume thatthe processing time of eachinquiry is randomtydistributed with a 40-sec average. Also assume thatif customers arepur on hold for more than2 min, they hangup and cail anotherairrine.If eachof 200inquiries g30worthof sales, perhourproduces on average, whatis theop_ timum numberof reservationists? Assume eachreservationist coststhe company$20/hr(includingoverhead). 12'18 A radio station talk showsolicitsthelisteningpublicfor cornments on the ineptne$$ of government (I assume thiswill bea topicalsubject for thelife of this book).Assume thateach callertalksfor a random lengthof time with an averageduration of I min. (Eithertheshowis unpopular or thepublichasgivenup

PRoBLEMS 571 on the govemment.) How many incoming lines must the radio station have to keep the idle time below 5% if the call arrival rate is 3 calls/min? 12.19 RepeatExample I 2' 17 for a queuelength L = 40' (Although a rigorous solution requires calculation of a ZQ-termsummation, only fhe first few terms are significant.)

A APPENDX

OF EQUATIONS DERIVATION
3.2 EOUATION NOISE POWER: A.1 QUANTIZING to beuniform; is assumed of a noise v sampled function density Theprobability

p(n)=iq lO

<iq l+ -iq<n
otherwise

as valueof noisePoweris determined or expected The average

po*"rJf noir* euantization

* [n1jrt

=[#)n
4.1 EQUATION A.2 NRz LINEGODE: ,tt) =

[t
{O

t rs t +7
other'wise

rUo))=j 71t1e-i'ntdt

574

AppENDtx A

=[i'Jt"'-"'
- e-i$T/z)

=671'in(a44) (aT/2) Note: FQw)is thespecfumof a singlepurse; gnl isthepowerspectral rF(7co)z density of a random purse train assuming positiveandnegative pulses areequaltylikery andoccurindependently.

4.3

DlclTAL BIpHASE: FtcURE 4.19

^r=l:,
-lT<t<O

o< t < l r

otherwise

(t/z)r

F(7'to)= !

"-*dr-

....

_(t/?\T

J **i*dt
0

=[*)"

_ rl( /2laT_ s-iTrz)ar * 11

=[.,,')'*'[T)
A.4 FBAME ACQUISITION TIME OF SINGLE.BITFRAMECODE: EOUATION 4.10 Framing is established by successively examining onebit positionafteranother until a sufficiently long framingpatternis detected. In this derivationit is assumed that the framingpattern alternates I's and0's. Furthermore, it is assumed thatwhenbeginning to testa particular bit positionfor ftaming,the valueof the first appearance is saved andcompared to the second appearance. Thusthe minimum time aorejectan invalid framingpositionis oneframetime. If we denote byp the probabilityof a I andby s I r _ p the probability that a 0 is receivedfirst, the average numberof ftamesrequiredto receive a mismatch is

4,10 EQUATION CODE: OFSINGLE"BIT FRAME ACQUISITION TIME FRAME Ao = (l) (probability of mismatch at end of first frame) + (2) (probability of mismatch at end of second frame) + (3) (probability of mismatch at end of third frame) . . .

575

= (1)4 + (zxl * q)p+ (3Xl - q)(r- p)q +(aXl il20-ilp+...

= (1)4+ Q)pz+ (3)pqz q + (5)p'q3+ . . + {4)p3 =(q+2p?+ps\[I +(Z)ps+(3)pzqz + (4)p3q3 +. . .] = [7 - p + Zpz+ p(l-p)1(1 + pq + pzqz + psqt+ . . .)'

= l+p3 tr*P
1+p ='=-

r_pq

numberof framesbeforereceivinga ftrst, the expected Similarly,if a I is received is mismatch l+a At=T_fi numberof framesrequiredto detecta mismatchis The overall average A = q A o *p A 1 _I +Zpg 1- pq numberof If we assume a randomstartingpoint in a framewith N bits, the average is bits that mustbe testedbeforethe true framing bit is encountered time = (l /Ztl)(A. M + 1/2N Frame = 1 / z N ( A . N + 1 )b i t t i m e s

576

AppENDtx A

If I's and0'sareequally likely (p =q=l),A = 2 soframe time=Ap + t/2Nbittimes (Equation 4.10).

A.5 FRAMEACQUISITION TIME OF SINGLE.BITFRAN,IING CODE USINGA PARALLEL$EARGH:EQUAT|ON4.11 This framingalgorithmas$umes that all bit positions in a frameare simultaneously scanned for theframingpattern. If weassume thatanalternating-bit framecodeis used andthat I 's and0's in theinformation bitsareequallylikely, th-e probabiliry rhata par_ ticularinformation bit does not produce a framingviolationin n frames is

/rY o^=lil
The probabilitythat a framing violatidn iuJ u**n receivedin n or lessframes is I -p,' The probabilitythat all N - I informationbits in a frameproduce a framing violationin rzor lessframes is

o.=f,-fri]-'
A.6 FRAME ACQUISITION TIMEOF MULTIBIT FRAME GODE: EQUATION 4.13
N= Iength of frame including framing code ,L = length of framing code p= G)L: probability of matching frame code with random data

(4.l r)

The expected number of frames examined before a particular frame position mismatchesthe frame code follows:

A = (OXl -p) + (l)p(t - p) + (Dpz( l-P)+"' : (l - p)p(I + Zp -t 3p?+ 4p3 + . . .) = (1 -p)p(l +p + pz +p3 + . . .)? / ' r \ 2 = ( r - p )l p + | ['-pJ _ P l-p

s.11 A.7 PATHFINDING EOUATION TIME:

577

(assuming The average numberof bits that passbeforethe frameposition is detected point andthetestfield is movedonebit positionwhena mismatch a randomstarting occurs) is givenas

r=ftruJraxnn*it
r.d/otzt'*t . t ,, =T:769-1''
(4.13)

4.13 Equation 4.l0 because withZ = I isnotidentical toEquation Equation 4.13 Iy'afe.. assumes an alternating code. 4.10 code whileEquation a fixedframe assumes

5.11 TIME:EQUATION A.7 PATHFINDING

Assume that all paths through a switch are independently busy with probability p. Let the probability that a path is not busy be denotedby q= | -p. The probabilityp; that exactly i paths are tested before an idle one is found is the probability that the first i - | arebusv and the ith is notr

P'= P(i-t)n The expected number of paths tested before an idle path is found is

* (1)a+ (Z)pq+ (3)pzq+. . . + (k)pk*Lq + (k)pk ruo

pathsk areunavailable. that all possible theexpectation wherethelasttermrepresents as form for A is determined A closed + rk p k 1 +...+ kpkAt=(1*pXl + 2p+3p2 = I + p + p z+ p j + , . . + p k - '

t-p '
=l: Po l-p

k( r \

[t

-oJ
(s.ll)

578

APpENDtx A

Figure A.l.

probabiliqr graphof No, 4 ESSfour_stage space switch.

A,8 LESS SPACE STAGE BLOCKING PROBABILITY5.21 The moststraightforward way to calculate the blockingprobabilityof thefour-stage space shucture shownin theprobabilitygraphof FigureA.I is to list all elementary, mutuallyexclusive probabilityterms, determine theirprobabilities of occurrence, and generate thesumof those thatrepresent blocking. Because thereareeightlinks,which are.assumed to be independently busyor idle, therearezs = 256elementary terms. Rather thanlaboriously list themall, theanalysis canbegreatlysimplified, with a risk oJmiscounting blockingterms, by grouping thetermsaccording to thenumber of busy links-Thefollowingtableliststhegroups andthecorrespondinf numbers of termsthat blockanddo not block.
Number of BusyLinksI 0
1

Combinations (:)
1 I 28 56 70 56 28 B 1 256

Number That Block 0 0 2 16 50 52 2B I 1 157

Number thatDo Not Block 1 I 26 40 20 4 0 0 0 99

2 3 4 5 6 7 I

Entriesin thelasttwo columnsaredetermined by analyzingthetopologyof thenet_ work. For example, whentwo links arebusy,onry2 of the2g combinations produce blocking( I and2 and7 and8).when threelinksarebusy,I 6 of thecombinations produceblocking.To determine the remaining enhiesin column3, it is easier to determine the numberof combinations that do not block and subtractfrom the total. For example, whenonly threelinks areidle, thereare4 of 56 combinations that do not block.using theentries in column3, theblockingprobabilityis determined as B = Zpz q6+ l6p3 qs + S}pa qa+ Sbps qt t Zgp6 qz+ gp7 q + pg wherep is theprobabiliry _ thata link is busyandq = | p is theprobabilitythatit is idle' All ofthe interstage links areequallyloaded because thereis no concentration or expansion in the stages.

B APPENDX

ENCODING/DECODING FOR ALGORITHMS PCM SEGMENTED

p255 CODE 8.1 EIGHT-BIT format usea sign-magnitude of p255 PCM codewords The encoded representations themagnipolarityandtheremaining bits specify whereinI bit identifies the sample into a 3-bit segpartitioned bitsareconveniently The7 magnitude tudeof thesample. ment identifier S and a 4-bit quantizingstepidentifier Q. Thus thebasic structureof is shownin FigureB.l. an 8-bit p255PCM codeword algorithms, it is assumed, of encoding anddecoding In thefollowing descriptions that analoginput signalsare scaled for convenience in using integerrepresentations, andsegmentidentifiers all amplitudes Furthermore, to amaximumamplitude of 8159. binaryrepresentations. The actualento be encoded usingconventional areassumed to inhowever, complement the codewords systems, usedin T1 transmissiOn coders bit stream. thedensityof I's in a transmitted crease 8.1.1 Algorithm 1: Direct Encodlng (Table 8.1) [o for uositivesamplevalues polar. tty Dttr = roalues sample ll for negative encoding the first stepin the magnitude valuewith a magnitude.x, Given a sample by areidentified identifierS.Themajorsegments process is to determine thesegment can be and8159'Thus'S endpoints: 31, 95, 223,479,991,2015,4063, the segment
I
v\-rJ\-1/--/

P Figure B.l.

Eight-bitp225PCM codeformat.

580

APFENDIXB

TABLE 8.1

Piecewlee Linear Approxlmation to FZSSCompoundlngd Quantization Endpoints by SegmentCode S Quantization Code Q

000 0
1

001
31 35 39 43 47 51 55 59 63 67 71 75 79 83 87 91 95

010 95 103 111 119 127 135 143 151 159 167 175 183 191 199 2Q7 215 223

011 223 239 255 271 287 303 319 335 351 367 383 399 415 431 447 463 479

100
479 5 11 543

101

110

111

3 5 7 I 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31

s7s
607 639i 671' 703 735 767 799 831 863 89s 927 959 991

991 1055 1119 11 8 3 1347 131 1 1375 1439 1503 1567 1631 1695 1759 1823 1887 1951 2015

0 1 2 3 4
E

6 7 I I 10 11 12 13 14 15

asample values arerelerenced to a Nogative yaly6oj 8159. samples areencoded in sign-magnitud6 Iujl--scle formet witha polarlty bitof 1. In actuel transmission thecod6s alre inverted to in"reaietn" o"nsrty of 1,swhen low signalamplitude$ are ncoded. Anelogoutputsamples ere docoded as th6 centerof the encodd quantizationinterval.
Quantizationerror is i'he difference between the teconstructooout[ut vatu6 ancl th. origir-lal input sample value. ,!

determined asthe smallest endpoint thatis greater thanthe sample valuex. Here,s is equalto the smallest a suchthat x<64-T-33 a=0,I,...,7

After themajorsegment containing thesample valuehasbeen determined, theparticularquantization intervalwithin the major segment mustbe identified.As a first stepa residue r is determined asthe difference between the input amplitude andthe lowerendpoint of the segment:

S=0 '=fi- (32.zs33) S = I , 2 , , . . . 7

The valueof Q cannow be determined asthequantization intervalcontaining the residue r. Here,fl is equalto the smallest b suchthat

lzu*t r<[1zs+rxb+ l)

,5=0 S=1,2,...,"1

whereb = 0, l, . . . , 15.Noticethat this process identifiesquantization intervalsin = 0 ashavingupperendpoint$ segment ^s at l, 3, 5, . . . , 3t while theothersegments

8.1 EIGHT-EITp255CODE581

fhataremultiplesof 4, 8, 16,32,64, 128,256 for S = 1, endpoints havequantization 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, respectively. into 3 and4 bits, rethey arebinary encoded After,SandO havebeendetermined, a 7-bit word thatcanbe convenof S andO produces spectively. The concatenation identifies this integer 0 and 127.In essence, asan integer between iently represented amplitude. compressed signal quantization intervals of a oneof the 128 polarityto an analog outthedesignated proces$ involvesassigning Thedecoding = intrvaln 0, l, ' ' . , 127'Using put sample at the midpointof the nth quantization valueas outputsample a discrete of S andQ directly,we candetermine thevalues - 33 yn=(2Q+ 33X2r) of ,5and the binary representations wheren is the integerobtainedby concatenating

a.

Example 8.1. produces codeword: thefollowing of +242 An inputsample

1=ffi 0,3,
outputbecomes The decoder t$=(2. 1+33X23)-33 :247

quantization from?39to 255. interval of theforty-ninth is themidpoint which A.1.2 Algorithm2: LinearCodeConversion
with p255 is characteristic for usinga p-law compounding reason The fundamental to and can converted be digitally approximation the with which segmented the ease the implement algorithms that the section describes basic from a uniform code.This enimplementing PCM 4p255 themeans of Thefirst algorithmprovides conversions. followedby digitallogic to providethecomprescoderusinga 13-bituniformencoder function thedecoder how to implement algorithm indicates Thesecond sionfunction. a compressed codeinto a 13-bitlinearcodeto beusedin generating offirst expanding theouQutsamples. as Justasin algorithm1, thepolaritybit P is determined values _ I0 for positivesample 'o values sample negative for 11

s82

APPENDIX B

The simplicity of converting from a linear code to a compressed code is most evident if the linear code is biasedby adding the value 33 ro the magnitudeof all samples.Notice that this bias shifts the encoding range from 0*gl5g ro 33-gl9z. The addition processcan be performed directly on the analog samplesbefare encoding or with digi_ tal logic after encoding. In either case,the generalform of all biased linear code patterns and the correspondingcompressed codesare as follows: p255EncodingTable Biased Linear Input Code 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 l w 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 w w x x y
0 0 0 l w x y z 0 0 l w x y z a 0 l w x y z a b 1 w x y z a b c w x y x y z y z a z a b a h c b c d c d e d e f z a a b b c c d d e e f f s g h

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 1 O l 1 0 0 0 1 1 O l 1

Compressed Code w x y w x y w x y w x y w x y w x y w x y w x y

z z z z z z z z

From the foregoing table it can be seenthat all biased linear codeshave a leading I that indicatesthe value of the segmentnumber ,s.specifically, rhe value of s is equal to 7 minus the number of leading 0's before the I. The value of is directly available e as the 4 bits (w, x, y, z) immediately following the leading 1. All trailing bits (a-h) are merely ignored when generatinga compressed code. In reversefashion the following table indicateshow to generate abiased linearcode from a compressed code. An unbiasedoutput can be obtainedby subtracting33 from the biasedcode: p255DecodingTabte 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 l Compressed Code 0 w x y z 1 w x y z 0 w x y z 1 w x y z 0 w x y z 1 w x y z 0 w x y z 1 w x y z Biased Linear Qutput Code 0 0 0 0 l w x 0 0 0 1 w x y 0 0 1 wx y z 0 1 w x y 2 1 1 w x y 2 1 0 w x y z 1 0 0 x y z 1 0 0 0 y z 1 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 w

0 0 0 0 0 1 w x

y z 1 z 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Both of these tables indicate that 13bitsof thelinearcodeareusedto represent the magnitude of the signal.In chapter3 it is mentioned that a p255 pcM coderhasan amplitude range equivalent to l2 bits.Thediscrepancy occurs because thefirst quantizationintervalhaslengthI while all others in thefirst segment areof lengthz. Thus theexhabit is needed only to specify thefirst quantization interval. Noticefurrher that theleastsignificant bit in thetables carries no information but is included only to facilitatetheinteger relationships. kr particular, theleastsignificant bit in theencoding tableis completely ignoredwhendetermining a compressed code(assuming thatthe

B.r EIGHT BrrA-LAW coDe

583

the leastsignificantbit in the output Furthermore, biasis added to the analogsample). zeroand by S.It is a 0 for segment the segment number is completely specified codes I for segments. all other a Example 8.2. to produce a valueof 275.The binaryrepreAn input codeword of +242is biased of 275is sentation 0000 I 000 I 00 1 1 (biasedlinearcode) codeis Hence tableS = 011andwxlz = fi)01, andthecompressed from theencoding ffi (compressedcode)

thefollowingbiased lintable,thiscompressed codeproduces Usingthedecoding earoutputcode:

0000 1000 I 1000 (biasedlinearoutput)

The decimal repre$entation of the foregoing code is 280, which corresponds to an unbiasedoutput equal to +247.

8.2

EIGHT BIT A-LAW CODE

usethe same bafor segmentedAlaw codes algorithms Thefollowingcompounding Onedifference presented for thep255codes. thatdoesoccur, sic procedures a$those to and involvesthe eliminationof a biasin the linearcodefor conversion however, 4096as in the useof theinteger occurs code.Anotherdifference from a compressed If desired,the scale the maximumamplitudeof a samplein anAlaw representation. by doublingtheAJaw canbebroughtinto closeagreement factorsfor thetwo systems to 8192. scale Alaw codeis usually referredto as a As mentionedin Chapter3, the segmented segl3-segment codeowing to the exisknceof sevenpositiveand sevennegative nearthe origin beingcolinear.In the following descripmentswith the two segment$ for eachpolarity is dividedinto two pal'tsto produce tions,however,the first segment segments. This point of view permitsa codeformat eightpositiveandeightnegative of a codewordconsists that is identicalto the p255 codeformat. Thus,a compressed level Q. identifierS and4 bits of quantizer signbit P followedby 3 bits of a segment 8.2.1 Algorlthm 1r Direct Encodlng The segment endpoints of anA-law codeare32,64,128, 256, 5I2, l0Z.,2048, and identifier ,5can be dex the major segment 4096.Thus for a samplewith magnitude a suchthat terminedasthe smalle$t

584

APPENDIX B

TABLE8.2 Segmented A-[aw EncodlngTable Ouantization Endpoints by Segment Code 001 0 2 4 6 B 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 5,4 56 58 60 62 84 010 64 68 72. 76 80 84 BB 92 96 100 104 108 112 116 120 1?4 128 011
128 136 144 152 160 168 176 184 Quantization Code

101 256 272 288 304 320 336 3s2 368 384 400 416 432 M8 464 480 496 512 512 544 576 608 640 672 704 736 768 800 832 864 896 928 960 992 1024

110

111

19e 200 208 216 224 232 240 248 256

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 B I 10 11 12 13 14 15

Not6i Every oth6r bit is invertedfor tran8mi8slon.

x<32'2"

a = 0 ,l , . . . , 7

After S hasbeendetermined, the residuer canbe obtainedas , =[* lx- 16.2s S=0 S=1,2,...,7

The valueof B canthenbe determined asthe smallest b suchthat

'.{#[..'i,

S=0 S=1,2,...,7

Justasin the case for p255 coding,anAlaw magnitude canbe represented asan integern= 0, l, .. ',121 derivedfromtheconcatenation of 3 s-bitsand4 p-bits.An outputmagnitude as I canthenbeexpressed

r S=0 [zB+ ,,=ltt,n+ 16f)

S=I,2,...,7

Exampla8.8. An inputsample of +121 produces thefollowing codeword:

8.2 EIGHT BITA.LAW CODE

585

ffi The decoder outputbecomes

=+46indecimal

= 2s(14 + te |) )+e
_ | tr,,

intervalfrom 120to 7M. whichis themidpointof thequantization 8.2.2 Algorithm 2: Linear Code Converslon Thefollowingtables indicate how to converta lZ-bit linearcodedirectlyinto a compressed.A-law the same asfor the p255 conversion code.The algorithmis basically codedoesnot anda first segment exceptthatbiasingthe linearcodeis unnece$sary as7 minusthenumber havea leadingL Thusthesegment numberS canbedetermined of leadingzerosasbefore.The p field dataareobtainedasthe 4 bits (wxyz) immedi= 0, in whichcase theQ field is contained when,S atelyfollowingtheleadingl, except 0's. in the4 bits following theseven leading
A.Law Encodlng Tabl Linear Code

Compressed Code x x y z a b c d y y z a b c d e z z a b c d e f a a b c d e f g 0 0 w x y z 0 0 1 w x y z 0 1 O w x y z 0 1 1 w x y z 1 O 0 w x y z 1 0 1 w x y z l l 0 w x y z l l l w x y z 0

0 0 0 0 O 0 O l

0 0 0 0 0 O l w

0 0 0 0 0 l w x

0 0 0 0 l w x y

0 0 0 1 w x y z

0 0 1 w x y z a

0 w 1 w w x x y y z z a a b b c

a linear codeworddirectly The following table providesthe meansof generating to themiddleof thequanfrom a compressed codeword. Theoutputvalueconesponds by S and p. tization interval designated Table A-Law Decoding
Compressed Qode 0 0 0 0 1 1 ' 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 O 1 0 1 Linear Code Output w w x y z 1 0 0 x x y z 1 0 0 0 y z 1 y z 1 z l O 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 w x y z 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 w x y z 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 w x y z A 0 0 0 0 1 w w x y z 0 0 0 0 1 w x w x y z 0 0 0 1 w x y w x y z 0 0 1 w x y z f 1 O w x y z O 1 w x y z 1 1 1 w x y z 1 w x y z 1 0

586

AppENDtx B

Eachof these tables relates12bits of magnitude in a linearcodeto a compressed codewith 7 bitsof magnitude. Notice,however, thattheleastsignificant bit of theencoderis alwaysignored. Thustheencoder needs only 1l bitsof resolution if all of its outputs areimmediately compressed. processing If anysignal (suchasadding two signalstogether) is to takeplacebeforecompre$$ion, however, theextrabit is usefulin reducing thecomposite quantization error. Example The previously used sample value Lzr is represented in binary form as 000001 I 11001. Fromtheencoding = 010ande = I I 10.Thusthecompressed rable,S codeword is

ffi
using the decoding table,the linearourputcanbe determined as000001 I l l0l0, whichis 122decimal.

APPENDX C

ANALYTIC FUNDAMENTALS OF DIGITAL TRANSMISSION

C.l PULSESPECTHA

presents pulsewaveforms This section thef'requency $pectra of common usedfor digipulses aresquare tal transmission. These asgenerated Since at a source. the spectra of pulses square haveinfinite frequency presented the spectra heredo not corcontent, respond to pulseresponses thepulseshapes at theoutputofa channel where havebeen by bandlimiting outputpulseresponses altered filters.In thenextsection channel are Thenthe necessary described. combinations of input pulseshapes andfilter designs particular outputpulses areconsidered. to produce pulseshapes Thevarious corresponding frequency spectra and arepresented in FigureC.1.In derivingthespectra, made: thefollowing conditions andassumptions were 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. All pulses haveequalenergy. All systems signalat rutfrIlT. Thewaveform$ shownareusedto encode a 1. polarities areusedfor a 0. Opposite It is equallylikely for l's and0's to occurandto occurat random(complete independence).

C.2 CHANNELOUTPUTPUL$E RESPONSES Althougha digitaltransmission system to produce canbe designed a varietyof output pulseresponses, is definedas themostcommon
v--\0 | '/rc\r/

sin(nr,zl) cos(ant/7)
IEI/T I-(Zat/T)z

(c.l)

where1/Tis the signaling rateandcr, i$ an excess bandwidth factorbetween 0 and 1. Equation C.l represents the response of a raised-cosine chamel-so-called because thefrequency spectrum conesponding to yrc(t)in Equation C.l is

588

APPENDTx c

NRZ llnc code

-|r

tr

*3

:2

-l F (lr^rl -

fltl * llrl{+ r

Dlelul biphrre

,frt- r -tr<r<o __r 0(r{i?

r r pl*S*n' r Sr

| + D Oorrahtivr ficodhg

-3

-2

-1

rqr.,r=ffipII
_ t

| -Dcornhth'.

'ncodrns

l'

,
-3 -2 -l

l"r;-r
r ? 3

TE]_

t't:t:*'-r:1,**'o

F(r.l - tf;t .rnr trtt

| * pr Cotolrtiw Encodlng

fld ";
__ I ?

-F*'*-f
E*r*T

_l_ I

-3

-z

..r

r l*ot -t$rn t'n *n rfl

Figure C.1. Spectra pulseshapes. of common

C.2 GHANNELOUTPUTFULSEHE$PONSES 589

F,"(f) = I

, ' {o ' -* I - o 2T 1-o*rfl<1*o - '''2T 2T

=il'.*'[#-r*r]]

:"",'[# q#)
=Q otherwise

(c.2)

"raised Theoriginofthe apellation cosine"is apparent in thethird line ofEquation C,2, The parameter u in Equations C.l andC.2 is referred to as an excess-bandwidth parameter. in Equation If o = 0, thespectrum defined C.2is exactlyequalto thetheoreticalrninimumbandwidthll2T for signalingrate llT. As fl increases from 0 to l, theexcess spectrum widthincreases to 1(X)7o. Raised-cosine specFa areilluschannel tratedin FigureC.2 for several of cr. values systems Practical aretypicallydesigned for excess bandwidths of 307o or morefor reasons. several First, "brick wall" filters needed to produce the infinite attenuation impliedby fl = 0 arephysically slopes unrealizable. Second, asshownin FigureC.3, pulseresponse the time-domain for smallvalues of u,exhibitslargeamounts of ringing. Slight errorsin the sample timescause significant degradations in performance interference. dueto intersymbol Third a slightdeviation ratefrom the in thesignaling designratealsoproduces significantintersymbolinterference. It mustbeemphasized thatEquation C.2defines thedesired spectrum at theoutput (theinputto thedecision ofthe channel from circuit).Thusthedesired response results a combinationof the input pulsespectrum the channel filter responses. Often, the and inputpulse$pectrum pulseof durationT: from a square arises

Y,"lfl

-1
lo=0

t
I

t +
-l

** "-.-+
.5

I I

0.

tr'igure spectrums C.2. Raised-cosine of c. fbr variousvalues

590

APPENDTx c
!*ltl .l tnputpura" Ouput puber

Normrlirrdtime I r/Tl Figure C.3. Raised-cosinepulse responses for various values of s.

= [t r,(r) lo

td<+r otherwise

(c.3)

The frequencyspectf,um corresponding to x"(r) in Equationc.3 is the ,.sin(.r)/x" "sine" spectrum alsoreferred to asa function:

*"cn=I4ffi
= f sinc(n/T)

(c.4)

when thechannel input spectrrrm is asdefined in Equation c.4, thefilter function of a channel to produce a raised-cosine ouryutis determined as

H(n=ffi

(c.5)

The channel filter functionsimpliedin Equation c.5 areshownin Figurec.4 for thesame values of fl, shown in Figurec.2. Figurec.2 displays channel outputspectra while FigureC.4displays corresponding frequency-domain transfer functions for the channel.

Normrlirrd f lugurrtyl.f TI figure C.4. Channel filterresponses needed to produce raised-cosine outputs whenexcited by sin(4172)/(rn72) pulses.

C,2 CHANNELOUTPUTPULSEHESPoNSES 591

-'5 no-"Lr*u.rlv urr

Ftgure C.5. "Optimum" ffansmit and receive filterfunctions for raised-cosine response with s = 0,3and sin(ro72)/(coZl?) excitation. As mentioned in Chapter 3, the designof a smoothing filter in a digital voicedecodersometimes requires in Equation a modification like thatdefined C.5.In fhecase mentioned, the ideal "flat" filter for reconstructing speech from narrowimpulselike samples shouldbe modifiedby dividing the flat re$ponse by the $pectrum of the finite-widthsamples (Equation C.4).Whenthesamples arenarrower thanthe signaling interval,the sin(x)/xresponse is essentially flat acrossthe bandwidthof the filter. However,whenthe samples aremadeto last for the entiredurationof the sampleinterval,thefilter response shouldbe "peaked" to compensate for sin(x)/xroll-off. As discussed in Chapter 6, a channel filter functionis usuallypartitioned between "optimum" filter partitioningoccurs the transmitter and the receiver. The so-called when the receivefilter response is the square root of the desiredoutputresponse Y*(fl, andthetransmitfilter response is whatever is necessary to han$form thechannel inputspectrum (Theoutput'ryecintothecomplex of thereceive conjugate filter response. rilhen the trum of thetransmitter root of thedesired is alsothesquare channel response.) 'bptimum' pulse channel inputis a of duration7, the filter functions aredefinedas H**(.f) = {I'"(,f)}r/2

(c.6) (c.7)

HwU)=#

Noticethat the transmitspectrum from HnE(f) in Equation resulting C.7 is equal to thesquare root of thedesired outputresponse, no matterwhattheinputpulseshape is. Hence, whenoptimumpartitioning thetransmitspectrum is used, andthereceiver designareindependent of thechannel excitation. (Equations The transmitand receivefilter functionsfor square-wave excitations C.6 and C.7) arc shownin FigureC.5.* Noticethat the transmitfilter functionhas peakingat frequencies otherthandirect current.The implication for midbandattenuationis oneof thereasons why "optimum"partitioning maynot be optimumin a syspowerlimitations. tem with source
*This discussionassumes baseband transmission.The principles are easily extendedto carrier-based systems by translstingthe filter functionsto the carrierfrequency.

592

AppENDtx c

C.2.1 OptlmumFilterlng for Minimum ShiftKeylng As discussed in chapter 6, minimum (MSK)modulation shiftkeyed canberepresented as quadrature channel modulation with basebandexcitation defined as cosine pulse shapes:

.,,=f-[*J
ttts+T
otherwise Thetransform ofx"(r) is v , A =[zrJ f r') cosn/r x.ul | -ffi

(c.8)

(c'e)

Whena raised-cosine ouQutresponse andoptimumfilter partitioning is desired, theMSK filter functions are

H*"(f) =lYn(frlt/z

(c.10)

ro(f)=w

( c.ll)

Thetransmit spectrum andthereceiver partitioned of anoptimally MSK system are identical to counterparts in anoptimally partitioned, offset-keyed 4-psKsystem! C.2.2 Partlal-Response Systems
As another digital hansmission system designexample, consider a I + D partial-response system. Thedesired time response of thechannel is defined in Equation C.12 andthe associated frequency spectnrm in Equation C.13.Thepulseresponse of a I + D partial-response channel is shown in FigureC.6.Noticethata singlepulsecontributes equallyto the response at two successive sample timesbut crosses zeroat all other sample times: 4 cos(nt/T\

Y,\I)= n|__eiffi
nlr fcos Y.ffi=i

(c.12)

nt+i
otherwise

(c.13)

Io

PULSE C.? cHANNELoUTPUT BESPoNSES 593

rI

-1 I
F---tnprt I putrr

I I

puls6Jrrlrl

-2.5

-r.6

t.5 2.5 Noffirlirid tiffi6 {tr?}

3.S

Figure C.6. Outputpulseof I + D partial-response channel. Optimum filter pafiitioning is again achievedwith a receive filter having an amplitude response equal to the squareroot ofthe desiredoutput respon$eY"(/). Ifthe channel is excited by squarepulsesof duration ?, as defined in Equation C.3, the optimum filter functions are

Hnx(fl=[Y"ff)]L/z

vls+ vts+

(c.r4)

H*(f) - Lv,(f)1"' X'fl

(c.r5)

where Xr(f) is defined in Equation C.4. The optimum filter functions defined in EquationsC.14 and C.l5 are shown in Figure C.7 along with the desiredoutput responseof the channel.Notice that, unlike the full-response(raised-cosine)systems,optimum partitioning of a partial-response system does not require peaking of the transmit filter.

-t

o.5 1 Normelitrdf ruqurncyl.f Tl

Figure C.7. Spectra of 1 + D PRS channel and "optimum" filter responsesfor sin(aT| 2)| (aT | 2) excitation.

594

APPENDIXC

c.3

ERROR RATEANALYSES: BASEBAND SYSTEMS

C.3.1 BinaryTransmission considerthe receiver modelof thedigital transmission system shownin Figurec.g. Thereceiver consists of two parts:signalprocessing circuitryanda datadetector (decisioncircuit).For thetimebeing,assume thattheoutputof thesignalprocessing circuitproducesapulseof amplitude+vwhena I istransmittedandapulseof amplitude *v whena 0 is transmifted. obviously,the detector merelyexamines thepolarityof its input at the sample timesdefinedby the sample clock.A decision erroroccursif noiseat the sample timeshasan amplitude greater thanv anda polarityopposite to thetransmitted pulse. Themostcommonly analyzed typeof noiseis assumed to havea Gaussian or normal probabilitydistribution. Thustheprobabilityof enor ps canbe determined as

po = ^-l- l r-'tzo' dt - \txr o "v whereoz is therms noisepowerat thedetector. Usingtheenor function, ,
erf a=|l
l t z

(c.16)

.vr, e-r-dt ;

(c.r7)

Equation C.16 is sometimes rewritten as

P"=|(1-erfz)

(c.18)

= v/"12o. Theerrorprobability where.e Ps canalsobe expressed in termsof thecomplimentaryerror function:

;t4#
Noire Figure C.8. Digital receiver model,

BATEANALY$ES: BASEBAND ERROB SYSTEMS 595

P"=ferfcz
where erfc4-1-erfz

(C.19)

{2o

In lieu of evaluating the integralin EquationC.17or C.19 (which hasno closed form solution), canbe approximated theerrorfunctions as

srfs g -.:F(e'vn;

p-z

(e>> l;

C.3.2 Multllevel Transmlssion The error rateof a multilevel baseband systemis easilydetermined by an appropriate reductionin theerrordistance. If themaximumamplitudeis V, the errordistance d betweenequallyspaced levelsat thedetector is
d=*

(c.21)

whereL is thenumberof levels.Adjustingthe errordistance to V of a binarysystem thatdefinedin Equation C.21provides theerrorrateof a multilevelsystem as

""=['=;)F}.'{.t#)

(c.22)

wherethe factor (L * 1)/Z, reflectsfhe fact that interior signallevels arevulnerableto bothpositiveandnegative noiseandthefactor Illog2L arises because themultilevel produce system is assumed errors(log2.L to becoded sosymbolerrors single-bit is the numberof bits per symbol). Equation C.22reveals that,with respect ratiosat thedetecto peaksignal-to-noise - l) decibels. tor, L-leveltransmission incursa penaltyof 20log10(/If Vis increased by a factorL - I, theerrorrateof thellevel system is identical to theenor rateof the for thefactorslftogyL and(f - 1/L, whichtypicallyrepresent binarysystem [except only a few tenths of a decibell. powerIE. To determine Equation C.22relates errorrateto thepeaksignal theerror power,the average powerof an L-level system ratewith respect to average is determinedby averaging pulseamplitude thepowerassociated with thevarious levels:

596

APFENDTx c

(Il)"",

.[#J 3L[*l
7 ? 2

. . F ]
(c.23)

'

=ffiT^Qi-t)?
wherethelevels

v (r- 1)} r_, {+t,+3,...,*

areassumed to be equallylikely. C.3.3 Energy.per-Blt-to-Noiee-Den$ity Railos The foregoingerror rate equations relatePBto the signalenergyat the sampletimes andthermsnoisepowerat thedetector. Whencomparing various digital modulation formats,multilevel systems in particular,it is morerelevantto relateerror performance to signalpowerandnoise powerat theinputto thereceiver (in front of thesignal processing circuitry).As a first stepin developing anerrorrateequation based on signal-to-noise ratiosat thereceiver input,thenoisepowerat thedetector is determined. Thevariance ofthe noiseo2 usedin theprevious equations is exactlyequalto the rmspowerthatwouldbemeasured atthedetector in theabsence of a signal. Thisnoise powercanbe determined analytically as

o": I lHffi(|No)t' df

= ND J IHU)I' df
0

(c.24)

=No'Brv

(c.2s)

where-.rNs is the one-sided noise power spectraldensity in watts per hertz and = =lH(fllz df is thenoise-equivalent Brv bandwidth or simplythenoisebandwidth Jo of thereceiver filter functionHll). In Equation c.?5, thenoisesource is assumed to be white.Thatis, a uniformspectral density existsacross theentirebandof interest. This noisemay existin thetans-

C.3 EHHOR RATE BASEBAND ANALYSES: SYSTEMS 597

missionmediumitself,or it mayoccurin the "front-end"amplifierof thereceiver. If (ideal)frlter of bandwidth the rms noisepowerpassing througha $quare B is measured,a readingof (IV$(B)wattswould beobtained. represents ThusB1y the bandwidth filter that passes of a perfectly square the sameamountof noiseasthe receiverfilter nonsquare in its amplitude responsel. H(l) lH(f) may be decidedly provides The receiver functionH(fl necessarily a compromise between two conflicting objectives. of noisepassed First,it mustminimizethe amount to thedetector (i.e.,minimizeEry). the difference Second, between values(+Vand *I4 must sample (Vld) shouldbe be maximized. Obviously, the signal-to-noise ratio at the detector to minimizetheerrorprobability. maximized A classical resultof digitalcommunication theorystates that V/o is maximized whenHIJ) is'?natched" to thereceived signal. Whenviewedin thetimedomain, a "matched filter" is implemented by correlating (multiplying) (noise-free) thereceived signal pulseshapes. with each of thereceivable The outputsof the correlators signal areintegratedacross interval to determinethe a overall average correlationduringthe interval.The integratorwith the maximumoutput indicates themostlikely symbolto havebeentr-ansmitted. In mostsystems havethesame all signals or pulses but differ only in amplishape tudeandpolarity.Thusa singlematched filter canbe used. Detection merelyinvolves thematched frlteroutputto appropriate comparing levels. decision Theoutputof a single correlator is expressed ft(r) andits integrator as
T

V=)s(t)h(t)dt 0

= J ls(r)F dr
0

(c.26)

wheres(r)is the signalor pulseshape beingmeasured. Noticethat Vis, in essence, a of theenergy in the signaloverthe signaling measure interval7. Whenanalyzed filterresponse in thefrequency domain, amatched f(/) is thecomplex conjugate pulsespectrum of the channel S(f). Thus the matched filter output Y(/) canbe expressed in thefrequency domainas

YU)=H(f)'SU) = S.(fl . ,S(fl (C.zt1

Frequency-domain representations aremost convenient when the transmitsignalis stictly bandlimited, implyingthat the durationof thepulsercsponse is theoretically In thiscase (e.g., unlimited. theenergy in a pulse raised cosine) is directlyproportional

598

APPENDTx c

to the detectorvoltageat the optimumsampletime. Henceoptimumdetection is achieved by merelysamplingthe outputof the receivefilter at the propertime. Usingtherelationship of Equation C.25andrheparameterE5 to represent symbol energy, we express thebinaryerrorrateEquation C.I 9 as P" = j erf(z)

(c.28)

wherez2= Es/(Nfiil. Notice that for a given system(fixed 81,,), the error rate is dependent only on the ratio of thesymbolenergyE5andthenoisedensityNs.This ratio is commonlyreferred to asa signal-to-noise ratio,although it is not a signal-power-to-noise-power measurement.Equationc.?8 is thepreferred form of theenor rateequation for comparing differentmodulation schemes. In a binaryscheme, the symbolenergy Es is equalto the perbit Es. energy As an example of a specificsy$tem, consider a baseband raised-cosine channel with optimumpartitioning. Theoutputspectrum of the hansmitter is the square root of theraised-cosine spectrum Y*(fl defined in Equation c.2. Thematched receiver filter alsohasa square root of a raised-cosine (Equation response C.6).Hence thenoise bandwidthof the receivercanbe determined as

; BN=J tHU)t' df
0
(l+fl)/27

= ! tY*u)t df
0

2T

(independent of u)

(c.?9)

As defined in Equation c.l and shown in Figure c.3, the (normalized)peak sample value at the detector of a raised-cosinepulse is L Using unnormalizedpulses of amplifude Es, we can determinethe error rate of a binary (+Es, -Es) raised-cosine channel as

Pu = | erfc(z)

(c.30)

wheree2= (EslNg)f andZis theduration of a signalinrerval. AlthoughEquation C.30wasderived for a raised-cosine channel, it is moregeneral in thatit is applicable to anybinarysystem usingantipodal signaling. ThusEquation c.30 is plottedin Figure4.23asthebestperfonnance achievable by *y digitalhans-

c.3 EHFORRATEANALYSES:BASEBANDSYSTEMS 5gg

missionsystem detecting onepulseat a time.(Lowererrorrates arepossible whenredundantsignalsor enror-coffecting codesare used.) presented The enor rateperformance in Equation C.22 for multilevelsystems is based on noisepower at the detector. As long asthe signalbandwidthis identicalfor all systems, Equation C.22is valid sincethe noisebandwidth is indeof thereceiver pendent of the numberof levels.Whenthe signaling rateis held constant, however, thebit rateincreases with thenumberof levels.To compare multilevel systems on the basisof a given datarate,the signaling interval7 and,hence, the noisebandwidths mustbe adjusted accordingly. thesignaling If 7 is thesignaling intervalfor a two-levelsystem, intervalI for an providingthe same /,-levelsystem datarateis determined as

Tr=TlogrL

(c.31)

Usingthenoise bandwidth filter in Equation of a raised-cosine C.29,we extend Equation C.22to multilevelsystems as

"=[,#)[#)-'*o
.
v/(L * L)

<r@rn

C.3?canbe simplifiedandpresented Equation in a morecustomary form by usingthe per symbolEr= Ealog2 per L = IPTI, whereE6is theenergy relationship thatenergy bit:

"=[,#J[tt)*'r.r
r=
(logrL)r/z(Eo\"

(c.33)

1-1

l1r I
\'0,/

Equation curves C.33is plottedin Figure4.26for 2, 4, 8, and 16levels. These representthe ideal relativeperformances of multilevelbaseband systems at a constant in propordatarate.Thebandwidthrequirements decrease of thehigher-levelsystems to log2L. tion

600

APPENDTx c

Equationc.33 and Figure4.26 represent the performance of multilevelsystems with respect (commondataratebut differentbandwidths). to E6lNp The following relationship canbe usedto determine errorrates with respect to signal-to-noise ratiosat thedecision circuit (different datarares but common bandwidth): Slgp: siTal Powet nolsepower

_(E)(rogzL)(r/T) (No)0/2r)

=(2)(log2z)l# |
l-"0i

/ F \

(c.34)

wherell?Tpis theminimum"Nyquist"bandwidth of the signal. ThesNR obtained in Equation c.34 repre$ents theratioof signal powerat thesample time to noiseat thedetector. This ratiois sometimes refenedto asa postdetection sNR because it is the signal-to-noise ratio at the outputofthe signalprocessing circuiffry. Somecommunications theorists usepredetection signal-to-noise ratiosin determining elror rates.Sincepredetection SNRsare measured prior to bandlimiting the noise, a noise bandwidth mustbehypothesized to establish a finite noise power.commonly,a bit ratebandwidth ( l/7) or a Nyquistbandwidth (l/zT) is specified. Thelatrer specification produces SNRsidentical to thatin Equation C.34.Exceptions occurwith double-sideband modulation using coherent (e.g.,2-psK) wherethe demodulation predetection sNR is 3 dB higherthanthepostdetection sNR. (All signalpoweris coherent to thedemodulator carrierreference, but only halfofthe noiseis .,coherent.") C.3.4 Partlal-ResponseSystems Theenor rateequation for a I + D partial-response system is obtained by incorporating thefollowingmodifications to a full-response system: l. The error distance is exacflyone-halfthe error distance of a corresponding full-response (see system FigureC.6). 2. The noise bandwidthof the receiver(assuming $quare-rootpartitioning) is obtained by integrating IIsx of F4uation C.14:
| /27

B"=J cos MTdf

0

_ l nT

(c.35)

TRANSMISSION C.4 CARRIEF SYSTEMS 601 Thusthenoise bandwidth of a 1 + D patial-respon$e system is 2 dB lowerthanthe (full-response) of a raised-cosine in Equation noisebandwidth obtained system C.29. Sincetheerrordistance is reduced by 6 dB, partial-response filteringincursa netpenIn termsof channel alty of 4 db-with respect to unfilteredsignalpowerat the source. powers, system the panial-response incursa smallerpenaltyowing to greater spectrum truncationin the hansmitfilter. powers Thedifference in channel canbeobtained of thetwo sy$tems by integrating powerspectra. partitioning channel If square-root is used,thecharurel the respective powerof the partial-response powerof the corresystem is 2 dB belowthe channel powersi$ exsponding full-response systems. In this case, in channel the difference actlyequalto thedifference because in noisebandwidths thereceiver filter responses That is, integration channel spectra. ofchannelspectra arematched to therespective hasessentially in Equations C.29andC.35. beenaccomplished pafiilossin a transmitter truncation Whenspectrum is considered, a square-root is only 2 dB worsethanthat of a corresponding tionedpartial-re$ponse system fulllessbandwidth response system. system requires than Of course, thepartial-response rateequation the full-response the erTor of a square-root $ystem. For completeness, partitioned I + D partial-response system is

"=['#Jf-r)-'r-t.r

(c.36)

/2(logz perbit on thechanwhere L)trzrrt - 1)andE6is theenergy { = (rE/4)(Eb/No)t nel. from Equation C.36is identical to Equation C.33except for thefactorrd4resulting powerof thelower errordistance, thelower noisebandwidth, andthe lower channel thepartial-re$ponse system.

C.4 CARRIERTRAN$MISSION $YSTEMS C.4.1 Filter Design Except systems, digitallymoduuncommon frequency-modulated for a few relatively latedcarriersystems be designed and with can analyzed baseband-equivalent channels.Carrier-based the baseband filters to bandpass filters arederivedby kanslating is at the carrierfrequency. The outputpulseresponse filters centered of the channel pulse the of Thus shaping determined by composite the baseband-equivalent filters. by filtering thebaseband signals or themodulated Partitioncanbe achieved signals. of the application. In thecoming channel filter functionis dependent on the all cases positechannel response identical that in Equation C.2 is to defined for raised-cosine channels or Equation C.13for partial-response systems.

602

APPENDIX c

Q.4.2 Error BateAnatysis

Error rate analysesof basebandsystemscan be direcfly applied to carrier $ysremsunder one important condition: Coherentmodulation and demodulationmust be used. For example,coherentdemodulation of a 2-pSK signal y(r) = cos[fitf + Q(I)] involves implementing the following equations;

+ Q(r)] 2 cos(rrlr)] S(t)= lowpass{cos[rol = lowpass{ * sin S(r)sin rryl2cosrof [(cosQ(r)cos(Dr ] = lowpass{cos - sinS(r)sin 2cor} $(rxl + cosrrlr) = cosS(r)

_ J r for Q(t)= 6
[-r

for S(t)= 7s

(c.37)

Notice that coherentdemodulationinvolves multiplying the received signal by a local carrier that is exactly in phasewith the respectiveincoming signal.Hence coherentdemodulation is closely related to matched filter detection as presentedin Equations c.26 and c.27. To complere optimum detection of a digitally modulated signal, the baseband equivalent of the receiver filter function must also be matchedto the carrier envelope: cos Q(r). When coherent demodulation (also called coherent detection) is used,the error rate performanceis identical to the analogousbasebandsystem.Hence the error rate of a coherently detectedz-psK system is provided in Equation c.19 or

c.28.

The correspondence of coherentdemodulation to matchedfilter detection is illustrated in Figure c.9. For convenience,digital biphase (diphase) is compared to an NRZ basebandsignal. The basic principle also applies to sine wave carriersat any frequency-The important point to notice in Figure C.9 is that the output of the coherent demodulator (or equivalently, the matched filter) is identical to the NRZ sisnal. Fur-

I t l t l o l r l o l r l r-l t-l Dffi I-l

Mlxcr (defitodulfiorl

T,H|[lf'-"-lJ+ f f i
hodrm l-r t-t _-r Figure C.9.

|
I

Coherent demodulation (detection) of digital biphase signal.

THANSMtsstoN c.4 cARRIEB sysrEMS 603 powerdensity thermore, thenoise comingoutof thecoherent demodulator is identical (Positive-weighted system. to thenoisepowerdensityof thebaseband white noiseis statistically no differentthannegative-weighted whitenoise.) FigureC.9 demonstrates that coherently demodulated carrier-based signalsproratiosat the detector asbaseband systems, ducethe samesignal-to-noise the despite fact that (double-sideband) carriersystems requiretwiceasmuchbandwidth. Coherent demodulation noisebandwidttr leadsto a receiver equalto the baseband-equivalent noisebandwidth because of the noisepowerin thecarriersignalbandonly one-half (Noisein the carriersignalbandwidth width is passed by the coherent demodulator. that is out of phase reference is ffanslated with respect to thecoherent to twice the carrier frequencyand thereforeeliminatedby the low-passfilter, sin ot 'cos o)f = I sin 2rot.) C.4.3 QAM Error Rates The error rateequationof a coherentlydetected QAM systemis identicalto the error rate of the conesponding systemappliedindividually to each multilevelbaseband quadrature of a 16-QAM system is providedin channel. Thusthe eror performance Equation demodulation coherent causes C.33for I = 4 levels.In a QAM system onehalf of thenoisepowerin the carriersignalbandwidthto showup at the/-channeldetectorand one-halfshowsup at the Q-channel detector. Of course, the total signal poweris dividedin two sothesignal-to-noise is idenratio at theindividualdetectors ticalto thecarier signal-to-noise ratio(i.e.,predetection SNRis equal to postdetection SNR).Theerrorrateperformance is plottedin Figure6.20in terms of QAM systems ratios,useEquation of E/Ns. To relatethoseresults to signal-to-noise C.34usingL asthe numberof levelson eachquadrafure channel. C.4.4 PSK Error Rates The errorrateof a multilevelPSK system is derived mosteasilyby usingquadrature channel representations for thesignals. For example, FigureC.10displays theregions of decision errorsfor a repre$entative signalphase in an 8-PSKsignal.Thereceived phase quadrature signals signalis processed by two orthogonal detectors to produce Y{t) and Yp(t)in Equations 6.10and6.11,respectively. If thetransmitted phase error is rd8 (corresponding to datavalues 011),a decision results if noisecauses Ig(0 to go positiveat the sample time [yo(t) is positivedownwardto represent thep (sine)channel aslaggingthe1(cosine) channell. Thenormal-Ia(t) to izederrordistance if noisecauses is sin (n/8).A decision erroralsoresults -nl4. Y{t), phase greater This exceed indicating the is lattercondition than canberepresentedas a negative value for the hansformed signal Y3(t)=O.lOiYBft) + A.7O7Y6[I). of thereceived signal vector is aprojection ontoa -nl4 basis fHere,Y6(f) (see Figure6.l3)1.Examination for this of FigureC.l0 reveals thattheerrordistance yB(f)is identical second typeof erroris alsosin (d8). Sincethe noisevariance to the

604

APPENDIX c
Feglon 2 whero 0lO ir dstsctod

Rcgion I nlrcre lll hdstsrsd

FigureC.10. Regions of decision error for 8-pSK signal atldg (01I ). noisevariance of r{f) (by virtue of the 0.707multipliers),both typesof errorsare equallylikely. In general terms, the error distanceof a psK system with N phasesis v' sir{n/M, wherev is the signalamplitude (i.e.,the radiusof a psK at a derector signalconstellation). A detection erroroccurs if noiseof theproper polarityis present at theoutputof eitherof two phase detectors. A detection error,however, is assumed to produce only a single-bit error.Thegeneral expression for thetheoretical errorrate for PSKmodulation is now determined by modifyingEquation C.22as

"":['chJ*'oo
where
sin(n/MV r/Zo

(c.38)

The signal amplitude V can be expressedas

v=frorros, r [+)"'
and the rms noise voltage o as

(c.3e)

"=[",[,+)'"

(c.40)

c.4 CARRIER TRANSMISSIoN SYSTEMS 605

for noisein a Nyquist bandwidth. Combining Equations PSK errorrate$ to energyper C.38,C.39,andC.40relates bit to noisedensityon thechannel:

""=['=lo)w'r
/rr\ ..^ (a ,1 " lOt/2| + | z= sin | ; '/lttosz

(c.41)

l.toj

EquationC.4l is plottedin Figure6.16 for PSK systems with variousnumbers of phases.To determine errorrateswith respect to signal-power-to-noise-power ratios, usethefollowing: (N> 2) sNR=t"-,"h1J

(c.42)

For 2-P$K systems, the errorratesas specifiedin EquationC,38 or C.41 shouldbe divided by 2 because only onephase detectoris needed andit produces errorsfor onepolarity of noiseonly.

APPENDIX D

TRAFFIC TABLES
A for variousblockingprobabilities B TableD.l is a tableof maximum offeredloads arefor infinite $ources with lost andnumber of servers N. Theblockingprobabilities (Erlang-B, callscleared Equation10.8). TableD.2 is a tableof maximum A for various blockingprobabilities offeredloads of sources B, number of servers N, andfinite number M. TheofferedloadA is deterThe no callsarecleared. minedasMp, wherep is theaverage source activityassuming from Equation12.13. blockingprobabilityfor finite sources is determined from Telephone Traffic Theory,TaNote: The following tableswereobtained Munich, 1970. Aktiengesellschaft, hles,and Charts,Siemens
TABLED.l Maxlmum OfieredLoadVersusBand M MB 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I
o

0.01 0.0s .0001 .0005 ,014 .032 .087 .1s2 .23s .362 ,452 .649 .728 1.05 1.42 1.83 2.26 2.72 3.21 3"71 4.24 4.78 5.34 s.91 6.50 7,09 7.70 .9S6 1.39 1.83 2.30 2.80

0.1 .001 .046 .194 .439 .762 1.15 1.58 ?.0S 2.56 3.09

0.5 ,00s .105 .340 .701 1,13 1.62 2.16 2.73 3.33 3.96

1.0 .010 .1s3 ,45s ,869 1.36 1.91 2.50 3.13 3,78 4.46 .020 .223 .602 1.09 1.66 2.28 2.94 3.60 4.34 5.08 .053 .381 .899 1.62 2.22 2.96 3.74 4.54 5.37 6.22

10 .11'l .595 1.27 2.05 2.BB

3.76 4.67 5.60 6.55 7.51

15 .176 ,796 1.60 2.s0 3.45 4.44 s.46 6.50 7.s5 8.62 9.69 10.8 11,9 13.0 14.1 15.2 16.3 17.4 18,5 19.6

20 .250 1.00 1.93 2.9S 4.01 5.11 6.23 7.37 8.52 9.68 10.9 12.0 13.2 14.4 15,6 16.S 18,0 19.2 20.4 2 1. 6

30 .429 1.45 2.63 3.89 5.10 6.51 7,86 9,21 10,6 12.O 13.3 14.7 16.1 17.5 1B.g 20,3 21.7 23.1 ?4.5 25.9

40 .667 2.00 3.48 $.42 6,60 8.19 9.80 11.4 13.0 14.7 16.3 18.0 19.6 21.2 22.9 24.5 26.2 27.8 29,5 31:2

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

8.49 9.47 4.45 4.83 5.96 6.61 7.40 8.83 1 0 . 5 5.03 5.45 6.66 7.35 8.20 9.73 1 1 . 5 s.63 6.08 7.38 8.11 9.01 1 0 , 6 1 2 . 5

3.33 3.65 4.61 5,16 5.84 7.08 s.88 4.23 5.28 s.88 6.61 7,95

6.25 6.88 7.52 8.17 8.S3

6.7? 7.38 8.05 8.72 9,41

8.10 8.83 9.58 10,3 11. 1

8.88 9.65 10.4 11.2 12.0

9.83 10.7 11.5 1e.3 13.2

11.5 12.5 13.4 14.3 15.2

13,5 14.5 15.5 16.6 17.6

608

APPENDIx D

TABLED.1 (Continued) NIB 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 0.01 0.05 8.32 9.50 8.95 10,2 9.58 10.9 10.2 11.6 10.9 1?,3 11.5 1?.2 12.9 13.6 14.2 14.9 15.6 16.3 17.0 17.8 18.5 19.2 19,9 20.6 21.4 22.1 22.8 23.6 24.3 25.1 ?5.8 26.6 27.3 28.1 28.9 29,6 30.4 31.2 31,9 32.7 33.5 34.3 3s.1 35.8 36.6 37.4 38.2 39.0 39.8 40.6 13,0 13.7 14.4 15.1 15.9 16,6 17.3 18.1 18,8 19.6 ?0,3 21.1 21.9 22.6 23.4 24.2 25.0 25.7 26.5 27.3 28.1 28.9 29.7 30.5 31.3 32.1 3?,9 33.7 34.5 35.3 36.1 36.9 37.8 38.6 39.4 40.2 41,0 41.9 42.7 43.5 0.1 10.1 10.8 11.5 12.2 13.0 13.7 14.4 15.2 15.9 16.7 17.4 18.2 19.0 19.7 20,5 21.3 2e.1 22.s 23.7 24.4 25.2 26.0 26.8 27.6 28.4 29.3 30.1 30.9 31.7 32.s 33.3 34.2 35.0 3s.8 36.6 97.5 38.3 39,1 40.0 40.8 41.6 42.5 43.3 44.2 45,0 0.5 11,9 12.6 13.4 14.2 15.0 15.8 16.6 17.4 18.2 19.0 19,9 20.7 21,5 22.3 23.2 24.0 24.8 25.7 26.s 27.4 28.2 29.1 29.9 30.8 31.7 32.5 33.4 34.2 35.1 36.0 36.9 37.7 38.6 39.5 40.4 41.2 42.1 43.0 43.9 44.8 45.6 46.s 47.4 48.3 49.2 1.0 12.8 13.7 14.5 1s.3 16.1 17.0 17.8 18.6 19.5 20.3 21.2 22.0 22.9 23.8 24.6 25.5 26.4 27.3 28.1 29.0 29.9 30.8 31.7 32.s 33.4 34.3 35.2 36,1 37.O 37.9 38.8 39,7 40.6 41.5 42.4 43.3 M.2 45.1 46.0 46.9 47.9 48.8 49.7 50.6 51.5 2 14.0 14.9 15.8 16,6 17.5 18.4 19.3 20.2 21.0 21.9 22.8 23J 24.6 25.5 26.4 27.3 28.3 29.2 30.1 31.0 31.9 32.S 33.8 U.7 3s.6 36.s 37.5 38.4 39.3 40.3 41.2 42j 43.1 44.0 44.s 45.9 46.8 47.8 48.7 49.6 50.6 51.s 52.5 53,4 54.4 5 16.2 17.1 18.1 19.0 20.0 20.9 21.9 22.9 ?3,8 24.8 2S.8 26.7 277 28.7 29.7 30,7 31.6 32.6 33,6 34.6 3s.6 36.6 37.6 38.6 39.6 40.5 41.5 42.5 43.s M.5 45.5 46,s 47.5 48.5 49.s 50.5 51.5 52.6 53.6 54,6 55.6 56.6 57.6 58.6 59.6 10 187 19.7 aQJ 21.8 22.8 23.9 e4,9 26.0 27.1 28.1 2s.2 30.2 31.3 s2.4 33.4 34.s 35.6 36.6 s7.7 38.8 39.9 40.9 42.0 43.1 44.2 45.2 46.3 47.4 48.s 49.6 50.6 51.7 52.8 53.9 s5.0 56.1 57.1 58,2 59.3 60.4 61,5 62.6 63.7 64,8 65.8 15 20.8 ?1.9 23.0 24.2 ?5,3 26.4 27.6 28.7 29.9 31.0 32.1 33.3 U.4 35.6 s6J 37.9 39.0 4Q.2 41.3 42.5 43.6 44.8 4s.9 47.1 48.2 49.4 50,6 51.7 52.9 s4.O 55.2 56.3 57.5 58.7 59.8 61.0 62,1 63.3 64.5 65,6 66.8 68.0 69,1 70.3 71.4 20 22.8 24j 25,3 26.5 277 28.9 30.2 31.4 32.6 33,8 3s.1 36.3 s7.5 38.8 40.0 41.2 42.4 4s7 44.9 46.1 47.4 48.6 49.9 51.1 s2.3 53.6 s4.8 56.0 57.3 s8.s 59.7 61.0 62.2 63.5 64.7 65.9 67J 68.4 69.7 70.9 72j 7s.4 74.6 75.s 77.1 30 27.9 ?a.7 30.1 31,6 33.0 34.4 35.8 97.2 38.6 40.0 41.s 42.9 44.9 45.7 47.1 48.6 50.0 51.4 52.8 54.2 55,7 57j s8.5 59.S 61.3 62.8 64.2 65.6 67.0 68.5 69.9 71.3 72J 74.2 7s.6 77.O 78.4 79.8 81.3 827 84.1 8s.s 87.0 88.4 89.8 40 32.8 34.5 36.1 37.8 39.4 41.1 42.8 44.4 46.1 47.7 49.4 51.1 52.7 54.4 56.0 57.7 5e.4 61.0 62.7 64.4 66.0 67.7 6e.3 71.0 727 74.3 76.0 77.7 7s.3 81.o 82J 84.3 86.0 87,6 89.3 91.0 92.6 94.3 96.0 97,6 99.3 101. 103. 104. 106.

APPENDIXD

609

TAELED.l (Gontlnuedl ME 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 89 84 8s 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 s7 98 99 100 0.01 0.0s 41.4 42.2 43.0 43.8 44.6 45.4 46,e 47.0 47.8 48,6 49.4 50.2 s1.1 51.9 52.7 s3.5 54.3 55.1 56.0 s6.8 57.6 58.4 s9,3 60.'1 60.9 61.8 62,6 69.4 64,2 65.1 65.9 66.8 67.6 68.4 69.3 44.4 48.2 46.0 46,8 47.7 48.5 49.4 50.2 51.0 51.9 52,7 53.6 54.4 55,3 56.1 5S.9 s7,8 58.6 59,5 60.4 61.2 6e.1 62.9 63.8 fr.6 65.s 66.3 67.2 68.1 68.9 69.8 70.7 71.5 72.4 73.2 0.1 45.8 46.7 47.6 48.4 49.2 50.1 50.9 s1.8 52.7 53.6 s4.4 55.2 s6,1 56.9 57.8 58.7 59.5 60.4 61.3 62.1 63,0 63.9 M.7 65,6 66.5 67.4 68,2 69.1 70.0 70,9 71.7 72.6 73.5 74.4 75.2 0.5 50.1 51.0 51.9 52.8 53.7 54.6 55.5 56.4 57.3, 58.2 59.1 60.0 60.9 61.8 62,7 63.6 64.5 65.4 66.3 67.2 68.1 69.0 69.9 70.8 71.8 72.7 73.6 74.5 75.4 76.3 77.2 78.2 79.1 80.0 S0.9 1.0 52.4 53.4 54.3 s5,2 s6.1 57.0 58.0 58.9 59.8 60.7 61,7 62.6 63.5 64,4 65.4 66.3 67.2 68.2 69.1 70.0 70.9 71.9 72.8 73.7 74.7 75.6 76.6 77.5 78.4 79.4 S0.3 81.2 82.2 83.1 84.1 55.3 56.3 57.2 58.2 59.1 60.1 61.0 62.0 62.9 69.9 64.9 65.8 66,8 67.7 68.7 69.6 70.6 71.6 72.5 73.5 74,5 75.4 76.4 77.3 78,3 79.3 80.2 81.2 82.2 83.1 84.1 85.1 86.0 87.0 88.0 60.6 61.6 62.6 63.7 64.7 65.7 66.7 ts7.7 68"7 69.7 70.8 71.8 72.8 73.8 74.8 75.8 76.9 77.9 78.9 79,9 80.9 82.0 83,0 84.0 8s.0 86.0 87.1 88.1 89,1 90.1 91.1 92.2 93.2 94.2 95.2 10 66.9 68.0 69.1 7Q.2 71.3 7?.4 73.5 74.6 75.6 76.7 77,8 78.9 80.0 81,1 82.2 83.3 S4.4 85.5 86.6 87.7 88.8 89.9 91.0 92.1 93.1 94.2 95.3 96,4 97.5 98.6 99.7 101. 102. 103. 104.
15

20 78.3 79.6 80.8 82.1 83.3 84,6 8s.B 87.0 88.3 89.5 90.8 92.0 93.3 94.5 95.7 97.O S8,2 99.5 101. 102. 103. 104. 106, 107. 108. 109, 111, 112. 11 3 . 114.

30 91.2 92.7 94.1 95.5 96.9 98.4 99.8 101, 103. 104. 10s. 107. 108. 110. 111. 113. 114. 115. 117, 118. 120. 121., 123. 124. 126. 127. 128. 130. 131. 133.

40 108, 109. 111. 113. 114, 116. 118. 119. 121. 123. 124. 126, 128. 129. 131. 133" 134. 136, 138. 139. 141 , 143. 144. 146, 148, 149. 151. 1s3. 154. 156, 158. 1$9. 161. 163. 164.

72.6 73.8 74.9 76.1 77.3 78.4 79.6 80.S 81.9 83,1 84.2 85.4 86.6 87.7 88.9 90.1 91.2 92.4 93.6 94.7 9s.9 97.1 S8.2 99,4 101. 102. 103. 104. 105. 106.

108. 116. 134. 1 0 9 . 1 1 7 . 135. 110. 118. 137. 1 1 1 . 1 1 9 " 138. '11?. 121 . 140.

a/Vis the nufibef of servers. Th6 numericalcolumn hedingsindicateblocklngprobability(%).

610

APPENDIXD

TABLED.2 MaxlmumOfferedLoadVersusB, A|,and Flnite $ourceellla

N

M 2 '' r t ' 4 3 5 3 4 5 6 7 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 5 6 7 8 9 10 r5 6 7 I 10 12 15 20 7 I I 10 15 20 30 8 9 10 15 2Q 30

0.5 1 . 0 10 0002 ,0010 .0020 ,0100 .0200 .0400 .100 .202 .0002 .0008 ,001s .0075 ,0151 .0303 .077 .1s9 .0001 ,0007 .0013 ,0067 .0134 .0270 ,069 .143 . 0 0 0 1. 0 0 0 6 . 0 0 1 3 . 0 0 6 3 . 0 1 2 6 . 0 2 5 4 . 0 6 .5 136 .030 .023 .021 .019 .018 .067 .0s2 .046 .043 .041 .095 .074 .065 .061 .058 .212 .167 ,149 .139 .133 .300 .238 .213 .200 .191 .425 .342 .308 .289 .277 .678 .s60 .510 .482 .464

.01

0.1

15

20 .417 .341 .312 .298

30 .6ss .559 .s19 .498

.307 .246 .224 .213

.980 1.23 1.47 1.s7 .832 1.07 1.30 1.78 .787 .gs7 1.22 1.70 .731 .955 1.18 1,65 .707 .928 1.1s 1.6? .186 .317 .400 .685 .864 1.09 1.s0 1.95 2.31 2,65 3.35 .148 .254 .322 ,561 .715 .918 1.30 ,t.72 2.OB 2.42 3.13 .131 .227 .288 .505 .648 .837 1.20 1.62 1.97 2,g1 3.02 j22 .211 .268 .473 .609 .790 1.14, 1.5s 1.90 2.24 2.e5 .116 .201 .255 .452 .583 .759 1.10 1.51 1.85 2.19 2.90 ,111 .194 .246 .437 .s65 .737 1.Q7 1.47 1.82 2.16 2.86 .108 .1S8 .240 .426 ,551 .720 1.05 1.45 1.79 2.13 2.84 .100 j74 .222 .396 .514 .67s ,994 1.38 1.72 2,06 2.76 .500 .748 .889 1.33 1.59 1.89 2.24 2.98 3.43 3,86 4.76 .408 .617 .737 1.12 1.36 1.64 2.15 2.71 3.16 s.6o 4.51 .365 .554 .665 1.02 1.24 1.52 2.01 2.56 3.02 3.46 4.38 .340 .517 .621 .963 1.17 1.44 1.9? 2.47 2.93 3.37 4.30 .323 .492 .592 .922 1.13 1.39 1.86 2.4't 2.87 3.31 4.?4 .310 .4't4 .571 .892 1.09 1,35 1.82 2.36 2.82 g.27 4.20 .280 .429 .518 .816 1.00 1.25 1.71 2.24 2.7Q 3.14 4.08 .9s1 1.31 1.51 2.08 2.40 2]7 3,39 4.Q4 4.58 5.09,6.17 .794 1.11 1.28 1.80 2.10 2.45 s.o7 s.7s 4.28 4.80 5.91 .7161,00 1.16 1.66 1.94 2.29 2.90 3,56 4j2 4.65 5.77 .668 .940 1.04 1.56 1.84 2.18 2.78 3.45 4.01 4.55 5.68 .695 .896 1,09 1.50 1.77 2.11 2.71 3.s7 3.94 4.48 s.6.1 .592 .,839 .979 1.42 1.68 2.01 2,60 9.27 3.84 4.38 5.52 ,556 .791 ,924 1.35 1.60 1.92 2.51 3.18 3.74 4.2g 5.44 .525 ,748 .876 1.28 1.53 1.84 2.42 3.09 3.66 4.21 5.37 1.51 1.97 2.21 2.90 3.26 3.69 4.38 5.12 5.73 6.32 7.59 1.28 1.70 1.91 2.55 2.90 3.32 4.o2 4.78 5.41 6,02 7.g2 1.17 1.55 1.76 2.37 2.71 3.12 3.82 4.59 5.24 5.S5 7.17 1.09 1.46 1.6s 2.25 2.58 2.98 3.69 4.47 s.12 5.74 7.O7 .926 1.2s 1,43 1.97 2.29 2.68 3.38 4.17 4.84 s.48 6,84 .865 1.17 1.34 1.87 2j7 2.56 g.A6 4.OS 4.72 S.i7 E:74 .8131.10 1.27 1.77 2.O7 2.45 3.15 3.94 4.62 s.28 6.66 2,15 2.70 2.98 3,76 4j7 4.63 5.39 6.20 6.89 7.56 9.01 1.8s 2.36 2.62 3.36 3.7s 4.22 s.00 5.8s 6.56 7.25 8.74 1.70 2j7 2.42 3.13 3.52 3.99 4.78 5.64 6.97 7.07 8.s8 1.39 1.80 2.02 2.68 3.05 3.51 4.31 5.21 5.97 6.70 8.2s 1.28 1,67 1.88 2.52 2.88 3.33 4J4 s.Os s.81 6.s6 8.13 1.19 1.56 1.76 2.38 2.74 3,18 3.99 4.90 5,68 8.44 8.03

APPENDTx D

611

TABLED.2 (Continuedl

,v

M I 10 11 12 15 20 30 10 11 12 13 14 16 18 20 30 11 12 13 14 15 16 1B 2a 25 30 12 13 14 1s 16 17 18 20 2s 30 13 14 15 16 17 18 20 25 30

.01 2.85 2.49 2.25 2.16 1,93 1.76 1.63 3.59 3.18 2.94 2.78 2.66 2.50 2.39 2.31 2j2 4.38 3,91 3.63 3.45 3.31 3.20 3.04 2.93 2.75 2.65 s.19 4,68 4.37 4.15 3.99 3.86 3.76 3.60 3.36 3.32 6.03 5.47 5.13 4.88 4.7Q 4.56 4.34 4.03 3.85

.05 3.48 3,08 2.85 2.70 2.43 2.24 2.08 4.30 3.84 3.57 3,39 3.26 3.08 2.95 2.87 2.64 5.15 4.64 4.34 4.13 3.98 3.86 3.68 3,56 3.36 3,25 6.01 5.46 5.13 4.90 4.72 4.s9 4.48 4.31 4.04 3.90 6.90 6,31 5.95 5.69 s.50 5.35 5,'t2 4.77 4.s8

0.1 3.80 3.37 3.14 2.97 2.70 2A9 2.32 4.84 4.17 3.89 3.71 3.57 3.38 3.25 3.15 2.91 5.52 5.00 4.6S 4.47 4.32 4.19 4.01 3.88 3,68 3.56 6.41 5.85 5.51 5.27 5.09 4.95 4.84 4.66 4.39 4.24 7.31 6.72 6.35 6.09 5.90 s.74 5.51 5.16 4.96

0.5 4.65 4.20 3.94 3.77 3.46 3.23 3.03 5.57 5.O7 4.75 4.s9 4.44 4.33 4.09 3.99 3,73 6.49 s.97 5.65 5,43 5.27 s.14 4,95 4.81 4.s9 4.47 7.44 6,88 6.54 6.30 8.12 5.98 5.86 5.68 5.40 s.24 8.39 7.80 7.44 7.18 6.9S 6.83 6.60 6.24 6,04

t.0 5.09 4.64 4.38 4.20 3.89 3.65 3.45 6.03 5.54 5.26 5.06 4.91 4.70 4,56 4.46 4.19 6,98 8.47 6.16 5.94 5,78 5.6s s.46 5.32 5.10 4.98 7,95 7.40 7.O7 6.84 6.66 6.52 6,41 6.23 5.95 5.79 8.92 8.35 8.00 7.75 7.56 7.41 7.18 6,83 6.63 5.59 5.14 4.89 4.17 4.40 4.16 3.95 6.56 6,09 5.81 s.61 5.41 5.27 5.13 5.02 4.76 7.54 7.04 6.74 6.54 6.38 6.2s 6.07 5.93 5,72 s.59 8.53 8.01 7.69 7.47 7.30 7.17 7.06 6.88 6.62 6.46 6,41 6.00 5.76 5,59 5.29 5,06 4.86

10 7.30 6.92 6.71 6.56 6.29 6.07 5.89

15 8,05 7.71 7.51 7.37 7.13 6.93 6.77

20

30

8.80 10.4 8,48 10.2 8.2S 9.99 8.17 9.88 7.94 9.69 7.76 9.s4 7.61 9.41

7.44 8.39 7.OO 8.01 6,75 7.78 6.57 7.62 6.43 7,50 6.34 7.33 6.11 7.21 6.02 7.13 5,77 6.90 8.47 8.02 7.75 7,56 7.41 7.30 7.13 7.O1 6.81 6.69

9.22 10.0 11.9 8.87 5.72 1' 1.6 8.66 9.52 11.4 8.51 9.39 11.3 8.41 9.2S' |1.2 8.25 9.15 11.1 8.15 9.06 11.0 8.07 8.99 11.0 7.87 8.81 10.8 13.3 13.0 12.8 12.7 12.6 12.6 12.s 12.4 12.3 12.2 14.7 14.4 14.2 14.1 14.0 14.0 13.9 13.8 13.7 13.6

10

9.49 10.4 11.3 9.09 10,0 11.0 8"86 9.81 10.8 8.69 9:66 10'6 8.56 9.55 10.5 8.46 9.46 10.4 8.31 9.33 10,3 8,21 9.23 10.2 8.04 9,08 10.1 7.93 8.99 10.0 12.s 12,2 12.0 11.9 11.7 11.7 11.6 11.5 11.3 11.2

11

9.s0 10.6 11.6 9,04 10.2 11.2 8.76 9,94 11.0 8.56 9.77 10.8 8.40 9.63 10.7 8.28 9.s3 10.6 8.18 9,44 10.5 8.03 9.31 10,4 7.79 9.10 10.2 7.64 8.98 10,1

12

9,52 10.s 11.7 B.9B10.1 11.3 8.65 9.77 11.O 8.42 9.56 10,8 8.24 9.40 10.7 8.09 9.27 10.6 7.87 9.08 10.4 7.54 8.78 10,2 7.35 8.61 10.0

12.7 13.8 16.1 12.4 13.4 1s,8 '12.1 13,2 15.7 12.0 13.1 15.5 11.8 13.0 15,5 11.8 12.9 15.4 11.6 1e.8 1s,3 11.4 12.6 15.1 11,3 12.5 1s.0

the

numericalcolumn headingsindlcateblockingprobability(%).

GLOSSARY
lines. line codeusedin ISDN basicrateaccess 2BlQ. Four-level of a signal' 99Vo of theenergy containing 997oPowerbandwidth.Bandwidth dialing. Speed Abbreviateddiating. ,See point by Accesstandem. "switching systemwithin a LATA used as an access long-distance carriers." only a portionof a thataccesses Add-drop multiplexer (ADM). Networkelement point intermediate local at insert traffic an extract and higherlevel digital signalto of a route. Added-channelframing. TDM framing format utilizing an additionalchannelwith purposeof defining frame for the express channels the samerate as the message boundaries. Added-digit framing. TDM framingformatutilizing anadditionalbit in everyftame purpose of definingframe for the express repetitivesequence with a prescribed boundaries. Advanced mobile phone service (AMPS). Analog cellular mobile telephone standard of NorJhAmerica. +V, 0' -y. A signalwith values Alternate mark inversion(AMI) signal.Three-level (logic with 1) altemating (logic is encoded V. A with 0 mark space 0) is encoded -t/, refered pulses. Also 507o cycle duty of +Vand whichale nonnallyonly values to asa bipolarsignal. Alternate mark inversion violation. In AMI coding, the occunenceof two polarity.Also refenedto asa bipolarviolation. successive markswith the same by nonuniform signalcaused Amplitude distortion. Distortionof a transmission passband asa functionof frequency. attenuation of a carrierwavewith Amplitude modulation(AM). Modulationof the amplitude of a baseband signal. the amplitude sothatthe symbolfor a of encoding binarysignals Antipodal signaling. Technique I is theexactnegative of the symbolfor a 0. Antipodal signalingprovidesoptimum ratio. in termsof the signal-to-noise errorperformance 613

614

GLoSSAFY

Asynchronousnetwork. A networkin which the clocksof the transmission links andswitchingsystems arenot synchronized to eachother. Asynchronoustransfer mode (ATM). packet-switched methodof time division multiplexing(labeled multiplexing) utilizing fixed packet (cell) sizes of 53 bytes. Asynchronoustransmission.Mode of communication characterized by start-stop transmissions with undefined time intervals between transmissions. Each transmission burstgenerally contains a singleword or byteof information. Automatic call distributor (ACD). switching sy$temusedto evenly distribute incoming calls to a number of stationson a first-come,first-servedbasis. Applications includeoperator assistance andairlinereservations. Automatic number identification (ANr). process of identifyingandforwardinga callingnumber to networkcall conffolservices. Automatic repeat request (ARo. Error correctionprocess involving the use of redundant checkbits to detectcomrptedblocksof dataand triggerrequests for retransmission of the same. Availability. (l) With respect to switchingsystems: the numberof outletsavailable from a particular inlet.(2) with respect to equipment in general: thepercentage of time theequipment is providingacceptable service. Balancedcode. Line codewith equailyoccurringpositiveand negative energyro preclude a dc component in thefrequency spectrum. Baseband.Literally, the frequencyband of an unmodulated signal. A baseband signalis an information-bearing signalthat is eithertransmittea as is or usedto modulate a carier. Baud rate. unit of signalingspeed (symbols per second). For binary signaling the datarateis the same asthe baudrate.For multileveltransmission the datarateis equalto thebaudratetimeslog2(L),where L is thenumber of levels. Bipolar coding. ,See Altematemarkinversion. Bis. secondversion.Ter meansthree.For example,v.27bis and v.27ter are the second andthird versions of theV.27 standard, respectively. Bit leaking. Process of. convertingbyte-sizedtiming adjustments into multiple bit-sized or fractional bit-sized timing adjustments. Blockedcallscleared(BCC). Service discipline in whichunserviceable requests are rejected by thesystem withoutservice. Also calledlosrcallscleared (LCC). Blockedcalls held (BcH). servicediscipline in which unserviceable requesm sray "in thesystem" withoutbeingserviced but havinga portionof theirdesired service time elapse until service begins. Also calledlosrcallsheld (LCH). Blocking- Inabilityof a callingpartyto be connected to a calledparrybecause either all circuitsarebusyor thereis internal(matching toss)blockingwithin a switch matrix. Bridged tap. Extrapair of wiresconnected in shuntto a maincablepair.The extra pairis normallyopencircuited but maybeused at a futuretimeto connect themain

GLOSSAFY 615

but tapsdo not affectvoicefrequencysignals Shor.t-bridged pair to a newcustomer. canbe extremelydetrimentalto higherftequencydigital signals. Building integratedtiming supply (BITS)- Mastertiming supplyfor all equipment in a building. of a weet) in which the Busy hour. The 60-minuteperiod of a day (and sometimes is highest. offeredtraffic load average for negotiating responsible Call admissioncontrol (CAC). ATM controlprocess dependent on the traffic loads parameters for new connections quality-of-service of the networkat the time. Call congestion.Blockingprobabilityof a trunk group. for callsintended to reroute system of signaling a switching Call forwarding. Process a particularnumberto someothernumberon a temporarybasis. of insertinga shorttoneinto the voicepathof an activeuser Call waiting. Process informing the userthat anothercall is waiting to be connected. Catling number identiticafion (CM). Service whereby a telephonenetwork (or person) with incomingringing' provides theidentityof a callingnumber detection(CSMA/CD). Accessprotocol Carrier sensemultiple accesdcollision of flustny to detectthe presence for a commonbus or radio link in which sources If source is idle. another facility a carrier and then begin transmittingwhen the begins transmitting during a period of time correspondingto the maximum transmission cease andall actiyenodes transmission delay,acollisionis detected for a randomarrount of time. technique Carrierlessamplituddphase(CAP) modutation. QAM implementation followed by waveforms quadrature signal (DSP) filtered generation of usingdirect signal. for thecomposite DSPsummation per as so manyhundredcall seconds intensityexpressed of traffic CCS. Measure = I edang. CCS hour;36 the maximum that specifies Cell delay variation (CDV). An ATM QoSparameter delaythrougha network' rangeofcell propagation cell transfer delay (cTD). An ATM QoS parameterspecifying the average from its sourceto its destination. propagation time for a cell to be transferred Central office. Public network switchingoffice (and particularlythe switching Also referredto as an lines areconnected. machinewithin it) to which subscriber any switch in the public end office or class5 office. In a more generalsen$e, referredto asa centraloffice. networkis sometimes carrierto an Centrex service. Privateswitchingserviceprovidedby a local exchange switch. office central and softwarepartitionsof a organizationutilizing hardware first-level digital signalof the the 2.048-Mbps CEPT-|. Term usedto designate (More an EI signal') referred to a$ often fTU-T digital hierarchy. for each channels signaling signaling(CAS). Use of $eparate Channel-associated from the be separate may channels individual signaling channel. The message

616

GLoSSARY

message (asin El) or derived channels within themessage channels themselves (as in Tl). channel bank. Equipmentthat convertsmultiple analoginterfacesto and from a time-division-multiplexed digitalbit stream (24 analog io oneDSI or 30 analog to oneEl). Channel banksarealsousedfor FDM applications. channel service unit (csu)- Equipmentinstalledon customerpremises at the interfaceto phonecompanylines to terminatea DDS or Tl ciicuit to provide networkprotection anddiagnostic capabilities. Also calleda customer service unit. circuit Emulation service (cEs). An ATM servicein which constant-bit-rare virtualcircuitsuseAALI adaptation to emulate anend-to-end physical circuit. Circuit switching. The principleof establishing an end-to-end connecrion between usersof a network. The associated facilities are dedicated to the particular connection andheldfor theduration of thecall. clear-channelcapability.Ability to providea transparenr 64-kbps channel through a North American network(usingBSZSandcommon-channel signaling). clock. Time base usedto controlthe transfer of digitalinformation. C'message weighing. Selective atlenuation of voiceband noisein accordance wifh the subjectiveeffects as a function of frequency (noise weighting filter characteristic usedin NorthAmerica). codec(coder-decoder). Integrated circuit providing analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog conversion of voicesignals. coded mark lnversion (cMr). Two-levelline codein which a binary 0 is coded with a positivelevel and an equal-magnitude negative level for half a unit time intervaleach. A binaryI is coded with a full-periodpositiveor negative levelin an alternating manner to maintain dc balance. coherent demodulation. Demodulation using a carier reference that is synchronized in frequency andphase to thecarrierused in themodulation process. common-channelsignaling. use of a separate channeldedicated to tran$port of signaling information pertaining to a multiplenumberof message channels. community dial office (cDo). small, normallyunanended switchingsystem thatis usedin smallcommunities andis controlled from a rarger centrar o}fice. companding. Process of compressing a signalat the source andexpanding it at the destinationto maintain a given end-to-enddynamic range whiie reducing the dynamicrangebetween the compressor-expander. concentration. Process of switching somenumber of lighfly used channels or sources ontoa smaller number of moreheavilyusedchannels. Conferencecall. Call in which threeor morestations areinterconnected in a manner that allows all parriesto talk andbe heardby all otherparties. connection admissioncontrol (cAc). An ATM functionthatdetermines whether a vifiual circuit (vc) connection request should be accepted or rejected. constant (or continuous)bit rate (cBR). An ATM classof service that supports transmission of a continuous datarate.

GLOSSARY 617

modulated carrierwith no or phase) Constantenvelope.A (frequency the carrieramplitude. Controlled stip. Slip involving the repetitionor deletionof an integralnumberof TDM frames. so that an input arranged array of crosspoints Crossbar switch. Rectangular switched to any output can input$ be to a row of crosspoint connected outputs. to a columnof crosspoint connected from onecircuitinto another' signaltransfer Crosstalk. Unwanted Custom Local Area Signaling Services(CLASS). Signalingservicefor analog call' telephone between thefirst two ringsof anincoming linesprovided telephone are Caller ID, Call Return,Call by CLASS services enabled Principalfeatures Dialing' PriorityRinging,andRepeat Call Forwarding, Preferued Screening, packet network). point view (from the of a of message Datagram. Singlepacket telephone DataphoneDigital Service(DDS). Serviceoffering of common-carder 1544 kbps. 4.8, or at 9.6, 56, 2.4, providing channels digital companies relativeto I mW' dBm. Powerlevel in decibels in decibels weighting expressed dBrnC. Power level of noise with C-message noisepoweris -90 dBm = 10-l?W. noise. Reference relativeto reference dBrnC0. Noise power measuredin dBmC but referencedto the eero-level level point. transmission involvingthe useof technique Decision feedbackequalization(DF'E).Equalization that are responses in a receiver channel produce simulated to values deftcteddata to cancel channel signal Samples received from subsequent then subtracted distortion. by continuously signal ananalog for digitallyencoding Deltamodulation.Technique signal Theanalog only thepolarityof thesignalslope. andtransmitting measuring of theinput' asa staircase approximation is reconstructed traffic. (offered traffic not includingretries.) Demandtraffic. First attempt Desynchronizer. Circuitry that extractsa tributary digital signalfrom a composite, of thetributary. clock frequency the source higherlevel signalandderives Digitat advanced mobile phone service (D-AMPS), Digital mobile telephone of North America,alsoknownastS-I36 TDMA. standard of increasing the numberof voice Digital circuit muttiplication {DCM). Process compression theuseof speech link through on a digitaltransmission carried signals removalor both. or silence multipledigitalsignals for transporting Digitsl loop carrier (DLC). A TDM system lines. to andfrom multiplesubscriber changes PCM samplevaluesfor the putposeof pad. that Digitat circuit Digitat signal. theencoded analog (attenuating) power level of the adjusting by (DBS)system developed satellite system(DSS). Directbroadcast Digital satetlite Corporation. Electronics Hughes

618

GLOSSAHY

Digital speechinterpolation (DSI). Dieital equivalenr of rASI whereindigital speech signals aremonitored andconnected to a hansmission channel only when voiceactivityis present (a form of DCM). Digital video broadcasting(DvB) group. European digitat rv standard for TV, audio,anddata.DvB canbe broadcast via satellite or terrestrial systems. Direct broadcastsatellite(DBS)- One-way TV broadcast service from a sarellite to a small l8-in. dishantenna. Direct inward dialing (D.rD). process of a publictelephone networkprovidingpBX extension numbers with incomingcalls. Double-sideband modulation. Modulationtechnique in which a baseband signal with no dc energydirectly modurates a carrier to produceboth upper and lower sidebands but no carrierenergy. Dual'tone multifrequency (DTMF) signaling. Generic name for pu$h-button telephone signaling equivalenr to theBell Sysrem's TOUCH_TONE. Dynamic rflnge. Rangeof power levels(minimumto maximum)achievabre by a signalor specified for equipment operation. E&M lead signaling. Interfacebetweena switchingsystemand a transmission system utilizingpairsofwires for signaling thatareseparate from thevoicepairs. outgoing controlsignals from eachfacility arecardedby respective M-leadsto E-leads of theotherfacility. Echo canceler.Devicethatremoves talkerechoin the returnbranchof a four-wire circuit by subtracting a delayed versionof the signalhansmitted in the forward path. Echosuppressor.Devicethatis activated by voiceenergy in onepathof a four-wire circuit to inserta high amountof signallossin the otherpathior the purpose of blockinganecho. Echo. Reflectedand delayedsignal.common sources of echo in the telephone networkareelectrical reflections at four-wireto two-wireconversions andacoustic reflections with speakerphones. Edge switch. An ATM switch providing gareway interfaces to non-ATM communication links. Elastic store. First-in,first-out databuffer that accepts dataunderconftol of one clockandoutputs dataundercontrolof another clock. Electronic automatic exchange(EAx). Designationof stored-program control switching machines developed by cenerarrelephoneandErectronic*s. Electronic switching system (ESs). Designation of stored-program conhol switching machines developed by AT&T. End office.class5 switching office.Arsoreferred to asa centraloffice. Envelopedelay. Derivativeof channelphaseresponse with respect to frequency. Ideally, the phaseresponse should be linear, indicating ttrat att frequencies are delayed equally.

GLOSSAHY 619

Envelopedetector. Methodof detectingamplitudemodulationby trackingonly the peakvalues of a carrierwave. with fixed or distortions for transmission of compensating Equalization. Practice circuitry. adaptive of the utilization of a Erlang. Measureof traffic intensity.Basically,a measure (e.g.,the average number of busycircuitsin a kunk group,or theratio of resource time an individualcircuitis busy). at leastI bit error. Error second.A l-sec intervalcontaining purposes that for administrative defined areaof service Exchange area. Contiguous countryside theimmediate anenriretownor city andincludes typicatlycomprises areamay have one end office or many end offices An exchange and suburbs. offices. interconnected by trunksandtandem of output ontoa largernumber of Expansion. Switchingof a number inputchannels channels. diagnostic Extended superframe format (ESF). A Tl framing format that embeds framing channel. the DSI 8-kbps data into link anda facility capabilities link failuredefinedas 10 consecutive (FS). (ESF) transmission An Failed seconds errored seconds. severely or circuit from onechannel energycoupled Far-end crosstalk(FEXT). Unwanted link. transmission of the far end at the and circuit appearing another into Fiber distributed data interface (FDDI). High-bandwidthfiber transmission networks. local area for interconnecting system for a queue. discipline FIFO. First-in,first-outservice for controlling the rate of transferof Flow control (in data network). Procedure packets from onenodeto another. officeto a from oneswitching of service circuit (FX). Extension Foreignexchange office, by a differentswitching subscriber normallyserviced Forward error correction (FEC). Error correction techniquewith sufficient errorswithoutretransmission. into thesignalfor correcting redundancy embedded channelsfor each direction of Four-wire circuit- Circuit using two separate is transmission.When wireline transmission involved, each direction of pair of wires. is provided by a separate transmission clippedin a TASI or DSI system of speech thatSets loss. Fraction Fractionalspeech begin. when spurts talk arein use all channels because andendof a TDM frameusinga beginning of the Frame aliSnment. Identification pattern, framing daia time slots in a TDM format in which the positionof Frame. Set of consecutive signal' to a framealignment be slots identifiedby reference time can individual the useOfoneor moreback'uptransmitters, Frequencydiversity. In radio systems (multipath)fadingatmospheric to protectagainst channels, andreceivers

620

cLossAny

Frequencydivisionmuttiplex (FDM). Partitioning thebandwidth of a rransmission link into separate channels of lesserbandwidttr into which separate signalsare inserted andextracted. Frequencymodulation (FM). Moduration process that variesthe frequency of a carriersignalin accordance with a baseband information signal. n'requencyshift keying ff'sK). Digital modutationtechnique in which data are represented by discrete frequencies. n'ricative. speechsoundproduced with continuous air flow throughone or more vocaltractrestrictions to cause air turbulence (friction).Example fricativesounds ares,f, t, x, orj, Full'duplex. Transmission in two directionssimultaneously (also referredto as simplya duplexoperation). Gateway network element (GNE). A soNET node with an interface to unsynchronized tributarysignals. Gaussian noise. Background noisewith a uniformfrequency spectrum across a band of interestand havingamplitudesamplevaluesthit foliow a normal(gaussian) probabilitydistribution. Glare. simultaneous seizureof both endsof a two-way trunk by two switching machines trying to setup two separate connections. Global positioning system(Gps). Global satellitenavigationsystem commonry usedby telecommunications sy$tems as a time and friquency synchronization source. Half'duplex transmission.Transmission in bothdirections but only in onedirection at a time. HDB3. Modified AMI (bipolar)line codein which stringsof four 0,s areencoded with an AMI violationin thelastbit. Head'of-line hlocking. Blocking of cells or packets in a FIFO queuebecause the nextenffry cannot be serviced while otherentries in thequeue couldbe serviced. Highway. A TDM pathinsidea digital (TDM) switching machine. Hook flash. Momentarydepression of the switchhookto alert afl operatoror equipment, but not solong asto be interpreted asa disconnect. Hot standby. Redundant equipment kept in an operational mode as backupfor primaryequipment. usually,automatic switchingiothestandby equipment occurs whentheprimaryequipment fails. Huffman coding. processof assigningvariabreJength digitar codewordsto a message set whereinthe length of a codewordis inverselyproportional to the probabilityof occurrence of respective messages. Thus a freiuentty hansmitted message requires fewerbits thanthe average rength of all messages.' Hybrid fiber coax(HFc). cable terevision distribution system involvingrheuseof fiber in the feederportion of the networkfrom a head-end to fiber nodesfollowed by coaxdrop$to residences in neighborhoods.

GLossAHY 621 Hybrid. Device used to connecta two-wire, bidirectionalcircuit to a four-wire circuit. of speech' intervals duringsilence Idle channelnoise. Noiseoccurring link when transmission inserted into a synchronous Idle character. Controlcharacter thereis no informationto be sent' spike of noise that is much larger than randomly Impulse noise. Short-duration (Gaussian) noise. disnibuted within the samechanneland band of Inband signaling. Signalingtran$mitted toaffic. frequencies usedfor message (IDN). Network in which digital TDM transmission Integrated digital network matrices. into digitalTDM switching links aredirectlyinterfaced Integrated servicesdigitat network (ISDN). Integrateddigital network in which andone channel ofa signaling with directaccess interfaces areprovided subscriber channels. or moredigital64-kbps Intercept. Processof diverting a caII from an intendedstation to an operatoror recorded announcement. International Telecommunications Union (ITU). International standards ITU-T)theCCITT in Marchof 1993(renamed that subsumed organization setof networksusingTCP/IP suite. Internet. Connected by a systemcaused in a transmission Intersymbol interterence (ISD. Interference time the sample overlapping spread out and internal being one signaling symbolin signalinterval. of a symbolin another Jitter. Short-termvariationsof the significantinstant$of a digital signalfrom their to ideal positionsin time. Short-termvariationsare often defined to correspond above10He. frequencies group that defineshow Joint photographic experts group (JPEG). ISO standards still pictures. to compress therateof digital signalby adding Justifrcation (pulsestuffing). hocess of adapting bits at a sourceinterfaceandextractingthe samebits at non-information-carrying interface. a destination (pulse-stuffing) to synchronize rateused Justificationratio. Ratioof thejustifrcation justificationrateallowedby a higher a hibutarysignalto the maximumpossible level multiplex format. (A justification ratio of { implies one-third of the rate adjustrnentopportunitiesare null bits and two-thirds of the opportunitiesare fributarydatabits.) thatallowsusers switching system premises telephone Key system. Small,customer lines (andreceivedial tonefrom a cenffaloffice). to directly selecttelephone LAN Emulation. An ATM serviceoffering that emulatesEthernetor token ring LANs. Line administration. SeeLoad balancing.

622

GLossARy

Line code. Setof electrical (or optical)waveforms chosen to represent datafor the purpose of transmission. Load balancing. Adjustingthe assignment of very activecustomer linesso that all groupsof customer lines in a multistage switchreceiveapproximately the same amount of traffic. Loading coils. Lumped-element inductors inserted at periodicpointsin cablepairs to flattenouttheirvoicefrequency response. Althoughloading coilsimprovevoice frequency ffansmission, theyseverely attenuate higherfrequJncies asrequired for digitaltransmission. Local access and transport area (LATA). serviceareaof a local exchange carrier (localoperating company). Longitudinal current. Electrical current passing alonga pair of wiresin a common direction.Contrast Metalliccurrent. Loop start. Off-hook signalingprotocolinvolving theflow of dc current between the tip andthering of a subscriber loop. Loop timing. Synchronizing the hansmit timing of a bidirectionallink to the received timing of the same link. Lost calls cleared(alsolosssystem).Modeof operation in whichblockedcallsare rejectedby the networkandmay or may not return. Lost catls held. Mode of operation that holdsblockedcall requesrs until a channel becomes available. Theportionof a call thatgetsblockedis lost. Mfil networkmultiprexing equipment usingbit stuffing {ltiplexer. Asynchronous for 28 individual1.544-Mbps Dsl signals to createa1/..ii6-lvrbpsns3 signal. Main distrlbuting frame (MDF). Framework usedto crossconnect ourside plant cablepairs to centraloffice switching equipment.The MDF providesprotection andtestaccess to theoutside plantcablepairs. Management lnformation base(MrB), coilectionof software definedobjects that canbe accessed via a networkrnanagement protocol(e.g.,sNMp or TMN). Master clock. Particularlyaccurate and stablefrequencysourcefrom which various nodesin a networkextracttheir operatingfrequency(clock). Master frame. set of consecutive TDM framesthat areidentifiedby a masterframe alignment signal(MAS). Matching loss. Blockingwithin a mulristage switchmahix resultingfrom at least onelink in all suirable pathsthroughthematrixbeingbusy. Maximum time interval error (MTrE). Largesttime interval error occurring in all possible measurement intervals of lengths within a measurement periodT. Message switching. practiceof transporting complete messages from a $ource to a destination in non-real time and without interaction between source and destination, usua.lly in a store-and-forward fashion. Messageunit accounting. Activity-based billing as opposed to flat-ratebilling, whichis independent ofusage.

GLOSSARY 623

directions in a wire pair asa resultof Metallic current. Currentflowing in opposite alongthe pair. ContrastLongitudinalcurrent' a differencesignalpropagating Minimum shift keying (MSK). Digital frequencyshift modulation wherein the of a frequencyshift is theminimum amountrequiredto producea 180" magnitude shift in a symbolinterval. of phase A deviceusedto Modem. Contractionof the termsmodulationand demodulation. "voicelike" lines.A modem telephone transmission over generate datasignals for "data Bell terminology. in older System to asa set" is referred applications' method for interoffice used Multifrequency (MF) signaling, Signaling tonesto encode10 digits andfive special MF signaling usestwo of six possible auxiliarysignals. signalfollowstwo phenomenon in whicha singletransmit Multipath. Transmission pathsto a receiverwith differing delays. or moreseparate signalfor of combiningmultiple signalsinto a composite Muttiplexing. Process overcoilrmon facilities. transmission a networkin which for synchronizing Mutually synchronized network. Technique all nodes derive their operating frequency as the average of their own of somenumberof othernodes andthefrequencies free-rUnning clock frequency in thenetwork. in one energycoupledfrom a ffansmitter Near-endcrosstalk(NEXT). Unwanted location(nearend). of another circuit at the same circuitinto a receiver Network element (NE). Internal node of a SONET network whoseintetfacesare signals of theSONEThierarchy. a is the function of supervising Network management.Network management maximumutilization of the networkunderall networkto ensure communications and, when necessary, requiresmonitoring,measuring, conditions.Supervision actionto control the flow of traffic. capable of using Next generationdigital loop carrier (NGDLC). A DLC system to theBellcoreGR 303 links andprovidingbasiccompliance SONETtransmission standard. Nonblocking. Switchingnetworkthat alwayshasa freepathfrom anyidle incoming trunk or line to any idle outgoingkunk or line. Nonreturn to zero (NRZ). Line code that switches directly from one level to of a signalinterval. Eachlevel is heldfor the duration another. to extractall informationin an raterequired Nyqulst rate. (1) Minimum sampling analogwaveform.The Nyquist rate is equalto twice the bandwidthof the signal rate B, the maximum (2) In a baseband with a bandwidth channel beingsampled. (28) that pulsescanbe transmitted without intersymbolinterference. seryiceor in use. receiveris requesting Off hook. Stateor conditionthat a telephone or of acfivestatus a telephone line. signalto indicate Also a supervisory Offered traffic. Amount of traffic carried by a systemassumingthe systemhas doesnot block or delayanycalls. andtherefore inJinitecapacity

624

clossAny

On hook. Inactivestatus of a telephone or line. One-waytrunk. Trunk circuitthatcanbe seized at only oneend. Open systems interconnection(OSI). Communications protocolreference model introduced by ISo consisting of seven layers(physical, link, network,transport, presentation, session, application). out'of-band signaling. signaling technique thar u$esthe samepath as message traffic but a portion of the channelbandwidthaboveor below that usedfor voice. Pair-gain system. subscriber transmissionsystem that serves a number of subscribers with a smaller number of wire pairsusingconcentration, multiplexing, or both. Parity. Process of addinga redundant bit to a group of informationbits to maintain eitherodd or evennumbers of l's in the composite groupof bits. A parity error results if an oddnumberof l's is detected whenevenparityis transmitted or vice versa. Partial-response signallng (pRS). use of controlledintersymbolinterference to increase thesignaling ratein a givenbandwidth. Permanentvirtual circuit (pvc). virtual circuit(x.25), virtualconnection (Frame Relay), or vinual channel connection(ATM) that emulatesa leased-line connection, Personalcommunicstions system(pcs). Digiral mobile cellular telephone sysrem operating in l9fi)-MHz frequency bands in North America(1g50-1910 MHz for mobileto base starion1930-lgg0 MHz for basesrarion to mobile). Per-trunk signaling. Method of signaling in which rhe conrrol information pertaining to a pafricularcall is transmitted over the samecircuit (channel) that carries the call. Phasedistortion. Signaldistortionresultingfrom nonuniform delayoffrequencies within thepassband. Phase reversalkeying(PRK). specialcase of phase shiftkeyinginvolvingonly two phases l80o apart. Phase shift keying (PSK). Formof digitalmodulation thatuses Zndistinctphases to represent n bits ofinformationin eachsignalinterval. Plesiochronous digital hierarchy (pDH), Designation of the original digital multiplexing hierarchy utilizing free-running clocks at all leiels of the multiplexing hierarchy. Pleslochronous. Method of network synchronizationinvolving the use of independent (unsynchronized but highly accurate) clocksat thesame nominalrate. Pointer burst. In soNET, the occurrence of multiple pointerjustificationevents (PJEs) of onepolaritywithin the time constant of a desynchronizer circuit. Pointer justiflcation event (pJE). changein a pointervalueto accommodate phase drift.

GLOSSARY

625

Polar signaling. Two-level line coding for binary datausing balanced(symmetric) levels. positiveandnegative of signalpowerasa functionof frequency. Powerspectraldensity. Distribution Primary referencesource (PRS). Top level (Stratum1) clock sourcewith an of+l v lfl-tt. accuracy rings for incomingcall discriminationin which a telephone Priority ringing. Feature phone setof numbers, for callsfrom a select ringingpattern with a special Private branch exchange(PBX). Switchingequipmentused by a companyor andaccess to thepublicnetwork. switching organization to providein-house message taffic from onefransmission of transferring Protection switching. Practice in somefashionor link whenthe formeris degraded link to a spafetransmission upgrades. te$tsor equipment for maintenance facilitiesin suppotlof a particularservice or Provisioning. Allocating deallocating (tuming off;. a seryice on or offering by CCIfi. filter recommended Noise-weighting weighting. Psophometric analog a continuous Pulseamplitude modulation (PAM). hocess of representing of thesamples are Theamplitudes samples. of discrete-time waveformwitha series analog in nature. and therefore continuous into discrete PAM samples of converting Pulsecodemodulation (PCM). Process by digitalcodewords. levelsrepresented Pulsestuffing. SeeJustification. signalingon each channelmodulafionusing partial-response QPRS. Quadrature channel. amplitudemodulationof Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). Independent usingthe samecarrierfrequency. two orthogonalchannels by a the discretesamplevaluerepresented Quantlzation noise. Differencebetween digital codeandthe original analogsamplevalue. typeof pulse channel with a particular channel. Digital transmission Raised-cosine times of adjacent at that produces no intersymbolinterference the sample response "raised ofthe the form is from cosine" derived intervals. Thedesignation signaling (l or cosine squared). frequency spectrum + cosine analytical ATM switch a multiple-stage input of stage a cell backto an Recirculation. Passing in an blocking because it encountered be discarded whenthecell wouldotherwise outputstage. Reframing time. Amount of time it takes to detect and synchronizeto a frame signal. alignment Regeneration. Process of recognizing and restoring a digital signal before perturbafions to the point that bit elrors occur' of the signalaccumulate and retransmita Regenerativerepeater. Device usedto detect,amplify, reshaPe, digital bit stream.

626

GLossAFty

Return loss. Difference in decibels between reflected andincident energy at a signal reflection point. Ringback. Signaling tonereturned by switching equipment to a callerindicating that a calledpartytelephone is beingalerted (ringing). Ringing voltage. Low-frequency ac signalusedto activate theringerof a telephone (typically,a20-Hzsignalat 90 V rms). Robbedbit signaling.NorthAmerican practice pCM bit of usingtheleastsignifrcant of everysixthframefor channel-associated signaling. Router. Store-and-forward packet-switching element that processes packetheaders anddetermines an appropriate outputrink for each packet usingroutingtabres and routingprotocols. severelyerrored seconds (sES). An (ESF)transmission link performance measure definedastheoccurrence of 320or moreerrored seconds. Sidetone.Portionof a talker'ssignalthatis purposely fedbackto theearpiece sothat thetalkerhears his or her own speech. signaling. Exchange of electricalinformation(otherrhanby speech) specifically concemed with the establishment andcontrolof connections andmanasement in a communication network. simple network managementprotocol (sNMp). standardprotocolfor perforrning networkmanagement functions (created by theIntemetcommunity). Simplextransmission.Mode of operation involving transmission in onedirection only. singing. Audibleoscillation of a telephone circuitcaused by a netamount of gainin a four-wire$egment of thecircuit. Singlemodefiber. Fiberthatis narrowenough to preclude ffansmission of anoptical signalalongmorethanonepath. single-frequency (sF') signating. Methodof conveying dial-pulse andsupervision signals from oneendof a trunk or line to the otherusingthepresence or absence of a singlespecified frequency. A 2600-Hz toneis commonlyused. slip. Deletionor repetitionof datain a datasffeamcaused by an over{lowor an underflow of an elastic store due to variations in the write and read rates. A controlled slip is a deletionor repetition of an entireframeof datasotheposition of theframingbits is undisturbed. Slopeoverload. Saturation oftherangeofdifference signalsinadifferential encoder caused by a signalwith a large, rapidchange in amplirude, soNET island. collection of one or more soNET GNEs and NEs that createa continuous SONETpathfor a digital signal. spacediversity. In radiosystems, theuseof two receiving antennas andpossibly two separate receiversto provide protection against atmosphere-induced signal attenuation (fading).

GLOSSARY 62f

in a multistageswitch than there are Spaceexpansion. Use of more centerstages array. from a last-stage arrayor outputs inputsto a first-stage banks. T1 line from endto endbut not includingchannel Spanline. Repeatered an often*calledtelephone code to represent Speeddiating. Use of a short address in a PBX or endoffice providingsucha The commoncontrolcomputer number. the shortcodeinto the desirednumber. seryicehanslates Spread spectrum. Processof distributing an information-bearingsignal acrossa of thesignal. bandwidth thatis muchwiderthantheinherent bandwidth areconnected' Star network. Networkwith a singlenodeto which all othernodes capacity kansmission Statisticalmultiplexor ($tat-mux). Multiplexerthat assigns transmitting actively the is tributary to a tributary only when the source of information. (SXS)switch. Elecffomechanical usingstep-by-step switchingsystem Step-by-step is dialed. each up as digit progressively a connection set switchelements to switching. Stored-programcontrol (SPC). Computer-controlled on stratumlevel of a clock depending Stratum clock. Definition of free-runaccuracy network. in synchronization ratio. Stuff Rstio. SeeJustification or to control Supervisory signal. Signal used to indicate the statusof a on theline. equipment wide-area Switchedmultimegabit data service(SMDS). Public,packet-switched carriers. offeredby common service datacommunications restswhenit is not handset Switchhook. Hook or buttonsuponwhich a telephone beingused. Symbolrate. SeeBaudrate. Synchronizer.Circuitry that insertsa nibutary digital signal into a higher level justification(pulsestuffing)in theproce$$. multiplexed signalandperforms nodesoperateat Synchronousnetwork. Network in which the clocks of separate rates. identical signal in which discrete transmission.Mode of digital transmission Synchronous (symbols) rate. at a fixed andcontinuous aretransmitted elements Synchronous. Mode of operationin which two or more pieces of equipmentof thesame ratefor anindefiniteamount at preci$ely networkperformtheir operation$ of time. The rateof operationis derivedby distributionof a timing reference. process thatintegrates networklayer(layer3) Tag switching. Fastpacket-switching (layer and protocol 2) switching to simplify address routing and data link layer processing. Talker echo. Ponion of a talker's voicethat is retumedto thetalker andheardby the on both the amountof to a talker is dependent talker. The amountof annoyance returning signal. of the delayandthe amplitude

628

cLos$ARy

Tandemoflice. In general, any intermediate switchusedto establish a connection. In specific terminology, a tandem officeis a switchusedto interconnect endoffices in an exchange area. TASI. Time assignment speech interpolation, the practice of concentrating a group of voicesignals ontoa sma]ler groupof channels by dynamically switching activl voicesignals to idle channels. Ternary coding. use of all states of a three-level codeto sendmorethan I bit of informationin a singlesymbol.This is in contrast to bipolarcoding,which uses three levels, but only one of two in any particularinterval. one methodof interfacingbinary datato a ternaryline codeis to encode 4 bits with threeternarv (483T). symbols Tie line. Dedicated circuitconnecting two privatebranch exchanges. Time compression multiplex. Transmitting in two directions on a single transmission link using altematingdirections of transmission ("ping-pong" transmission). Time congestion.Ratio of time that all facilitiesof a sy$tem arebusy(congesred). Time congestion refersto the status of the system anddoesnot necessarily imply thatblockingoccurs. Time deviation (TDEV). Square root of thetime variance (TVAR). Time division multiplexing (TDM). sharinga rransmission link amongmultiple usersby assigning time intervalsto individualusersduringwhich they havethe entirebandwidth of a system. Time expansion.Useof moretime slotson internallinks of a switchthanexist on external links. Time interval error (TrE). variation in time delay of a given signalrelative to an idealtiming signalovera particular time period. Time variance (TVAR). Measure of the expected time variationof a signalas a functionof time separation. Traffic carried. Amount of raffic canied (by a group of circuits or a group of switches) duringany periodis the sum of the holding timesexpressed in hours

(cclrr).

Trafric engineering.Networkmanagement activitythat analyzes average andpeak traffic loadsto determine how to designor reconfigurea networkto maximizethe traffic capacity of the network and to ensurean acceptable value of blocking probability. Traflic flow. Amount of traffic (in erlangs or ccs) carried or offered to a transmission link or switching sy$tem. Transhybrid loss. Amountof isolation(in decibels) between go andrerurnparhs on thefour-wiresideof a four-wireto two-wirehybrid. Transmission levelpoint (TLP). specification, in decibels, of thesignaltr)ower ara point in a transmission systemrelative to the power of the samesignal at a (hypothetical) zerotransmission levelpoint (0_TLp).

GLOSSARY 629

to TDM FDM voicesignals thatconvefls Transmultiplexer(transmux). Equipment voicesignals andvice versa. equalizerutilizing a tappeddelay line and Transversal equalieer. Time-domain weightingcoefficientsat eachof the tapsto removeintersymbolinterference. indicating messages connection setup Traveling classmark. Codethataccompanies may provisions that be desired' of the service request andany special thenature systems. between two switching Trunk. Circuitor channel at eitherendof thecircuit. Two-wny trunk. Trunk circuitthatcanbe seized Two-wire circuit. Circuit consistingof a single pair of wires and capableof in opposite directions. carryingtwo signals simultaneously polarity pulses single andzerovoltagefor thetwo Binary code line using Unipolar. codinglevels. pulsepositions at a specif,ied in timebetween Unit interval (UI). Nominaldifference datarate. Unspecifiedbit rate (UBR). Classof serviceof ATM without specificquality referredto as"besteffort" service. assurances sometimes User datagram protocol (UDP). An Internet protocol without network delivery (I-ost or erroredpacketsarenot retransmitted.) guarantees. aslong as of ATM with qualityassurances Variablebit rate(VBR). Classof service andpeakdatarates' average to preestablished the sourceadheres of one discrete Vector quantization. Choosing one codeword representative waveformhasthe waveformof a set of discretewaveformssuchthat the selected of thesignalbeingencoded. bestmatchto a segment transmissionthat Vestigiat sideband transmission.Form of single-sideband of carrierenergyamount a small and includesa vestigeof the deletedsideband networkthroughwhich all packets Virtual circuit. Paththrougha packet-switched "connection" flow. associated with a particular Waiting time jitter. Timing jitter causedby waiting for a timing adjustment arises' opportunitybeyondthe time whenthe needfor an adjustment signalfrom their of a digital instants Wander. Long-termvariationsof thesignif,rcant less frequency phase of oscillations longtermimplies idealpositions in time,where each is specified for point (typically Hz) that l0 thanor equalto a demarcation interfacerate. to Wavelengthdivisionmultiplexing (WDM). Useof multipleopticalwavelengths signals. optical multiple carry in which a bandof interest across spectrum White noise. Noisewith a flat frequency or lower havezerocorrelation. takenat twicethebandwidth samples (WATS). Service thatpermitscustomers services Wide area telecommunications calls long-distance to make(OUTWATS)or receive(INWATS or 800 Service) andto havethembilled on a bulk basisratherthanindividually. packet-switched networks. protocolstandard for accessing X.25. International

PROBLEMS TOSELECTED ANSWERS

mWC 1.1 2000pWC, 2(10)-6 1.3 500pwC 1.5 250pW at -3 dB TLP 3.r l kHz,2 kHz, 3 kHz 3.2 2.43dB degradation 3.4 49.4Mbps 3.6 38.5dB 3.8 0/110/0110 3.10 23.5dB 3.14 (a) 13;(b) 33 (c) Quantization Sample Noise 30.2 .2

123.2 -2336.4 8080.9

-.8 .4 .9

NoisePower .04 .64 .16 .81

SQR(dB\ 43.6 43.7 75.3 79.1

(b) 1.76dB 3.17 (a)3 dB by 20.6dB 3.19 SQRincreases 1, and I /110/000 I (noninverted) 1,0/I 10/000 l, 1/110/000 3,21 0/l I 0/000 4.1 37.5bits 4.3 1.76dB frametime = .097seconds. 4.5 (a) Average (b) Maximumaverage time = 0.193seconds. reframe 4.7 141bits 4.9 94 ms (b) 3.78dB 4.ll (a) 1.99dB (c) 18 (b) 19 4.15 (a) 81 631

632

ANSwERSToSELEcTEDpHoBLEMS

4.17 +l (a) (b) (c) l+D l-D l-D2 -3 |, -4 +l

a

-1

0
a

+4 0

+2

+ 2 + 4 +2

+ 0 +4

6 -

0 6 -6

250 (a)621 (a).11 (b) .2s (a)55,296 (a)4l (b) 10,828 (a) Total number of memory bits = 48,0fi). (b) Complexity = 1504. 5.11 900bits (a) .5 dB degradation NewBERis l(10)-8 1600 Hz (a) lTVoof peaksignalpower. (b) 15.3dB reduced errordistance. (a) 6.7 7.14dB advantage for 32-QAM. (b) 4.78dB advantage for 32-QAM. 6.9 1l.2 dB degradation in eruor distance 6.11 1.5(161*r 6.13 3 d B 6.1 6.2 6.4 6.5 7.1 195Bits if thereceiver knowsthenominaldatarate. 370Bits to accommodate peak+o-peak shifts. 7.3 +1.3UI with 99%probability 7.5 5.37(10)-5 misframeVsec (onceevery5.2hoursT 7.7 ?5.6dB relativeto I UP 7.9 l.ZVo g1 7.11 (a) TIE = +4.736 (b) MTIE = 44.7?i61JI. .188 dB/km l6 km Al" at 1300nm is 5 timeslargerthanAl, ar 1550nm. (a)2m for mBlP (b) m + I for mBlC (a) MinimumDSl rate= 1.542 Mbps. (b) MaximumDSI rate- 1.546 Mbps. 8.11 (a)Minimumrate= 44.712 Mbps. (b) Maximumrate= 44.784 Mbps. 8.13 68.7psec 8.1 8-3 8.5 8.1 8.9

5.1 5.2 s.3 5.5 s.7 5.9

ANSWERSTOSELEoTEDPHOBLEMS 633

9.1 9.3 9.5 9,7

6500kbps. I1.4kbps Channel I output= +7; channel 2 output= +9 SIR= 12dB

10.1 (a) 2.5kbits/message (b) 100bits/message 10.3 Totalnumberof bits is 86 bits. f0-5 (a) 0.aa5 by 30 milliseconds ft) delayis increased 11,f 1250 meters 11.3 56 to 62.67 kbps (e) .453 l2.l (a)40 calls/hour (b) .989 (c)9.5Vo (d) .19E 12.3 t.4E 12,5 (a) 15ports(14 portswith finite source analysis) (b) B = 97o 12.7 (a)2.2Vo (b) rEo 12.8 (a) B = 307a (b) add6 channels 12.10 (a) At *.it = 32 E. (b) 46 circuitsrequired for B < .57o. 12.13 (a)B = lOVo (b) B = .787o 12,14 2 WATS lines 12.16(a)83.3Vo (b).833 sec (c)30.6Vo (d).833

INDEX
Abandoned calls,48 Abbreviated dialing, 16, 17 Access 12 tandem, powerconhol(ATFC),323 transmitter Adaptive (AMPS),53,70, Advanced mobilephoneservice 437-454 Research Advanced Agency(ARPA/ Projects ARPANET),456,468,473 Aliasing,95,96 pagiflg,444 Alphanumeric NationalStandards American Institute{ANSI),4, 22t,f,81 Analogbridge,86 interfaces,47,62,63,87 Analog ,132,2'10 Analogradio,6,63-65,85, 189,284,303,320, 383 Asynchronous mode(ATM), 3, 154,204, transfer 208,310,331,,159*504, 540,564-568 layers(AALs),484-493,566,568 adaption available bit rate,475,476 calladmissioncontrol,479,489 cell discarding,489,566 cellloss,480,489 cell packing,487 cell transfer delay,476 circuitemulation,485,487 bit rste,415,484 constant qualityof service (QoS),476,484 switching,477,484,564 synchronous rcsidual time stamps, 485 taffrc shaping,489 unspecified bit rate,475, 416 variable bitrate, 475,476,484,487 virtualpathconnections, 477 (ACD),76,226,555,570 calldistributor Automatic Automaticgain conbol (AGC), 120,506 (AM), 12 number Automatic identification protection Automatic 210,322,411 switching, Automaticrepeatrequest(ARQ), 170, 459 estimation, Backward 120,136,146 Badframemasking,440 prnduct (BDP),388,390, Bandwidth distance 393,406,435 Banyan network,482,483,494 restoration, Baseline 172 Batcher, K. E.,483,493 Battery,35,47,272, 511 184, Baud,54, 185,309,326,502 Bell, Alexander craham,6, 383 V. E.,483,493 Benes, Bemoullian,542 Binomialprobability disribution,527 Bipolarviolation,175-178,193-199,214,215 Bit insertion. 168 Bit leaking,428 Blocking blockedcallsclemed,523,530,569 Clos,232 Jacobaeus, 238,239. 273,274,525 t,eegraph, ?0, 155,221,234-239,2ffi,262, 271,274,525 probability,16,17,25,217,234-275,376, 481-570 BORSCHT, 47, 272 Bragggratings,403 Bridgedtap,88, 185,316,495,497 ,507,515 Bridgingclips,267 Bursterrored 204 second, Busyhour,234,241,265,522, 540,569,57O Busytone,42, 43,374,380 Byte stuffing, 409,415,416 Cablemodems, 5l l, 512

635

636

INDEX Conferencing, n2,214 bridge,87, l40' 2'72, 273 digiral,87 Congestion theory, 265, 52Q,547 Constant envelope, 288,291,301,309,314,Ml Constant holdingtimes, 528,529 Constant service times, 489,554-566 Constraint length,2O5, 2W, 223 phones Cordless

Cable TV, 65,387,5l I, 516 Call congestion, 541 Call distribution, 226 Call forwarding, 16, 18 CalItracing,16 Call trarsfer,18 Callwaiting, 16,l8 Catrtier recovery, 28, 282,297,335,350 CCIR (InternationalRadioConsultative Committee),4,320 CCS(hundred call seconds), 521,522,569 Cellulardigitalpacket data(CDPD),288,453,454 Cellulargeographic service area(CGSA),53 Centrallimit theo,rem. 447 Central office terminal(COT),508,510 Centralizedattendant, II Centrex, 17,18,50 Channelbanks analog A5.26 LsE,29 LMX.28 digital Dl, 107-1 14,2t0, 211,222,4tr DlA,59 D2, 109,110,156,187_189.223 D3, 103,109,tl4, 156,160,212,220,222. 4ll D,l, 109,212.4r3 D5, 109. 178.215 Circuitswitching, 3, 269,4#, 475, 480,5I 9, 520, s39 Class of service. 473,476 Clearchannel capability, 178,496 Clipping,25, 40, 540,541,545,541 Clockrecovery, 60, 297 Clos,Charles, 232,273,482 C-message weighting, 35,41,99, 114 Coaxial cable, 18,26-30,16t*176 Codeblocking,379 Codedivisionmultipleaccess (CDMA), 151,365. M5-454 Coherent modulation, 283,291.297,321 Coin telephone, 508 Compact disc,9l,92 Companding, 37,91,106-128, 317 AJaw, 115,116,130,132,154,155, 272 instantaneous, I l6 nearlyinstantaneous, l2l 159,160,174,272 F255,109-114, syllabic, ll6 Competitive localexchange canier(CLEC),12 Compressed voice,I 51, 154, 478 ,484,487,494 ConcenEation,24

crz, 133
DECT. I33 Crossconnect switches, 46, 52, 218, 226,U5, 265-26e,362. 492.510 Crosstalk, 34,293,495 CSMA/CD,453 Customer service unit (CSU),215 Cutoutfraction, 546 Datagrams, 465, 467,468 DATAPAC,465 Dataphone (DDS),63,168,268. digitalservice 456 Dataundervoice(DW), 64 DATRAN,456 dBrnC/dBmC0,36, 42,72, 101 dc balance, l8l, 395,399.500 dc restoration, 172,ll3,396, 502,514 dc wander, 172-194,396, 398,502 Decision feedback, 173,317,328 Decorrelation,262, 482 Degraded minute,2O4 Delaysystems, 519,522,539,552^562 Delayvariation, 413,474 Demandtraffrc, 537, 569 Desynchronization, 426, 427 Differential detection,298 Differential encoding,I 83 Diffractive grating,40I DiffServ.473 Digitalcellular, 3, 54,81,84,91,93,133,141, 151, 153, 277-288, 329,437488 codedi vision multiple access, l5l , 365 , 444452 global systemfor mobile communications, 148,157,288,441454 Noflh American digitalcellular,l5l, 437 Digital circuitmultiplication (DCM), tU, l3.L, 133, 141,540,546 Digital loop carrier(DLC),67, 121,26i,269. 507r509 integrated digitalloop carrier(IDLC),63,267, 508.509. 517 next generation digital loop carrier (NGDIf), 509,510

607
subscriber loop carier (SLC), 62 subscriber loopmultiplex(SLM), 62, l2l (UDLC), digitalloopcarier system universal 267.507.508 Digitalpad,514 Digital phones,504 3, 53,64-85,169,204,278-333, Digitalradio, 382,406,456,515 multipleaccess Digital sense with collisiondetection (DSMA/CD),453 (DSPJ,40, Digital signalprocessing 82-88, 130138, r49,165, 4?9, 267, 330, 271,1W,315, 504.506. sr3 (DSI), 124 interpolation Digital speech (DVB), 33, 69,205,316, Digital videobroadcast
JJI

(DBS),33 Directbruadcast satellite Directinwarddial (DID),48 Directprogressive control,I 3, 45,483 (DSS), 33,496,516 Ditectsatellite service Distortion 23,37,60, 132,165, amplitude, 328,506 delay,389 foldover,95, 105,134 harmonic,55, 132 phase, 37,55, 164, 328,506 quantization, 57 Diversity aflgle,327 ftequency, 3 l, 32, 326 space, 32,328 Doppler,337,119 (DTMF),43-49,83, 153 Dualtonemultifrequency Dynamicpowerconfrol,5I5 Dynamicrange,I03, I 14,304,349 Eb/No,192 Echo,23, 34,39-55,78-87,120,154,270-273, 418, 500-502, 437,441, 513 cancellation, 271, 273, 39,40,46,51,82,154, 437 ,44t,502 listenet.39 suppression, 39,40,46,55,82 Elasticstorcs,339 Electxomechaflical switching,13 (ElA), 4, 438, Industries Elecnonic Association 445,450 Elechonic serialnumbers, 451 (91l), 12,511 Emergency calling Encryption, 73,74, 81, l4l, 169, 350,451,5I2 Bngset 542 distribution, specialized Enhanced mobileradio(ESMR),453 Envelope delay,38,54 Envelopedetection,282,297

55,82, 164,173, 3M, 315,317, Equalization, 328,437 ,495,507,5 13 amplitude equaliz-ation, 315,507 domain,507 frequency phase, 165,507 quantieed feedback, 173 A. K., 454,521-563 Erlang, Erlang'sdelayfonnula,556,563 Erlang'slossformula,531,54I Erlang'ssecond formula,556 Enor contol, 45, 80,204,376, 440-47 4 convolutional coding,205,207 ,221, 440,443 correction, 119, 138,154,17 5, 195,204,354, 423453 cyclic redundancy check(CRC),79,198,204, 213-216,223,331,440,443,460,470 203,1tr;0, 41 detection, forward error corrcction,2O4, 506 (RS),205,207 Reed-Solomon ,223, 453,506 Erroredseconds. 20/'.216 Error free second, 204 Telecommunication European Institute Standards (Ersl), 69,316,331,44I, 509 area, Exchange 9-77,1OB Exchange CarriersStandards Association (ECSA),4,406, s01 distribution, Exponential 525,528,567 Exponentialholding times, 528., 529, 567 service Exponential times,489,554,555,559, 560,562,564-566 (ESF), 199,212-216, 223 Extended superframe Fa*imile, 46, 54, 80,92,132,r41, 152,350 Fade margin, 31,323,325,326,328,448,515 Fa<les, 30-32, l2l, 201,210,X22-329,444-449 Failedseconds 216 sfate. Fastfouriertansform(FFI), 315,316,506,507 FCCmask,321 Feeder, 22, 69,226,265,270,325,387,5 10 Fiber dispersion,3S9 dispersion shiftedsinglemode(DS-SMF), 390, 393.4?,5 (FDDI),398,434 datainterface distributed fiber channel, 399 in theloop (FITI"),510 multimode, 385,387,388,389,401,4M, 435 to thehome(FTTH),386,5l I , 5 l2 to thecurb(FTTC),510,512 FT Series G, 401,433 FT3C,388,401,433 Filter partitioning, 318, 320 Flag, 169,469,494

638
Flow conhol,43,376-379,4fu-470, 476,489, 561.567 Foreign (FX), 17,46,267,508 exchange Formantfrequencies, 127 Forward estimation, 120,121,136,146 Fractional speech loss,546,547 Framealignmentsignal(FAS), 213 Frame relay,466,472 Ftamerelayaccess device(mAD),472 Frarning added digit,210 bitenors, m3,216 byte,215,364 lossoi 203,209,210.485 statistical.209 unique linecode,214 Frequency agility,444 Frequency hoppinE,444, 445,M8 justification, Frcquency 414,415 Fricatives.123 Full width half magnitude (FWHM), 3,gZ,Ns Gaussian, I 90, I 9l, 202,2O3, 222,286,333,344, 47 Geostationary satellites, 338,451,516 Glare,47,48,379 Global positioningsystem(CPS),365, i66, 372, 373 GR-303,509, 5t0 Grade of service, 234,241,252,256,258,377, 457,466,536, 554,558.569 &ading,227 Grooming, 267,510 Guard time,85,86,438,442 Hierarchical network, 6, 8, 5l, 52, 535 High definitionTV (HDTV),490,507,515 High leveldatalink conffol(IIDLC), 169,214, 449,470,472,494 Hookflash,43 Hybrid,22, 23, 38, 40,4'1,54, 93, 148,151, 2702t2 Hybridfiber coax(HFC),5l I , 512 Impedance matching, 23,,10, 271 Incumbentlocal exchange carrier, 12 Lrfinitesource, 525,531-569 Infbrmationcapacity,506 Information density, 85,278-288,3 10-317,441 INMARSAT,33, I48 Instituteof ElectricalandElectronicEngineers (rEEE),4 Integrated sewicesdigital networkflSDN), l, 456,474-516 (BRI),69,173,185,214, basic rateinterface 316.495-510 broadband integratedservices digital network (BrsDN),474 D channel. 189.496-503 L430.499.516 I.,l4l,503 I.451,503 NTI/I.IT2.498.499 primaryrateinterface (PRI),46,69,496 so3 Q.9?1, Q.922,472 Q,931,503 S interface.498.500 S/T basicrate interface,2 I 4 S/T interface. 499.501 TElrrEz,498 U interface.50l. 502 Intelligent network,49, 70 INTEL$AT,32 Interexchange carrier(IXC), 10, 12,406 Interference adjacent channel, 288,317-320,448 cochannel.329 (EMI), 280, 393 electromagnetic intersymbol, 54,60,74,98,163-188, 288 multipath,322 mutual,43,,14, 80,84,85 narrowband.317,495 krtemationalmobile equipment identity (IMEI), 444 Internationalmobile subscriber identity (MSI), 444 IntemationalStandards (ISO), 5 Organization InternationalTelecommunication Union (IIU), 4, 4l Intemet, l,61, 141, U\453-515 access, 1,453, 504,515 Engineering TaskForce(IETF),473 protocol(IP),204,473, 474,49D-494 provider(ISP),61, U,l,5M service telephony(IP telephony), 473 TCP/IF.473 protocol (UDP) 473 userdatagram Iridium.45l.516 Jitter 38, 176,210, 324.337-358 rnapping,359 measurements, 342 phase, 343,344,358,417 removing,359 systematic, 338 waitingtime,339,358-360,3M, 416 Justification, 343,351,360,419, 510,528

INDEX Kendall, D. C.,555

639

tokenpassing ring, 218,485 183,485 802.3, Laserdisc,341 802.5,218 Li ghtningprotec tron,272 842.6,119 Limitedavailability, 5?, 76, 227 local exchange canier (LEC), 10,406, Line administration, 16,241 487,509 Line codeviolation,214,5m Local microwavedistributionservice(LMDS), Linecoding, 80,81, l6l-174, 190,282 496,515 2BlQ,220,502,516 Local multipoint communications systems (AMI), 1,74-178,337, markinversion altemate (LMCS),515 499.502.517 Longitudinalcurrcnt,2 I space inversion,499 alternate Loop timing,340,346 antipodal, 193,283,291 ,298,333 519,553, 554,561 Losssystems, 172*198,223 bipolar, Lost callscleared, 523,531-569 (BNZS),176-181 binaryN-zerosubstitution Lost callsheld,539,54,0 8325, 176,177,222 Loudesttalker, 273 B6Z3, 177 , 178,1.80,222 Low earthorbit satellite,451, 516 B8ZS,168,178 (CMI), 183,184,395markinversion coded Ml2 multiplexer, 61, 354,356-359,361,429 433 398,407, Manual swirchbosxds, 12 levelencoding, conelative 185-188 Matchingloss,265 (diphase), digitalbiphase 181-1 84,337,396, Maximumaverage frametine,2l1, 214,222 4m Maximumlikelihood,I 75, 184,207,312 185,188 duobinary, Maximumtime intervalenor (MTIE), 367-373, high density bipolar3 (HDB3), 177 382 Manchester coding,183,337,395-398,400, 535 Mesh,6-8,52, 494 Message 376,503 sequencing, mBlC, 400,433,435 Message 455462, 552,559 switching, mBlP.399,435 Message unit accounting, 16 mBnB,396,399 Metalliccurent, 2l 3848.399 Mobileassisted handoff (MAHO),440 4858.398 Mobile swirchingoffrce (MTSO), 52, telephone 5868, 398,399,405 53 6888.398 Modems 8Bl0B.399 v.32,40 (NM), 172,l8l-193, 223, non-retum-to-zero v.33,315 219 -288, 298,305,392-396,425,435 v.34,88,279,303,315, 331,495, 513,5r4, panial 165,185-187, 198,288, response, 3055L'7 3il.320 v.90, 55, 153,279,495,5 13,514,5 17 (RZ), 174,188,389-396,405, return-to-uero Moduletion 425 analog temary,lEO amplitude, ?6,94, 98, 279-283,297,301, (PST), pairselected 179-181, 195 305 483T, tg0,Z22 doublesideband, 94 unbalanced. 171.399 (FI\4), frequency 30,221,n7,284, 331, l7l, 193,195,282 unipolar, 387,453 procedure (LAPB), 469,503 Link access balanced index.280.286 l,oadingcoils,23,28,17,54,60, 88, 190,.195, linear,280 507 phase,284,286 Lccal access andtransport area(LATA), 10, 12 (PAM),94-98, 107,158, pulseamplitude Localaxea networla(LANs),471-473, 485,498 queued M6,274,513,514 distributed dualbus(DQDB),219 (LANE),485 singlesideband, 85 emulation ethemet, 183,453,485 suppressed carrier, 297, 322

640
Modulation (Cantinued) digital carrierless amplitude and phase (CAP), 280,

309.504 phasefrequencyshift keying continuous (CPFSK),285 (DMT), 316,317,504, discrete multi-tone 507 frequencyshift keying (FSK), 284-286 gaussian minimumshiftkeying(GMSK), 286,330,44r, 453 minimumshift keying(MSK), 285,286, 308,309,315,330,331 multilevelcoded(MLCM), 315 ott/off keying, 282 orthogonalfrequencydivision multiplexing (OFDM),316 phase reversal keying(PRK),283-290 phase shiftkeying(PSK),283-302,438,441 quadrature (eAM), 88,288,301amplitude 328 quadrature partial response signaling (QPRS),310,3il trellis,207,312,314 MPEGIA{PEGz,490 Multichannelmultipoint distributionservice (MMDS),496, 515 Multiframe alignmentsignal,2 I 3 Multipath,30-32, 53, I2l, 322-329,437,444449 Multiplexing frequencydivision multiplexing (FDM), 26* 86, 207,216, 303,317, 402,437453, 5t7 . guardbands,44S hierarchy,27, 28 mastergroup, 28, 63 supergroup,28 time division,58,444,461 analog,74 asynchronous, 5S,208,351,461 hierarchy, 74,351 loop,216-218 ring,216 (statmux), statistical 208,461-463,552 synchronous, 3, 58,2O8, 352,420,46I Multiprotocol label switching(MPLS), 491 Netloss, 34,39,41,42,82,271,384 Network cofltrol point (NCP), 50 Networkcontol protocol(NCP),473 Networkmanagement, 43, 376,377,407,411, 413.477 - 520

Noise background, 147-153, 445 Gaussian, 190,191, 202,222,333,3M idle channel, 72, 81, 102-120,273 impulse, 35,55,60,80, 190,203 modepartition, 392 quantization noise,35,99-l19, 128,135,I38. 1 5 91 , 60,317.513 thennalnoise,35, 3U' 333 whitenoise, 35.99.190 Noisebandwidth, l9l, 192,298-320 Noisefigure,29, 324,3?5 Noisepower,36-42 Nordic mobile telephone (NMT), 54, 437 Normal distribution. I 9l Nyquistsampling rate,94,99, 149,159*165, 305, 326 Offeredload, 244, 265, 377, 529-569 Offset keying, 305 Opensystems (OSI),5, 498,5 17 interconnection Openwire, 18 Overflowtraffic,519.548-553 protection,272 Overvoltage Packet switching, 208,456472, 490,519, 552566 Paging, 49, 4a+,451,516 Pairisolation,185 Parity, 199,409 photonicloop, 401 Passive Pathfinding,U2-24 Peakcell rate,475-490 Performance monitoring, 79, l7 l-182, 195,I 99, 2rs,2r6,376.400. 509 Permanent virhralcircuits, 4#,466, 491 Petsonal access communications (PACS), system 133 Personal communication (PCS), system 444,450 Personal handyphone (pHS),133 system Phase locked loop(PLL),336-343,381,428,485 Phonemes,92 Pickup, 18,385 Pilot,28,79,315, 5M Pitch,123,l4l 139,144-149 Plainold telephone (POTS), service 54,495,506, 507.510.512 splithr,506 Pointof presence (POP),10, 12 Poisson, 203,526,527,529,531, 540,541,550. 551 Poweramplifiers, 30,?84,291,318,319 Precoding,I 86 Primaryreference clock (PRC),485

641
(PRS),186,187,311, himary rcference source 3't0,372,427 , 506 (PBX), 16,17,4'l-49 Private branch exchange Privatemobile radio,452 Prcb(delay),556 delay,33,451 Propagation hotection switching,404 Provisioning, 267 (PRS),506 Pseudo sequence random Psophomeric,35, 99 (PCM)modem,153,513, Pulse codemodulation 515 96, 307,308 Pulse*haping, 78, 351-364,461 Pulsestuffing, multiplexing, 293 Quadrature signalrepresentations, 290 Quadrature 458,488, 520,552,555,567 Queueing, delays, 458,465,558,564 finite,561 tandem,566 M/D/l,559 MA{/I, 555,556,559 MA,I/N.555.562,567 MA.4INI*|L.562 Radiocommon carrier(RCC),52 availability, Radiosystem 322 Rainattenuation,30, 32,321-323, 515 cosine, Raised 319 refies, 537,538,569 Random Rayleigh fading,389 Reedtelays,I 6, 35 329,387,388,401 Refraction, Reframe time,209,222,355 59,60,74-Bl, 98, l l 1, 167*176 Regeneration, Reis,PhiIIip,l, 69 Remoteconcentr ator s, 227 provisioning, Remote 5 10 Remote 24,62, 509 switching, terminal,508 Remote Repeater 30,65,190,195, spacing, 323,388-406 Residual error,136,138 Returning traffic,538 Ringback, 42,43,374 Ringingvoltage, 43, 47,48 376,463,4& Routing, alternate, 13,379 besteffort,4?3 crankback,51 dynamic,463,4M fixed path,463 packels,463 satellite, 26,32,54,75,86, 148-154 Molniya,32 Westar,33 81, 170, Scrambling, 322,396,410,425 Seaplow,404 generation Second cordless 133 telephones, Segregation,26T numbers,470 Sequence controlpoint(SCP),50 Service errored Severely seconds, 216 Shannon's theorcm,513 (SMS),444 Shortmessage service 39 Sidetone, 13,14,42-88, I 84-331,500 Signaling, A andB bits,212,216 associated, channel 213 comrnon 18,43-53,75, 109,153, channel, [l 8, 214,377-380,421,496 E&M.47.49 ground start(GS),48 loop start(LS),47, 48, 508 pertuk,43 bit, 109,178, robbed 216,514 wink,48 (SS7), system 50,52 Signaling tones,153,314 Signaling (MF),43,49,83,88,153 multifrequency (SF),43, 49,83, 153,212, singlefrequency 216,222,336,391 sin(.r)/x, 298 162,ll2, 28Q, Singing, 27o,nl 34,38,39,4I, 120,154, Skyphone, 33,69, 148,157 Slips,216,341-350, 362 buffer,420 349,485 controlled, rate, 349,350 Slope 135,136,l4l overload, Soft handoff.450 Sourcecoderestriction, I 68 expansion Space ,235-262, 525 switching, Space 67,257 Span line,59,60, 181, 215 Spanswitching,431 Specialized mobileradio(SMR),453 127,14 Spectogram, 284,291,386,445,446, spreading, Spectrum 448,451 compres Speech sion,124,437,441,49 pauses, Speech 34,80,8l, 102,120,122,124,170 recognition,46, Speech 86,93, 147 Speech storage,9l Splices, 88,387,390,404,405 Spreadspectrum , 445, 448,450 217,5lO Starnetwork,

642
Statistical equilibrium, 531,537 program Stored control($PC),16,,14,49, 51, 225,24 Stuffingratios,360,429 Submarine cables, 384,403,540 NLl. 398.434 TransPacific.400 Subscriber identitymodule(SIM),M, 451 Subscriber loops analog, line interfaces, 272,5M digitar, 75,87, 185, 204,27o,456,495,49'1, 503,516 asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL), 3 10,316,317,331,495, 503-516 interfaces,5I0 vDsL.507.510 XDSL,503,507,509 Superframe, 212,211, 215,419,502 Supervision, 47, 272 Supervisory audiotone($AT),439 Swirched multimegabit (SMDS),4&4 dataservice Switched viilual circuit(SVC), 46/.,470,487 Swirches, network class 3, 56 class 4, 6, 12 class 5 (endoffice),9-87, 121,225,226,Mt, . 262,270,379, 380,502,508,5?5 crossbar, I3-16,49,66 DMS,16,66,272,274 electronic (ESS),16,49,52, switching system _27 65,7 L, 225,233,259 4, 502 No. 1, 16,65,225,233 No. 101.273 No. lA. l6 N o . 2 ,1 6 N o . 3 .1 6 No. 4, I 6, 49-7l, 225,259,262,273,366, 381 No.5, 16,272,274.502 No. 5 EAX, 16 EWSD,260,273 stcp-by*step, 13-55, 225, 244, 483 toll,6,9,10,67,236 Switching, time division,246 analog,246,252 digital, 66,67,226,238, U7 ,253,340, 548 rnemory switch,248,478-480 network, 85,210,335, 351,362,485 isochronous, I 67 mutual,36?.364 networkmaster,362 plesiochronous, 362,363,370,381 stratum. 370*373.382 Synchronous datalink protocol(SDLC),469 Synchronous (SDH),5, 352, digitalhierarchy 4Q6,407,434 Synchronous opticalnetwork(SONET), 3,5,52, 78, lM, 219,M9, 269,352,373,396,405_ 4ll asynchronous mapping,419, 420 concatenation, 267,269,408 gatewaynetworkelement(GNE), 426-428 line overhead, 41Q414, 425 pathoverhead, 410425, 478 pointer adjustments, 4 I 5, 426, 427 pointer burst,428 rings,52, 219,405,429 bidirectional (BLSR),431,432 line swirched unidirectional (lJpSR), pathswitched 429, 435 section overhead, 410,411,425 payload synchronous (SPE), envelope 413, 414 fransport overhead, 4O8-410, 415 virtual tributary (VT), 417,429 Synchronous transmission, I 67 System availability, 322,326,403 gain,323,405 System -178, 2lO, 215,222, T-carrier, 59, 63, 132,167 268,335,337,340 El, 59, 177, 213,359,382,40'_41 t t, 421,435, 484.497.510 82, 330,354,359,407.413 H, t84, 407,423.436.478 repeaters, 60, 62, I I l, 358 TI48. 181 Ttc,56,60, 185 T l D . 5 6 .1 8 8 Tlc, 185 T2,56,60,6t, 67,69, 169,177,220 T3.56 T4,56 T4M, 169,t70,2l9 Tl committee,4 TI,4, 5, 56-67,84,91,t08, I I I, 132, 156, t67_ 174 Tagswitching,49I Talker echo.39 Tandem clockrecovery, 338' Tandem switching, 8, I, 12,66,67,226,236,237, 370. 535.569 Telephoto,54

sTs.255
TSSSST,262 TSSST.260.261 TST,255*260,275, 348,48Q, 482 Synchronization, 85, 89,221,331,3#-381.427 clock,I I l, 209-211,335, 351,374.513 frame,59,209,214,347 hieraxchical, 374

643
Television 29, 33,54 distribution, Tic lines,L7 ,46, U0,268, 553 Time assignment interpolation (TASI), 25, speech 124,540-547,568 Time compression multiplex(TCM),207,280, 312-314,502,516 Timeconge$tion, 541,542,563 (TDMA), 86, 89, Time divisionmultipleaccess 154,438-452,512 Time expansion, 258,259,261,26?,482 Timeintervalerror(TIE), 359,367,369,382 -254, 269, (TSI), l'18, 249 Time slotintetchmge 275,348 (TVAR), 367 Time variance , 369,370 Tip andring,48,499, 508 6, 9-34, 49,60-69,108,ll3, 271 Toll network, Traffic intensity , 241,521-561 Transmission levelpoint (TLP), 41,42,7Z 33,286 Transpondcr, filters,328 Transvemal Trunkdirectionalization, 379 radio,452 Trunked TYMNET.465.468 U.S.Independent Telephone Association (usITA),4, 366,370 (USTA),4 U.S.Telephone Association Unit interval(UI), 343,344,361 ,382 coordinated Universal time,372 v5,419,422,509,5r7 Vectorquantization, 150 Via netloss(VNL),39,41,82 Video,77,2Q4,2'17 ,387,474-515 Virtual circuit,464-469,477 ,487,491 Viterbidetectors, 175,184,195,I 98, 201,220, 3l 2. 33I. 454 data, Voiceband 38,40,55,83,98, 124,132,140, r4tt,161,167, 265, 350,485,51I 277,303, Voicecoding (ADM), 136,I40, deltamodulation adrlptive 156.429.510 difTercntial adaptive PCM (ADPCM),1321 4 01 , 53-156,215 predictive adaptive coding(APC), 136,138, r49,151,157 analysis andsynthesis, 92 channel vocoder, 141-14 modulation, delta 62,69,9l, 93, 133-136, r4t.153.2M diff'erentialpulsecodemodulation(DPCM), 9 3 ,I 2 7 - 1 3 6 , 1 4 1 , 1 5 3 easilydigitallylinearizable coding(EDL), 108, 110,27?. formuntvocoder. 141.144 predictive Iinear coding, 92, 138,141*158,487 algebraic codeexcited(ACELP),154,155, 487 codeexcited(CELP),150-1 58 (MPLPC),147-149,151 multipulse pulseexcited(pelp),I 47 codeexcited(QCELP),l5l,449 Qualcomm residual excited(RELP),147,149,151.158 vectorsumexcited(VSELP),151,I 58,439, 453 pulsecodemodulation (PCM),71, 88-l14, 128,136,140,159 prediction gain,I 36 138,139,142 subband, vocodem,93, 102, 123,I27,141-153 c.704.213 G.7ll.154 G.12t,t32,133, 154 G.722, 140,154,157 ,? 15 G.723. 155,494 154, G.723.r,154, 155,494 c.726. 154.155 G.727,155 154.155 G.728. G;729, r54,155,158, 487 l . 3 6 33 G.8t . 81 G,821.2M.216 Voice messaging, 91,92, I 32 quality,80,99, Voice 102, 113, 133,146, 151, 443,547 broadcast, 15l communications, l5l, 152 (DAM), I47, acceptability measure djagnostic 151 rhymetest(DRT). 147,l5l diagnostic (MOS),133,l5l mean score opinion signal-to-quantizing ratio (SQR),I02-1 15, 1 5 91 . 60.513 synthetic, l5l,154 151-155 toll.132. (VCO),285, 336Voltagecontrolled oscillator 343,485 WATS, 17,380,553, -570 (WDM), 26, Wavelength divisionmultiplexing 385-405.434.415 C. J.,546, Weinstein, 568 Wire gauge changes,497 x.25.469-472. 503 Zero bit insertion, 169,469 Zerobytetime slot interchange, 178 Zerolosstransmission, 270

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